In the history of astronomy, Islamic astronomy or Arabic astronomy refers to the astronomical developments made in the Islamic world, particularly during the Islamic Golden Age (8th-16th centuries), and mostly written in the Arabic language. Astronomy is the oldest of the Natural sciences dating back to antiquity, with its origins in the religious, Mythological, and Astrological Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study The term Muslim world (or Islamic world) has several meanings Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language These developments mostly took place in the Middle East, Central Asia, Al-Andalus, North Africa, and later in China and India. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National This article is about the history of South Asia prior to the Partition of British India in 1947 It closely parallels the genesis of other Islamic sciences in its assimilation of foreign material and the amalgamation of the disparate elements of that material to create a science. These included Indian, Sassanid and Hellenistic works in particular, which were translated and built upon. Indian astronomy —the earliest textual mention of which is given in the religious literature of India (2nd millennium BCE—became an established tradition by the 1st millennium BCE The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire This article focuses on the cultural aspects of the Hellenistic age for the historical aspects see Hellenistic period. ^[1] In turn, Islamic astronomy later had a significant influence on Indian^[2] and European^[3] astronomy (see Latin translations of the 12th century) as well as Chinese astronomy. The Renaissance of the 12th century saw a major search by European scholars for new learning which led them to the Arabic fringes of Europe especially to Islamic Astronomy in China has a very long history Oracle bones from the Shang Dynasty ( 2nd millennium BC) record eclipses and novae ^[4]

A significant number of stars in the sky, such as Aldebaran and Altair, and astronomical terms such as alhidade, azimuth, and almucantar, are still today recognized with their Arabic names. A star is a massive luminous ball of plasma. The nearest star to Earth is the Sun, which is the source of most of the Energy on Earth The sky is the part of the Atmosphere or of Outer space visible from the surface of any Astronomical object. Aldebaran ( α Tau α Tauri Alpha Tauri is the brightest star in the constellation Taurus and one of the brightest stars in the nighttime sky Altair (α Aql / α Aquilae / Alpha Aquilae / Atair is the brightest Star in the Constellation Aquila and the twelfth brightest star An alidade (archaic forms include alhidade, alhidad, alidad) is a device that allows one to sight a distant object and use the line of sight to perform Azimuth ( is a mathematical concept defined as the angle usually measured in degrees (° between a reference plane and a point. An Almucantar, also spelled almucantarat or almacantara, is a Circle on the Celestial sphere parallel to the Horizon. This is a list of traditional Arabic names for Stars In Western Astronomy, most of the accepted star names are Arabic a few are Greek and some are of unknown ^[5]

A large corpus of literature from Islamic astronomy remains today, numbering approximately 10,000 manuscripts scattered throughout the world, many of which have not been read or cataloged. Even so, a reasonably accurate picture of Islamic activity in the field of astronomy can be reconstructed. ^[6]

Islam and astronomy

Islam has affected astronomy directly and indirectly. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. A major impetus for the flowering of astronomy in Islam came from religious observances, which presented an assortment of problems in mathematical astronomy, specifically in spherical geometry. Spherical geometry is the Geometry of the two- Dimensional surface of a Sphere. ^[1]

Background

In the 7th century, both Christians and Jews observed holy days, such as Easter and Passover, whose timing was determined by the phases of the moon. A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ Easter ( Greek: Πάσχα Pascha or Pasxa) is the most important religious feast in the Christian Liturgical year. Passover ( Hebrew, Yiddish: פֶּסַח Pesach, Tiberian: pɛsaħ Israeli: Pesah, Pesakh, Yiddish Lunar phase (or Moon phase refers to the appearance of the illuminated portion of the Moon as seen by an observer usually on Earth Both communities had confronted the fact that the approximately 29. 5-day lunar months are not commensurable with the 365-day solar year. A tropical year (also known as a solar year) is the length of time that the Sun takes to return to the same position in the cycle of seasons as seen from Earth To solve the problem, Christians and Jews had adopted a scheme based on a discovery made in circa 430 BC by the Athenian astronomer Meton. Athens (ˈæθənz Αθήνα Athina,) the Capital and largest city of Greece, dominates the Attica periphery as one of the world's Meton of Athens (Μέτων ὁ Ἀθηναῖος was a Greek Mathematician, Astronomer, Geometer, and Engineer who lived in In the 19-year Metonic cycle, there were 12 years of 12 lunar months and seven years of 13 lunar months. Metonic cycle or Enneadecaeteris in Astronomy and Calendar studies is a particular approximate common multiple of the Tropical year The periodic insertion of a 13th month kept calendar dates in step with the seasons. ^[1]

On the other hand, astronomers used Ptolemy's way to calculate the place of the moon and stars. Historically Astronomy was more concerned with the classification and description of phenomena in the sky while Astrophysics attempted to explain these phenomena Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca A star is a massive luminous ball of plasma. The nearest star to Earth is the Sun, which is the source of most of the Energy on Earth The method Ptolemy used to solve spherical triangles was a clumsy one devised late in the first century by Menelaus of Alexandria. Spherical trigonometry is a part of Spherical geometry that deals with Polygons (especially Triangles on the Sphere and explains how to find relations Menelaus of Alexandria (c 70&ndash140  CE) was a Greek Mathematician and Astronomer, the first to recognize Geodesics It involved setting up two intersecting right triangles; by applying Menelaus' theorem it was possible to solve one of the six sides, but only if the other five sides were known. Two types of special right triangles appear commonly in geometry the "angle based" and the "side based" (or Pythagorean Triangles The former are characterised Menelaus' theorem, attributed to Menelaus of Alexandria, is a theorem about Triangles in Plane geometry. To tell the time from the sun's altitude, for instance, repeated applications of Menelaus' theorem were required. The Sun (Sol is the Star at the center of the Solar System. Altitude is the Elevation of a point or object from a known level or datum (plural data For medieval Islamic astronomers, there was an obvious challenge to find a simpler trigonometric method. Circle-trig6svg|300px|thumb|right|All of the Trigonometric functions of an angle θ can be constructed geometrically in terms of a unit circle centered at O. ^[1]

Islamic attitude towards astronomy

Islam advised Muslims to find ways of using the stars. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion The Qur'an says: "And it is He who ordained the stars for you that you may be guided thereby in the darkness of the land and the sea. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran "^[7] On the basis of this advice Muslim began to find better observational and navigational instruments, thus most navigational stars today have Arabic names. ^[1]

Other influences of the Qur'an on Islamic astronomy included its "insistence that the Universe is ruled by a single set of laws" which was "rooted in the Islamic concept of tawhîd, the unity of God", as well its "greater respect for empirical data than was common in the preceding Greek civilization" which inspired Muslims to place a greater emphasis on empirical observation,^[8] in contrast to ancient Greek philosophers such as the Platonists and Aristotelians who expressed a general distrust towards the senses and instead viewed reason alone as being sufficient to understanding nature. A physical law or scientific law is a Scientific generalization based on empirical Observations of physical behavior (i A central concept in Science and the Scientific method is that all Evidence must be empirical, or empirically based that is dependent on evidence Debt AIDS Trade in Africa (or DATA) is a Multinational non-government organization founded in January 2002 in London by U2 's Observation is either an activity of a living being (such as a Human) which senses and assimilates the Knowledge of a Phenomenon, or the recording of data Ancient Greek philosophy focused on the role of Reason and Inquiry. Platonism is the Philosophy of Plato or the name of other philosophical systems considered closely derived from it Aristotelianism is a tradition of Philosophy that takes its defining inspiration from the work of Aristotle. Senses are the physiological methods of Perception. The senses and their operation classification and theory are overlapping topics studied by a variety of fields Reason involves the ability to think understand and draw Conclusions in an Abstract way as in Human thinking The Qur'an's insistence on observation, reason and contemplation ("see", "think" and "contemplate"), on the other hand, led Muslims to develop an early scientific method based on these principles, particularly empirical observation. The word Contemplation comes from the Latin root templum (from Greek temnein to cut or divide and means to separate something from its environment and to enclose it in a sector Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena Muhammad Iqbal writes:^[9]

“The general empirical attitude of the Qur'an which engendered in its followers a feeling of reverence for the actual, and ultimately made them the founders of modern science. It was a great point to awaken the empirical spirit in an age that renounced the visible as of no value in men's search after God. ”

There are also several cosmological verses in the Qur'an (610-632) which some modern writers have interpreted as foreshadowing the expansion of the universe and possibly even the Big Bang theory:^[10]

Don't those who reject faith see that the heavens and the earth were a single entity then We ripped them apart?^[11]

And the heavens We did create with Our Hands, and We do cause it to expand. Cosmology (from Greek grc κοσμολογία - grc κόσμος kosmos, "universe" and grc -λογία -logia) is study The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran The metric expansion of space is the averaged increase of metric (i The Big Bang is the cosmological model of the Universe that is best supported by all lines of scientific evidence and Observation. Qur'an 51:47

Several hadiths attributed to Muhammad also show that he was generally opposed to astrology as well as superstition in general. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran Hadith ( ar الحديث, pl aḥadīth; lit. "narrative" are oral Traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic IMPORTANT PLEASE READ ##### For all questions relating to the addition of (pbuh peace be upon him or other honorifics Astrology (from Greek grc ἄστρον astron, "constellation star" and grc -λογία -logia) is a group of Systems Superstition ( Latin superstitio, literally "standing over" derived perhaps from standing in awe used in Latin as a unreasonable or excessive belief An example of this is when an eclipse occurred during his son Ibrahim ibn Muhammad's death, and rumours began spreading about this being God's personal condolence. An eclipse is an astronomical event that occurs when one Celestial object moves into the shadow of another Ibrahim ibn Muhammad (Arabic script إبرهيم بن محمد was the male child of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and Maria al-Qibtiyya. Muhammad is said to have replied:^[12]

"An eclipse is a phenomenon of nature. It is foolish to attribute such things to the death or birth of a human being. "

Islamic rules

There are several rules in Islam which lead Muslims to use better astronomical calculations and observations. Observation is either an activity of a living being (such as a Human) which senses and assimilates the Knowledge of a Phenomenon, or the recording of data

The first issue is the Islamic calendar. The Islamic calendar or Muslim calendar ( Arabic: التقويم الهجري at-taqwīm al-hijrī; Persian: تقویم هجری قمری ‎ The Qur'an says: "The number of months in the sight of Allah is twelve (in a year) so ordained by Him the day He created the heavens and the earth; of them four are sacred; that is the straight usage. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran "^[13][1] Therefore Muslims could not follow the Christian or Hebrew calendars and they thus had to develop a new one. The liturgical year, also known as the Christian year, consists of the cycle of liturgical seasons in Christian churches which determines when The Hebrew calendar (הלוח העברי ha'luach ha'ivri) or Jewish calendar is a Lunisolar calendar used by Jews for predominantly religious

The other issue is moon sighting. Islamic months do not begin at the astronomical new moon, defined as the time when the moon has the same celestial longitude as the sun and is therefore invisible; instead they begin when the thin crescent moon is first sighted in the western evening sky. This article is about the lunar phase for other uses see New Moon (disambiguation. Ecliptic longitude ( solar longitude or celestial longitude) is one of the co-ordinates which can be used to define the location of an Astronomical object Lunar phase (or Moon phase refers to the appearance of the illuminated portion of the Moon as seen by an observer usually on Earth ^[1] The Qur'an says: "They ask you about the waxing and waning phases of the crescent moons, say they are to mark fixed times for mankind and Hajj. The Hajj (حج is a pilgrimage to Mecca (Makkah It is the largest annual pilgrimage in the world "^[14][15] This led Muslims to find the phases of the moon in the sky, and their efforts led to new mathematical calculations and observational instruments, as well as a special science being formed specifically for moon sighting. ^[16]

Muslims are also expected to pray towards the Kaaba in Mecca and orient their mosques in that direction. The Kaaba ( Arabic: ar الكعبة; 'kɑʕbɑ or 'kæʕbæ "Cube" is a Cuboidal building in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, and is the Mecca ˈmɛkə also spelled Makkah ˈmækə (in full Makkah Al-Mukarramah (Arabic mækːæ(t ælmʊkarˑamæ مكّة المكرمة, literally Honored A "mosque" in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated for Islamic worship although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller privately owned mosque and the larger Thus they need to determine the direction of Mecca from a given location. ^[17][18] Another problem is the time of Salah. Ṣalāt ( Arabic: صلاة‎, pl ṣalawāt, Qur'anic Arabic: صلوة ṣalawah) (also munz in Pashto and Muslims need to determine from celestial bodies the proper times for the prayers at sunrise, at midday, in the afternoon, at sunset, and in the evening. s are significant physical entities, associations or structures which current Science has confirmed to exist in Space. Sunrise is the instant at which the upper edge of the Sun appears above the Horizon in the East. Noon (also midday) is the hour of 1200 in an observer's local time zone or more loosely a time near the middle of the day when workers in many countries take a meal break Afternoon is the time of day from 1200 ( Noon) to -depending upon context- Evening, Sunset, or 1800 Sunset, also called sundown in some American English Dialects is the instant when the trailing edge of the Sun 's disk disappears below Evening is the period in which the daylight is decreasing between the late Afternoon and night, around the time when Dinner is taken ^[1][19]

Necessity of spherical geometry

See also: Islamic mathematics

Predicting just when the crescent moon would become visible is a special challenge to Islamic mathematical astronomers. Although Ptolemy's theory of the complex lunar motion was tolerably accurate near the time of the new moon, it specified the moon's path only with respect to the ecliptic. Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca The ecliptic is the apparent path that the Sun traces out in the sky during the year To predict the first visibility of the moon, it was necessary to describe its motion with respect to the horizon, and this problem demands fairly sophisticated spherical geometry. The horizon ( Ancient Greek ὁ ὁρίζων, /ho horídzôn/ from ὁρίζειν, "to limit" is the apparent line that separates Spherical geometry is the Geometry of the two- Dimensional surface of a Sphere. Finding the direction of Mecca and the time of Salah are the reasons which led to Muslims developing spherical geometry. Mecca ˈmɛkə also spelled Makkah ˈmækə (in full Makkah Al-Mukarramah (Arabic mækːæ(t ælmʊkarˑamæ مكّة المكرمة, literally Honored Ṣalāt ( Arabic: صلاة‎, pl ṣalawāt, Qur'anic Arabic: صلوة ṣalawah) (also munz in Pashto and Solving any of these problems involves finding the unknown sides or angles of a triangle on the celestial sphere from the known sides and angles. In Astronomy and Navigation, the celestial sphere is an imaginary rotating Sphere of "gigantic Radius " A way of finding the time of day, for example, is to construct a triangle whose vertices are the zenith, the north celestial pole, and the sun's position. In Geometry, a vertex (plural "vertices" is a special kind of point. In broad terms the zenith is the direction pointing directly above a particular location ( Perpendicular, Orthogonal) The north and south celestial poles are the two imaginary points in the sky where the Earth's Axis of rotation, "infinitely extended" intersects the The observer must know the altitude of the sun and that of the pole; the former can be observed, and the latter is equal to the observer's latitude. Latitude, usually denoted symbolically by the Greek letter phi ( Φ) gives the location of a place on Earth (or other planetary body north or south of the The time is then given by the angle at the intersection of the meridian (the arc through the zenith and the pole) and the sun's hour circle (the arc through the sun and the pole). This article is about the astronomical concept For other uses of the word see Meridian. In Geometry, an arc is a closed segment of a Differentiable Curve in the two-dimensional plane; for example a circular ^[1][19]

History

Pre-Islamic Arabian knowledge of stars was empirical; their knowledge was what they observed regarding the rising and setting of stars. The history of Pre- Islamic Arabia before the rise of Islam in the 630s is not known in great detail A star is a massive luminous ball of plasma. The nearest star to Earth is the Sun, which is the source of most of the Energy on Earth A central concept in Science and the Scientific method is that all Evidence must be empirical, or empirically based that is dependent on evidence The rise of Islam is claimed to have provoked increased Arab thought in this field. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding ^[20] The foundations of Islamic astronomy closely parallels the genesis of other Islamic sciences in its assimilation of foreign material and the amalgamation of the disparate elements of that material to create a science that was essentially Islamic. These include Indian, Sassanid and Hellenistic works which were translated and built upon. Indian astronomy —the earliest textual mention of which is given in the religious literature of India (2nd millennium BCE—became an established tradition by the 1st millennium BCE The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire This article focuses on the cultural aspects of the Hellenistic age for the historical aspects see Hellenistic period. Translation is the interpreting of the meaning of a text and the subsequent production of an equivalent text likewise called a " translation

The science historian Donald Routledge Hill has divided the history of Islamic astronomy into the four following distinct time periods in its history:^[20]

• Assimilation and syncretisation of earlier Hellenistic, Indian and Sassanid astronomy (700—825 AD)
• Vigorous investigation, and acceptance and modification to the Ptolemaic system (825—1025 AD)
• Flourishing of a distinctive Islamic system of astronomy (1025—1450 AD)
• Stagnation, where few significant contributions were made (1450—1900 AD)

610-700

From the beginning Muslim community in Medina sight new moon to determine the lunar months especially Ramadan and holy days. Donald Routledge Hill (1922–1994 was an Engineer and historian of science and technology. Events By Place North America The Mount Edziza volcanic complex erupts in northern British Columbia, Canada. Events By Place Europe Egbert of Wessex defeats Beornwulf of Mercia at Ellandun. In Astronomy, the geocentric model of the Universe is the superseded theory that the Earth is the center of the universe and other Events By Place Europe Egbert of Wessex defeats Beornwulf of Mercia at Ellandun. Year 1900 ( MCM) was an exceptional Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar This article is about the lunar phase for other uses see New Moon (disambiguation.

In approximately 638 A. D, Caliph Umar introduced a new lunar calendar which is known as lunar calendar was made on the basis of Islamic view point. The Caliph is the Head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah Umar (a=عمر بن الخطاب|t=`Umar ibn al-Khattāb c 581-83 CE &ndash 7 November, 644) also known as Umar the Great or Omar the Great A lunar calendar is a Calendar that is based on cycles of the Moon phase. This calendar has twelve lunar months, the beginnings of which are determined by the sighting of the crescent moon. This calendar is about 11 days shorter than the solar year. This calendar is still in use for religious purposes among Muslims. ^[1][21]

700-825

This period was most notably the period of assimilation and syncretisation of earlier Hellenistic, Indian and Sassanid astronomy occurred during the eighth and early ninth centuries.

Impetus

Historians point out several factors that fostered the growth of Islamic astronomy. The first was the proximity of the Muslim world to the world of ancient learning. The term Muslim world (or Islamic world) has several meanings Much of the ancient Greek, Sanskrit and Middle Persian texts were translated into Arabic during the ninth century. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical Middle Persian is the Middle Iranian language/ethnolect of Southwestern Iran that during Sassanid times (224-654 CE became a Prestige dialect Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language This process was enhanced by the tolerance towards scholars of other religions. ^[1]

Another impetus came from Islamic religious observances, which presented a host of problems in mathematical astronomy. In solving these religious problems the Islamic scholars went far beyond the Greek mathematical methods. ^[1]

Ancient influences and translation movement

During this period, a number of Sanskrit and Middle Persian texts were first translated into Arabic. Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical Middle Persian is the Middle Iranian language/ethnolect of Southwestern Iran that during Sassanid times (224-654 CE became a Prestige dialect Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language The most notable of the texts was Zij al-Sindhind,^[22] based on the Surya Siddhanta and the works of Brahmagupta, and translated by Muhammad al-Fazari and Yaqūb ibn Tāriq in 777. The Surya Siddhanta is a treatise of Indian astronomy. Later Indian mathematicians and astronomers such as Aryabhata and Varahamihira Brahmagupta ( (598–668 was an Indian mathematician and astronomer. Abu abdallah Muhammad ibn Ibrahim al-Fazari (d 796 or 806 was a Muslim Philosopher, Mathematician and Astronomer. was an 8th century Persian Astronomer and Mathematician. lived in Baghdad, and is considered to be one of the greatest astronomers of his Sources indicate that the text was translated after an Indian astronomer visited the court of Caliph Al-Mansur in 770. Indian astronomy —the earliest textual mention of which is given in the religious literature of India (2nd millennium BCE—became an established tradition by the 1st millennium BCE The Caliph is the Head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah Al-Mansur Almanzor or Abu Ja'far Abdallah ibn Muhammad al-Mansur (712&ndash775 Arabic: ابو جعفر عبدالله ابن محمد المنصور was the second The most notable Middle Persian text translated was the Zij al-Shah, a collection of astronomical tables compiled in Sassanid Persia over two centuries.

Fragments of text during this period indicate that Arabs adopted the sine function (inherited from Indian trigonometry) instead of the chords of arc used in Hellenistic mathematics. Indian mathematics &mdashwhich here is the mathematics that emerged in South Asia zero, Negative numbers, Arithmetic, and Algebra. In Geometry, an arc is a closed segment of a Differentiable Curve in the two-dimensional plane; for example a circular ^[20] Another Indian influence was an approximate formula used for timekeeping by Muslim astronomers. For other uses see Time (disambiguation Time is a component of a measuring system used to sequence events to compare the durations of ^[23]

Islamic interest in astronomy ran parallel to the interest in mathematics. Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study Especially noteworthy in this regard was the Almagest (c. Almagest is the Latin form of the Arabic name ( الكتاب المجسطي, al-kitabu-l-mijisti, i 150) of the Egyptian astronomer Ptolemy (c. This article is about the contemporary North African ethnic group Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca 100-178). The Almagest was a landmark work in its field, assembling, as Euclid's Elements had previously done with geometrical works, all extant knowledge in the field of astronomy that was known to the author. Euclid ( Greek:.) fl 300 BC also known as Euclid of Alexandria, is often referred to as the Father of Geometry Euclid's Elements ( Greek:) is a mathematical and geometric Treatise consisting of 13 books written by the Greek This work was originally known as The Mathematical Composition, but after it had come to be used as a text in astronomy, it was called The Great Astronomer. The Islamic world called it The Greatest prefixing the Greek work megiste (greatest) with the article al- and it has since been known to the world as Al-megiste or, after popular use in Western translation, Almagest. The term Western world, the West or the Occident ( Latin: occidens -sunset -west as distinct from the Orient) can have multiple meanings ^[24] though much of the Almagest was incorrect, even in premise, it remained a standard astronomical text in both the Islamic world and Europe until the Maragha Revolution and Copernican Revolution. Maragheh observatory ( Persian:رصدخانه مراغه Rasad Khaneh) is an Ancient Observatory, which was established in 1259 by The Copernican Revolution refers to the Paradigm shift away from the Ptolemaic model of the heavens which placed Earth at the center of the Universe ^[25] Ptolemy also produced other works, such as Optics, Harmonica, and some suggest he also wrote Tetrabiblon. A harmonica is a free reed Wind instrument which is played by blowing air into it or drawing air out by placing lips over individual holes (reed chambers or

The Almagest was a particularly unifying work for its exhaustive lists of sidereal phenomena. He drew up a list of chronological tables of Assyrian, Persian, Greek, and Roman kings for use in reckoning the lapse of time between known astronomical events and fixed dates. Early history The most Neolithic site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the Hassuna culture The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial In addition to its relevance to calculating accurate calendars, it linked far and foreign cultures together by a common interest in the stars and astrology. The work of Ptolemy was replicated and refined over the years under Arab, Persian and other Muslim astronomers and astrologers. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding layout and formatting it should ensure no clashes with the top of the infobox A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion

825-1025

The period throughout the ninth, tenth and early eleventh centuries was one of vigorous investigation, in which the superiority of the Ptolemaic system of astronomy was accepted and significant contributions made to it. In Astronomy, the geocentric model of the Universe is the superseded theory that the Earth is the center of the universe and other Astronomical research was greatly supported by the Abbasid caliph al-Mamun. The Caliph is the Head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah Abu Jafar al-Ma'mun ibn Harun (also spelled Almamon and el-Mâmoûn) ( September 14, 786 &ndash August 9, 833) (المأمون Baghdad and Damascus became the centers of such activity. Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous Damascus ( دمشق,, also commonly known as الشام ash-Shām) is the capital and largest city of Syria. The caliphs not only supported this work financially, but endowed the work with formal prestige. The field of finance refers to the concepts of Time, Money and Risk and how they are interrelated ^[26]

Observational astronomy

In observational astronomy, the first major original Muslim work of astronomy was Zij al-Sindh by al-Khwarizimi in 830. Observational astronomy is a division of the astronomical Science that is concerned with getting data in contrast with Theoretical astrophysics which is The work contains tables for the movements of the sun, the moon and the five planets known at the time. The work is significant as it introduced Indian and Ptolemaic concepts into Islamic sciences. This work also marked the turning point in Islamic astronomy. Hitherto, Muslim astronomers had adopted a primarily research approach to the field, translating works of others and learning already discovered knowledge. Al-Khwarizmi's work marked the beginning of non-traditional methods of study and calculations. ^[27]

In 850, al-Farghani wrote Kitab fi Jawani ("A compendium of the science of stars"). The book primarily gave a summary of Ptolemic cosmography. However, it also corrected Ptolemy's Almagest based on findings of earlier Iranian astronomers. Al-Farghani gave revised values for the obliquity of the ecliptic, the precessional movement of the apogees of the sun and the moon, and the circumference of the earth. The ecliptic is the apparent path that the Sun traces out in the sky during the year In Celestial mechanics, an apsis, plural apsides (ˈæpsɨdɪːz is the point of greatest or least distance of the Elliptical orbit of an object from The books were widely circulated through the Muslim world, and even translated into Latin. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. ^[28]

Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī (Albatenius) (853-929) discovered that the direction of the Sun's eccentric was changing, which in modern astronomy is equivalent to the Earth moving in an elliptical orbit around the Sun. In Astrodynamics, under standard assumptions, any Orbit must be of Conic section shape In Astrodynamics or Celestial mechanics an elliptic orbit is a Kepler orbit with the eccentricity greater than 0 and less than 1 ^[29] His times for the new moon, lengths for the solar year and sidereal year, prediction of eclipses, and work on the phenomenon of parallax, carried astronomers "to the verge of relativity and the space age. This article is about the lunar phase for other uses see New Moon (disambiguation. A tropical year (also known as a solar year) is the length of time that the Sun takes to return to the same position in the cycle of seasons as seen from Earth The sidereal year is the time taken for the Sun to return to the same position with respect to the Stars of the Celestial sphere. An eclipse is an astronomical event that occurs when one Celestial object moves into the shadow of another Parallax is an apparent displacement or difference of orientation of an object viewed along two different lines of sight and is measured by the angle or semi-angle of inclination between The Space Age is a contemporary period encompassing the activities related to the Space Race, Space exploration, space technology and the cultural developments "^[30] Around the same time, Yahya Ibn Abi Mansour carried out extensive observations and tests, and wrote the Al-Zij al-Mumtahan, in which he completely revised the Almagest values. Zīj ( Arabic: زيج) is the generic name applied to Arabic astronomical books that tabulate parameters used for astronomical calculations of ^[31]

In the 10th century, Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi (Azophi) carried out observations on the stars and described their positions, magnitudes, brightness, and colour, and drawings for each constellation in his Book of Fixed Stars. A star is a massive luminous ball of plasma. The nearest star to Earth is the Sun, which is the source of most of the Energy on Earth The apparent magnitude ( m) of a celestial body is a measure of its Brightness as seen by an observer on Earth, normalized to the value The Book of Fixed Stars (in Arabic: كتاب الكواكب الثابتة is an astronomical text composed by Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi (Azophi He also gave the first descriptions and pictures of "A Little Cloud" now known as the Andromeda Galaxy. The Andromeda Galaxy (ænˈdrɒmədə also known as Messier 31, M31, or NGC 224; often referred to as the Great Andromeda He mentions it as lying before the mouth of a Big Fish, an Arabic constellation. In common usage a constellation is a group of celestial bodies that are connected together in some arrangement typically stars to form a visible figure or picture This "cloud" was apparently commonly known to the Isfahan astronomers, very probably before 905 AD. Esfahān or Isfahan (historically also rendered as Ispahan or Hispahan, Old Persian: Aspadana, Middle Persian: Spahān This article is about the year AD 905 For other uses of the term see 905 (disambiguation. ^[32] The first recorded mention of the Large Magellanic Cloud was also given by Abd Al-Rahman al-Sufi. The Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC is a nearby Satellite galaxy of our own galaxy the Milky Way. ^[33][34]

Ibn Yunus observed more than 10,000 entries for the sun's position for many years using a large astrolabe with a diameter of nearly 1. Ibn Yunus ( Arabic: ابن يونس) (full name Abu al-Hasan 'Ali abi Sa'id 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Ahmad ibn Yunus al-Sadafi al-Misri (c The astrolabe is a historical Astronomical instrument used by classical astronomers, Navigators 4 metres. His observations on eclipses were still used centuries later in Simon Newcomb's investigations on the motion of the moon, while his other observations inspired Laplace's Obliquity of the Ecliptic and Inequalities of Jupiter and Saturn's. An eclipse is an astronomical event that occurs when one Celestial object moves into the shadow of another Simon Newcomb ( March 12 1835 &ndash July 11 1909) was a Canadian American Astronomer and Mathematician ^[35]

Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi relatively accurately computed the axial tilt to be 23°32'19" (23. Abu Mahmood Khujandi or Abu Mahmud Hamid ibn al-Khidr Al-Khujandi (Persian ابومحمود خجندی was a Persian ( Tajik) astronomer and In Astronomy, axial tilt is the Inclination angle of a planet's rotational axis in relation to its orbital plane. 53°),^[36] which was a significant improvement over the Greek and Indian estimates of 23°51'20" (23. 86°) and 24°,^[37] and still very close to the modern measurement of 23°26' (23. 44°).

In 1006, the Egyptian astronomer Ali ibn Ridwan observed SN 1006, the brightest supernova in recorded history, and left a detailed description of the temporary star. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Abu'l Hasan Ali ibn Ridwan Al-Misri (988–c 1061 was an Egyptian Muslim physician, astrologer and astronomer, born in Giza. SN 1006 was a Supernova, widely seen on Earth beginning in the year 1006 CE Earth was about 7200 light-years away from the supernova A supernova (plural supernovae or supernovas) is a stellar Explosion. He says that the object was two to three times as large as the disc of Venus and about one-quarter the brightness of the Moon, and that the star was low on the southern horizon. The VENUS ( V ictoria E xperimental N etwork U nder the S ea project is a cabled sea floor observatory operated by the University Monks at the Benedictine abbey at St. Gall later corroborated bin Ridwan's observations as to magnitude and location in the sky. Benedictine refers to the Spirituality and Consecrated life in accordance with the Rule of St Benedict, written by Benedict of Nursia in The Abbey of St Gall (Sankt Gallen was for many centuries one of the chief Benedictine Abbeys in Europe

Early heliocentric models

Jafar al Sadiq proposed the heliocentric theory, being the first to refute the theory of the sun having to movements. Jaʿfar al-Sadiq (702-765 in accurate transliteration Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq Arabic: جعفر الصادق in full Jaʿfar ibn Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Husayn

In the late ninth century, Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi developed a planetary model which some have interpreted as a heliocentric model. Ja'far ibn Muḥammad Abū Ma'shar al-Balkhī ( 10 August 787 in Balkh, Afghanistan &ndash 9 March 886 in al-Wasit In Astronomy, heliocentrism is the theory that the Sun is at the center of the Solar System. This is due to his orbital revolutions of the planets being given as heliocentric revolutions rather than geocentric revolutions, and the only known planetary theory in which this occurs is in the heliocentric theory. In Astronomy, the geocentric model of the Universe is the superseded theory that the Earth is the center of the universe and other His work on planetary theory has not survived, but his astronomical data was later recorded by al-Hashimi, Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī and al-Sijzi. Abu Sa'id Ahmed ibn Mohammed ibn Abd al-Jalil al-Sijzi (short for al-Sijistani was a Persian astronomer and mathematician. ^[38]

In the tenth century, the Brethren of Purity published the Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity, in which a heliocentric view of the universe is expressed in a section on cosmology:^[39]

"God has placed the Sun at the center of the Universe just as the capital of a country is placed in its middle and the ruler's palace at the center of the city. The Brethren of Purity ( Arabic اخوان الصفا Ikhwan al-Safa; also translated as Brethren of Sincerity) were a mysterious The Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity (also variously known as the Epistles of the Brethren of Sincerity, the Epistles of the Brethren of Purity or Epistles Cosmology (from Greek grc κοσμολογία - grc κόσμος kosmos, "universe" and grc -λογία -logia) is study "

In the early eleventh century, al-Biruni had met several Indian scholars who believed in a heliocentric system. In his Indica, he discusses the theories on the Earth's rotation supported by Brahmagupta and other Indian astronomers, while in his Canon Masudicus, al-Biruni writes that Aryabhata's followers assigned the first movement from east to west to the Earth and a second movement from west to east to the fixed stars. Rotation period Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun (its mean solar day is 86400 Seconds of mean solar time Brahmagupta ( (598–668 was an Indian mathematician and astronomer. Indian astronomy —the earliest textual mention of which is given in the religious literature of India (2nd millennium BCE—became an established tradition by the 1st millennium BCE Āryabhaṭa ( Devanāgarī: आर्यभट (AD 476 &ndash 550 is the first in the line of great mathematician-astronomers from the classical age of Indian mathematics Al-Biruni also wrote that al-Sijzi also believed the Earth was moving and invented an astrolabe called the "Zuraqi" based on this idea:^[40]

"I have seen the astrolabe called Zuraqi invented by Abu Sa'id Sijzi. Abu Sa'id Ahmed ibn Mohammed ibn Abd al-Jalil al-Sijzi (short for al-Sijistani was a Persian astronomer and mathematician. The astrolabe is a historical Astronomical instrument used by classical astronomers, Navigators I liked it very much and praised him a great deal, as it is based on the idea entertained by some to the effect that the motion we see is due to the Earth's movement and not to that of the sky. By my life, it is a problem difficult of solution and refutation. [. . . ] For it is the same whether you take it that the Earth is in motion or the sky. For, in both cases, it does not affect the Astronomical Science. It is just for the physicist to see if it is possible to refute it. "

In his Indica, al-Biruni briefly refers to his work on the refutation of heliocentrism, the Key of Astronomy, which is now lost:^[40]

"The most prominent of both modern and ancient astronomers have deeply studied the question of the moving earth, and tried to refute it. We, too, have composed a book on the subject called Miftah 'ilm al-hai'ah (Key of Astronomy), in which we think we have surpassed our predecessors, if not in the words, at all events in the matter. "

Beginning of astrophysics and celestial mechanics

The eldest Banū Mūsā brother, Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir (9th century), made significant contributions to astrophysics and celestial mechanics. The Banū Mūsā brothers (بنو موسى "Sons of Mūsā" were three 9th century Persian Scholars of Baghdad, active in the House Astrophysics is the branch of Astronomy that deals with the Physics of the Universe, including the physical properties ( Luminosity, Celestial mechanics is the branch of Astrophysics that deals with the motions of Celestial objects The field applies principles of Physics, historically He was the first to hypothesize that the heavenly bodies and celestial spheres are subject to the same laws of physics as Earth, unlike the ancients who believed that the celestial spheres followed their own set of physical laws different from that of Earth. The celestial spheres or celestial orbs were the fundamental celestial entities of the cosmological celestial mechanics first invented by Eudoxus, and developed by Aristotle A physical law or scientific law is a Scientific generalization based on empirical Observations of physical behavior (i EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 ^[41]

In his Astral Motion and The Force of Attraction, Muhammad ibn Musa proposed that there is a force of attraction between heavenly bodies,^[42] foreshadowing Newton's law of universal gravitation. In Physics, a force is whatever can cause an object with Mass to Accelerate. Gravitation is a natural Phenomenon by which objects with Mass attract one another s are significant physical entities, associations or structures which current Science has confirmed to exist in Space. Newton 's law of universal Gravitation is a physical law describing the gravitational attraction between bodies with mass ^[43]

Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen), in his Book of Optics (1021), was the first to discover that the celestial spheres do not consist of solid matter, and he also discovered that the heavens are less dense than the air. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized The Book of Optics ( Arabic: Kitab al-Manazir, Latin: De Aspectibus or Opticae Thesaurus Alhazeni The celestial spheres or celestial orbs were the fundamental celestial entities of the cosmological celestial mechanics first invented by Eudoxus, and developed by Aristotle A solid' object is in the States of matter characterized by resistance to Deformation and changes of Volume. These views were later repeated by Witelo and had a significant influence on the Copernican and Tychonic systems of astronomy. Witelo - also known as Erazmus Ciolek Witelo, Witelon, Vitellio, Vitello, Vitello Thuringopolonis, Vitulon, Erazm See also Nicolaus Copernicus, Heliocentrism Earlier theories See also Heliocentrism Early traces of a Heliocentric model The Tychonic system (or Tychonian system) was a model of the Solar system published by Tycho Brahe in the late 16th century which combined what he saw as ^[44]

Beginning of experimental astronomy

In the tenth century, Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī (Albatenius) (853-929) introduced the idea of testing "past observations by means of new ones". In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or ^[45] This led to the use of exacting empirical observations and experimental techniques by Muslim astronomers from the eleventh century onwards. A central concept in Science and the Scientific method is that all Evidence must be empirical, or empirically based that is dependent on evidence ^[46]

In the eleventh century, Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī introduced the experimental method into astronomy and was the first to conduct elaborate experiments related to astronomical phenomena. Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or ^[47] He discovered the Milky Way galaxy to be a collection of numerous nebulous stars. The Milky Way (a translation of the Latin Via Lactea, in turn derived from the Greek Γαλαξίας (Galaxias sometimes referred to simply A galaxy is a massive gravitationally bound system consisting of Stars an Interstellar medium of gas and dust, and Dark matter A nebula (from Latin: "mist" pl nebulae or nebulæ, with ligature or nebulas) is an Interstellar cloud of A star is a massive luminous ball of plasma. The nearest star to Earth is the Sun, which is the source of most of the Energy on Earth ^[48] In Afghanistan, he observed and described the solar eclipse on April 8, 1019, and the lunar eclipse on September 17, 1019, in detail, and gave the exact latitudes of the stars during the lunar eclipse. Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between the Sun and the Earth so that the Sun is wholly or partially obscured Events 217 - Roman Emperor Caracalla is Assassinated (and succeeded by his Praetorian A lunar eclipse occurs whenever the Moon passes through some portion of the Earth's shadow Events 1176 - The Battle of Myriokephalon is fought 1462 - The Battle of Świecino (or Battle of Żarnowiec Latitude, usually denoted symbolically by the Greek letter phi ( Φ) gives the location of a place on Earth (or other planetary body north or south of the ^[47]

1025-1450

During this period, a distinctive Islamic system of astronomy flourished. Within the Greek tradition and its successors it was traditional to separate mathematical astronomy (as typified by Ptolemy) from philosophical cosmology (as typified by Aristotle). Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Muslim scholars developed a program of seeking a physically real configuration (hay'a) of the universe, that would be consistent with both mathematical and physical principles. Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and Physics (Greek Physis - φύσις in everyday terms is the Science of Matter and its motion. Within the context of this hay'a tradition, Muslim astronomers began questioning technical details of the Ptolemaic system of astronomy. In Astronomy, the geocentric model of the Universe is the superseded theory that the Earth is the center of the universe and other ^[49] Most of these criticisms, however, continued to follow the Ptolemaic astronomical paradigm, remaining within the geocentric framework. The word paradigm ( Greek:παράδειγμα (paradigmacomposite from para- and the verb δείχνυμι "to show" as a whole -roughly- meaning "example" In Astronomy, the geocentric model of the Universe is the superseded theory that the Earth is the center of the universe and other ^[50] As the historian of astronomy, A. I. Sabra, noted:

"All Islamic astronomers from Thabit ibn Qurra in the ninth century to Ibn al-Shatir in the fourteenth, and all natural philosophers from al-Kindi to Averroes and later, are known to have accepted what Kuhn has called the "two-sphere universe" . Abdelhamid I Sabra is a retired professor of the history of science specializing in the History of optics and Science in medieval Islam. (836 in Harran, Mesopotamia &ndash February 18, 901 in Baghdad) was an Arab astronomer, mathematician Ala Al-Din Abu'l-Hasan Ali Ibn Ibrahim Ibn al-Shatir (1304 &ndash 1375 (ابن الشاطر was an Arab Muslim astronomer, mathematician, engineer ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European . . —the Greek picture of the world as consisting of two spheres of which one, the celestial sphere made up of a special element called aether, concentrically envelops the other, where the four elements of earth, water, air, and fire reside. The celestial spheres or celestial orbs were the fundamental celestial entities of the cosmological celestial mechanics first invented by Eudoxus, and developed by Aristotle According to ancient and medieval science, aether (Greek grc αἰθήρ aithēr) also spelled æther or ether, is the material that fills Many ancient philosophies used a set of archetypal classical "elements" to explain patterns in Nature. "^[51]

Some Muslim astronomers, however, most notably Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī and Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī, discussed whether the Earth moved and considered how this might be consistent with astronomical computations and physical systems. ^[52] Several other Muslim astronomers, most notably those following the Maragha school of thought, developed non-Ptolemaic planetary models within a geocentric context that were later adapted in the Copernican model in a heliocentric context. Maragheh observatory ( Persian:رصدخانه مراغه Rasad Khaneh) is an Ancient Observatory, which was established in 1259 by See also Nicolaus Copernicus, Heliocentrism Earlier theories See also Heliocentrism Early traces of a Heliocentric model In Astronomy, heliocentrism is the theory that the Sun is at the center of the Solar System.

Refutations of astrology

The first semantic distinction between astronomy and astrology was given by the Persian astronomer Abu Rayhan al-Biruni in the 11th century,^[53] though he himself refuted astrology in another work. Semantics is the study of meaning in communication The word derives from Greek σημαντικός ( semantikos) "significant" from This is a sub-article of History of science in the Islamic World and Astrology. layout and formatting it should ensure no clashes with the top of the infobox The study of astrology was also refuted by other Muslim astronomers at the time, including al-Farabi, Ibn al-Haytham, Avicenna and Averroes. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abū Nasr Muhammad ibn al-Farakh al-Fārābi ( Nastaliq:) or Abū Nasr al-Fārābi TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European Their reasons for refuting astrology were both due to the methods used by astrologers being conjectural rather than empirical and also due to the views of astrologers conflicting with orthodox Islam. In Mathematics, a conjecture is a Mathematical statement which appears resourceful but has not been formally proven to be true under the rules of A central concept in Science and the Scientific method is that all Evidence must be empirical, or empirically based that is dependent on evidence For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. ^[54]

Astrophysics and celestial mechanics

In astrophysics and celestial mechanics, Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī described the Earth's gravitation as:^[55]

"The attraction of all things towards the centre of the earth. Astrophysics is the branch of Astronomy that deals with the Physics of the Universe, including the physical properties ( Luminosity, Celestial mechanics is the branch of Astrophysics that deals with the motions of Celestial objects The field applies principles of Physics, historically Gravitation is a natural Phenomenon by which objects with Mass attract one another "

Al-Biruni also discovered that gravity exists within the heavenly bodies and celestial spheres, and he criticized the Aristotelian views of them not having any levity or gravity and of circular motion being an innate property of the heavenly bodies. s are significant physical entities, associations or structures which current Science has confirmed to exist in Space. The celestial spheres or celestial orbs were the fundamental celestial entities of the cosmological celestial mechanics first invented by Eudoxus, and developed by Aristotle The Greek Philosopher Aristotle ( 384 BC – 322 BC) developed many theories on the nature of Physics that are completely different In Physics, circular motion is Rotation along a Circle: a circular path or a circular Orbit. The term intrinsic denotes a characteristic or property of some thing or action which is essential and specific to that thing or action and which is wholly independent ^[56]

In 1121, al-Khazini, in his treatise The Book of the Balance of Wisdom, states:^[57]

"For each heavy body of a known weight positioned at a certain distance from the centre of the universe, its gravity depends on the remoteness from the centre of the universe. Abd al-Rahman al-Khazini ( عبدالرحمن الخزيني) (flourished 1115–1130 was a Muslim scientist, physicist, astronomer, biologist For that reason, the gravities of bodies relate as their distances from the centre of the universe. "

Al-Khazini was thus the first to propose the theory that the gravities of bodies vary depending on their distances from the centre of the Earth. Gravitation is a natural Phenomenon by which objects with Mass attract one another This phenomenon was not proven until Newton's law of universal gravitation in the 18th century. Newton 's law of universal Gravitation is a physical law describing the gravitational attraction between bodies with mass ^[57]

Beginning of hay'a tradition

Between 1025 and 1028, Ibn al-Haytham (Latinized as Alhazen), began the hay'a tradition of Islamic astronomy with his Al-Shuku ala Batlamyus (Doubts on Ptolemy). TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. While maintaining the physical reality of the geocentric model, he was the first to criticise Ptolemy's astronomical system, which he criticised on empirical, observational and experimental grounds,^[58] and for relating actual physical motions to imaginary mathematical points, lines and circles:

"Ptolemy assumed an arrangement that cannot exist, and the fact that this arrangement produces in his imagination the motions that belong to the planets does not free him from the error he committed in his assumed arrangement, for the existing motions of the planets cannot be the result of an arrangement that is impossible to exist. In Astronomy, the geocentric model of the Universe is the superseded theory that the Earth is the center of the universe and other Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca A central concept in Science and the Scientific method is that all Evidence must be empirical, or empirically based that is dependent on evidence Observation is either an activity of a living being (such as a Human) which senses and assimilates the Knowledge of a Phenomenon, or the recording of data In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or "^[59]

Ibn al-Haytham developed a physical structure of the Ptolemaic system in his Treatise on the configuration of the World, or Maqâlah fî hay'at al-‛âlam, which became an influential work in the hay'a tradition. ^[60] In his Epitome of Astronomy, he insisted that the heavenly bodies "were accountable to the laws of physics. A physical law or scientific law is a Scientific generalization based on empirical Observations of physical behavior (i "^[61] The foundations of telescopic astronomy can also be traced back to Ibn al-Haytham, due to the influence of his optical studies on the later development of the modern telescope. A telescope is an instrument designed for the observation of remote objects and the collection of Electromagnetic radiation. ^[62]

In 1038, Ibn al-Haytham described the first non-Ptolemaic configuration in The Model of the Motions. His reform was not concerned with cosmology, as he developed a systematic study of celestial kinematics that was completely geometric. Cosmology (from Greek grc κοσμολογία - grc κόσμος kosmos, "universe" and grc -λογία -logia) is study Kinematics ( Greek κινειν, kinein, to move is a branch of Classical mechanics which describes the motion of objects without Geometry ( Greek γεωμετρία; geo = earth metria = measure is a part of Mathematics concerned with questions of size shape and relative position This in turn led to innovative developments in infinitesimal geometry. Infinitesimals (from a 17th century Modern Latin coinage infinitesimus, originally referring to the " Infinite[[ th]]" member of a series have Geometry ( Greek γεωμετρία; geo = earth metria = measure is a part of Mathematics concerned with questions of size shape and relative position ^[63] His reformed model was the first to reject the equant^[64] and eccentrics,^[65] separate natural philosophy from astronomy, free celestial kinematics from cosmology, and reduce physical entities to geometrical entities. Equant (or Punctum aequans) is a Mathematical concept developed by Claudius Ptolemy in the 2nd century AD to account for the observed For the current in the 19th century German idealism see Naturphilosophie Natural philosophy or the philosophy of nature (from The model also propounded the Earth's rotation about its axis,^[66] and the centres of motion were geometrical points without any physical significance, like Johannes Kepler's model centuries later. Rotation period Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun (its mean solar day is 86400 Seconds of mean solar time Johannes Kepler (ˈkɛplɚ ( December 27 1571 &ndash November 15 1630) was a German Mathematician, Astronomer ^[67] Ibn al-Haytham also describes an early version of Occam's razor, where he employs only minimal hypotheses regarding the properties that characterize astronomical motions, as he attempts to eliminate from his planetary model the cosmological hypotheses that cannot be observed from Earth. Occam's razor (sometimes spelled Ockham's razor) is a principle attributed to the 14th-century English Logician and Franciscan Friar, Cosmology (from Greek grc κοσμολογία - grc κόσμος kosmos, "universe" and grc -λογία -logia) is study EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 ^[68]

Early alternative models

In 1030, Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī discussed the Indian planetary theories of Aryabhata, Brahmagupta and Varahamihira in his Ta'rikh al-Hind (Latinized as Indica). Indian astronomy —the earliest textual mention of which is given in the religious literature of India (2nd millennium BCE—became an established tradition by the 1st millennium BCE Āryabhaṭa ( Devanāgarī: आर्यभट (AD 476 &ndash 550 is the first in the line of great mathematician-astronomers from the classical age of Indian mathematics Brahmagupta ( (598–668 was an Indian mathematician and astronomer. Daivajna Varāhamihira ( Devanagari: वराहमिहिर 505 &ndash 587 also called Varaha or Mihira was an Indian Astronomer, Mathematician Biruni stated that Brahmagupta and others consider that the earth rotates on its axis and Biruni noted that this does not create any mathematical problems. Brahmagupta ( (598–668 was an Indian mathematician and astronomer. Rotation period Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun (its mean solar day is 86400 Seconds of mean solar time ^[69]

Abu Said al-Sijzi, a contemporary of al-Biruni, suggested the possible heliocentric movement of the Earth around the Sun, which al-Biruni did not reject. Abu Sa'id Ahmed ibn Mohammed ibn Abd al-Jalil al-Sijzi (short for al-Sijistani was a Persian astronomer and mathematician. ^[70] Al-Biruni agreed with the Earth's rotation about its own axis, and while he was initially neutral regarding the heliocentric and geocentric models,^[71] he considered heliocentrism to be a philosophical problem. Rotation period Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun (its mean solar day is 86400 Seconds of mean solar time In Astronomy, heliocentrism is the theory that the Sun is at the center of the Solar System. In Astronomy, the geocentric model of the Universe is the superseded theory that the Earth is the center of the universe and other ^[3] He remarked that if the Earth rotates on its axis and moves around the Sun, it would remain consistent with his astronomical parameters:^[55][72]

"Rotation of the earth would in no way invalidate astronomical calculations, for all the astronomical data are as explicable in terms of the one theory as of the other. The problem is thus difficult of solution. "

In 1031, al-Biruni completed his extensive astronomical encyclopaedia Kitab al-Qanun al-Mas'udi (Latinized as Canon Mas’udicus),^[73] in which he recorded his astronomical findings and formulated astronomical tables. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. In it he presented a geocentric model, tabulating the distance of all the celestial spheres from the central Earth, computed according to the principles of Ptolemy's Almagest. The celestial spheres or celestial orbs were the fundamental celestial entities of the cosmological celestial mechanics first invented by Eudoxus, and developed by Aristotle Almagest is the Latin form of the Arabic name ( الكتاب المجسطي, al-kitabu-l-mijisti, i ^[74] The book introduces the mathematical technique of analysing the acceleration of the planets, and first states that the motions of the solar apogee and the precession are not identical. In Celestial mechanics, an apsis, plural apsides (ˈæpsɨdɪːz is the point of greatest or least distance of the Elliptical orbit of an object from Precession refers to a change in the direction of the axis of a rotating object Al-Biruni also discovered that the distance between the Earth and the Sun is larger than Ptolemy's estimate, on the basis that Ptolemy disregarded the annual solar eclipses. Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between the Sun and the Earth so that the Sun is wholly or partially obscured ^[55][75]

In 1070, Abu Ubayd al-Juzjani, a pupil of Avicenna, proposed a non-Ptolemaic configuration in his Tarik al-Aflak. Abu Ubaid al-Juzjani was a Persian physician from Juzjan in Afghanistan. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born In his work, he indicated the so-called "equant" problem of the Ptolemic model, and proposed a solution for the problem. Equant (or Punctum aequans) is a Mathematical concept developed by Claudius Ptolemy in the 2nd century AD to account for the observed He claimed that his teacher Avicenna had also worked out the equant problem. ^[76]

Andalusian Revolt

In the 11th-12th centuries, astronomers in al-Andalus took up the challenge earlier posed by Ibn al-Haytham, namely to develop an alternate non-Ptolemaic configuration that evaded the errors found in the Ptolemaic model. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or In Astronomy, the geocentric model of the Universe is the superseded theory that the Earth is the center of the universe and other ^[77] Like Ibn al-Haytham's critique, the anonymous Andalusian work, al-Istidrak ala Batlamyus (Recapitulation regarding Ptolemy), included a list of objections to Ptolemic astronomy. This marked the beginning of the Andalusian school's revolt against Ptolemaic astronomy, otherwise known as the "Andalusian Revolt". Rebellion is a refusal of obedienceIt may therefore be seen as encompassing a range of Behaviours from Civil disobedience and mass Nonviolent resistance ^[78]

In the late 11th century, al-Zarqali (Latinized as Arzachel) discovered that the orbits of the planets are elliptic orbits and not circular orbits,^[79] though he still followed the Ptolemaic model. In Astrodynamics or Celestial mechanics an elliptic orbit is a Kepler orbit with the eccentricity greater than 0 and less than 1

In the 12th century, Averroes rejected the eccentric deferents introduced by Ptolemy. Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European In the Ptolemaic system of Astronomy, the epicycle (literally on the circle in Greek) was a geometric model used to explain the variations in Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca He rejected the Ptolemaic model and instead argued for a strictly concentric model of the universe. In Astronomy, the geocentric model of the Universe is the superseded theory that the Earth is the center of the universe and other Concentric objects share the same center, axis or origin with one inside the other He wrote the following criticism on the Ptolemaic model of planetary motion:^[1]

"To assert the existence of an eccentric sphere or an epicyclic sphere is contrary to nature. [. . . ] The astronomy of our time offers no truth, but only agrees with the calculations and not with what exists. "

Averroes' contemporary, Maimonides, wrote the following on the planetary model proposed by Ibn Bajjah (Avempace):

"I have heard that Abu Bakr [Ibn Bajja] discovered a system in which no epicycles occur, but eccentric spheres are not excluded by him. Moses Maimonides ( March 30 1135 – December 13 1204) also known as the Rambam, was a Rabbi, Physician, and Abū-Bakr Muhammad ibn Yahya ibn al-Sāyigh ( Arabic أبو بكر محمد بن يحيى بن الصائغ known as Ibn Bājjah (ابن باجة was an Andalusian In the Ptolemaic system of Astronomy, the epicycle (literally on the circle in Greek) was a geometric model used to explain the variations in I have not heard it from his pupils; and even if it be correct that he discovered such a system, he has not gained much by it, for eccentricity is likewise contrary to the principles laid down by Aristotle. . . . I have explained to you that these difficulties do not concern the astronomer, for he does not profess to tell us the existing properties of the spheres, but to suggest, whether correctly or not, a theory in which the motion of the stars and planets is uniform and circular, and in agreement with observation. "^[80]

Later in the 12th century, Ibn Bajjah's successors, Ibn Tufail (Abubacer) and al-Betrugi (Alpetragius), were the first to propose planetary models without any equant, epicycles or eccentrics. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ibn Tufail (c 1105 Guadix Spain &ndash 1185 (full Arabic name Equant (or Punctum aequans) is a Mathematical concept developed by Claudius Ptolemy in the 2nd century AD to account for the observed In the Ptolemaic system of Astronomy, the epicycle (literally on the circle in Greek) was a geometric model used to explain the variations in Al-Betrugi was also the first to discover that the planets are self-luminous. Luminosity has different meanings in several different fields of science ^[81] Their configurations, however, were not accepted due to the numerical predictions of the planetary positions in their models being less accurate than that of the Ptolemaic model,^[82] mainly because they followed Aristotle's notion of perfect circular motion. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great.

Maragha Revolution

Main article: Maragheh observatory

The "Maragha Revolution" refers to the Maragheh school's revolution against Ptolemaic astronomy. Maragheh observatory ( Persian:رصدخانه مراغه Rasad Khaneh) is an Ancient Observatory, which was established in 1259 by A revolution (from the Latin revolutio, "a turnaround" is a fundamental change in power or organizational structures that takes place in a relatively The "Maragha school" was an astronomical tradition beginning in the Maragheh observatory and continuing with astronomers from Damascus and Samarkand. Maragheh observatory ( Persian:رصدخانه مراغه Rasad Khaneh) is an Ancient Observatory, which was established in 1259 by Damascus ( دمشق,, also commonly known as الشام ash-Shām) is the capital and largest city of Syria. Samarkand (Samarqand Самарқанд سمرقند UniPers: "Samarqand" is the second-largest city in Uzbekistan and the capital of Like their Andalusian predecessors, the Maragha astronomers attempted to solve the equant problem and produce alternative configurations to the Ptolemaic model. Equant (or Punctum aequans) is a Mathematical concept developed by Claudius Ptolemy in the 2nd century AD to account for the observed In Astronomy, the geocentric model of the Universe is the superseded theory that the Earth is the center of the universe and other They were more successful than their Andalusian predecessors in producing non-Ptolemaic configurations which eliminated the equant and eccentrics, were more accurate than the Ptolemaic model in numerically predicting planetary positions, and were in better agreement with empirical observations. A central concept in Science and the Scientific method is that all Evidence must be empirical, or empirically based that is dependent on evidence Observation is either an activity of a living being (such as a Human) which senses and assimilates the Knowledge of a Phenomenon, or the recording of data ^[83] The most important of the Maragha astronomers included Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi (d. Mu’ayyad al-Din al-’Urdi (d 1266 was an Arab Muslim astronomer, mathematician, architect and engineer working at the Maragheh 1266), Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī (1201-1274), 'Umar al-Katibi al-Qazwini (d. 1277), Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi (1236-1311), Sadr al-Sharia al-Bukhari (c. TemplateInfobox Persian scholars --> Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi (1236 &ndash 1311 (قطب‌الدین شیرازی was a 13th 1347), Ibn al-Shatir (1304-1375), Ali al-Qushji (c. Ala Al-Din Abu'l-Hasan Ali Ibn Ibrahim Ibn al-Shatir (1304 &ndash 1375 (ابن الشاطر was an Arab Muslim astronomer, mathematician, engineer Ali Kuşçu (? 1403 - 16 December, 1474) was a Turkish astronomer, mathematician, physicist and scientist 1474), al-Birjandi (d. Abd al-Ali ibn Muhammad ibn al-Husayn al-Birjandi (d 934 AH /1528 CE prominent 16th century Muslim astronomer, mathematician and physicist who lived in 1525) and Shams al-Din al-Khafri (d. 1550). ^[84]

Some have described their achievements in the 13th and 14th centuries as a "Maragha Revolution", "Maragha School Revolution", or "Scientific Revolution before the Renaissance". The period which many historians of science call the Scientific Revolution can be roughly dated as having begun in 1543 the year in which Nicolaus Copernicus published The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere An important aspect of this revolution included the realization that astronomy should aim to describe the behaviour of physical bodies in mathematical language, and should not remain a mathematical hypothesis, which would only save the phenomena. In Physics, a physical body (sometimes called simply a body or even an object) is a collection of Masses taken to be one A hypothesis (from Greek) consists either of a suggested explanation for a phenomenon (an event that is observable or of a reasoned proposal suggesting a possible A phenomenon (from Greek φαινόμενoν, pl φαινόμενα - phenomena) is any observable occurrence The Maragha astronomers also realized that the Aristotelian view of motion in the universe being only circular or linear was not true, as the Tusi-couple showed that linear motion could also be produced by applying circular motions only. On the Heavens (or De Caelo) is Aristotle 's chief cosmological treatise it contains his astronomical theory In Physics, motion means a constant change in the location of a body The word linear comes from the Latin word linearis, which means created by lines. The Tusi-couple is a mathematical device in which a small circle rotates inside a larger circle twice the radius of the smaller circle In Physics, circular motion is Rotation along a Circle: a circular path or a circular Orbit. ^[85]

Unlike the ancient Greek and Hellenistic astronomers who were not concerned with the coherence between the mathematical and physical principles of a planetary theory, Islamic astronomers insisted on the need to match the mathematics with the real world surrounding them,^[86] which gradually evolved from a reality based on Aristotelian physics to one based on an empirical and mathematical physics after the work of Ibn al-Shatir. The Greek Philosopher Aristotle ( 384 BC – 322 BC) developed many theories on the nature of Physics that are completely different Physics (Greek Physis - φύσις in everyday terms is the Science of Matter and its motion. The Maragha Revolution was thus characterized by a shift away from the philosophical foundations of Aristotelian cosmology and Ptolemaic astronomy and towards a greater emphasis on the empirical observation and mathematization of astronomy and of nature in general, as exemplified in the works of Ibn al-Shatir, al-Qushji, al-Birjandi and al-Khafri. On the Heavens (or De Caelo) is Aristotle 's chief cosmological treatise it contains his astronomical theory In Astronomy, the geocentric model of the Universe is the superseded theory that the Earth is the center of the universe and other Nature, in the broadest sense is equivalent to the natural world, physical universe, material world or material universe. ^[87][88][89]

Other achievements of the Maragha school include the first empirical observational evidence for the Earth's rotation on its axis by al-Tusi and al-Qushji,^[90] the separation of natural philosophy from astronomy by Ibn al-Shatir and al-Qushji,^[91] the rejection of the Ptolemaic model on empirical rather than philosophical grounds by Ibn al-Shatir,^[83] and the development of a non-Ptolemaic model by Ibn al-Shatir that was mathematically identical to the heliocentric Copernical model. Rotation period Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun (its mean solar day is 86400 Seconds of mean solar time For the current in the 19th century German idealism see Naturphilosophie Natural philosophy or the philosophy of nature (from Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language See also Nicolaus Copernicus, Heliocentrism Earlier theories See also Heliocentrism Early traces of a Heliocentric model ^[92]

Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi (d. Mu’ayyad al-Din al-’Urdi (d 1266 was an Arab Muslim astronomer, mathematician, architect and engineer working at the Maragheh 1266) was the first of the Maragheh astronomers to develop a non-Ptolemaic model, and he proposed a new theorem, the "Urdi lemma". ^[93] Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī (1201-1274) resolved significant problems in the Ptolemaic system by developing the Tusi-couple as an alternative to the physically problematic equant introduced by Ptolemy,^[94] and conceived a plausible model for elliptical orbits. The Tusi-couple is a mathematical device in which a small circle rotates inside a larger circle twice the radius of the smaller circle Equant (or Punctum aequans) is a Mathematical concept developed by Claudius Ptolemy in the 2nd century AD to account for the observed In Mathematics, an ellipse (from the Greek ἔλλειψις literally absence) is a Conic section, the locus of points in a ^[73] Tusi's student Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi (1236-1311), in his The Limit of Accomplishment concerning Knowledge of the Heavens, discussed the possibility of heliocentrism. TemplateInfobox Persian scholars --> Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi (1236 &ndash 1311 (قطب‌الدین شیرازی was a 13th In Astronomy, heliocentrism is the theory that the Sun is at the center of the Solar System. 'Umar al-Katibi al-Qazwini (d. 1277), who also worked at the Maragheh observatory, in his Hikmat al-'Ain, wrote an argument for a heliocentric model, though he later abandoned the idea. ^[70]

Ibn al-Shatir (1304–1375) of Damascus, in A Final Inquiry Concerning the Rectification of Planetary Theory, incorporated the Urdi lemma, and eliminated the need for an equant by introducing an extra epicycle (the Tusi-couple), departing from the Ptolemaic system in a way that was mathematically identical to what Nicolaus Copernicus did in the 16th century. Ala Al-Din Abu'l-Hasan Ali Ibn Ibrahim Ibn al-Shatir (1304 &ndash 1375 (ابن الشاطر was an Arab Muslim astronomer, mathematician, engineer Damascus ( دمشق,, also commonly known as الشام ash-Shām) is the capital and largest city of Syria. Unlike previous astronomers before him, Ibn al-Shatir was not concerned with adhering to the theoretical principles of natural philosophy or Aristotelian cosmology, but rather to produce a model that was more consistent with empirical observations. For the current in the 19th century German idealism see Naturphilosophie Natural philosophy or the philosophy of nature (from Cosmology (from Greek grc κοσμολογία - grc κόσμος kosmos, "universe" and grc -λογία -logia) is study A central concept in Science and the Scientific method is that all Evidence must be empirical, or empirically based that is dependent on evidence His model was thus in better agreement with empirical observations than any previous model,^[83] and was also the first that permitted empirical testing. Observation is either an activity of a living being (such as a Human) which senses and assimilates the Knowledge of a Phenomenon, or the recording of data In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or ^[95] His work thus marked a turning point in astronomy, which may be considered a "Scientific Revolution before the Renaissance". ^[83] His rectified model was later adapted into a heliocentric model by Copernicus,^[94] which was mathematically achieved by reversing the direction of the last vector connecting the Earth to the Sun. See also Nicolaus Copernicus, Heliocentrism Earlier theories See also Heliocentrism Early traces of a Heliocentric model ^[3] In the published version of his masterwork, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, Copernicus also cites the theories of al-Battani, Arzachel and Averroes as influences,^[73] while the works of Ibn al-Haytham and al-Biruni were also known in Europe at the time. De revolutionibus orbium coelestium ( On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) first printed in 1543 in Nuremberg, is the seminal work on Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized

An area of active discussion in the Maragheh school, and later the Samarkand and Istanbul observatories, was the possibility of the Earth's rotation. Samarkand (Samarqand Самарқанд سمرقند UniPers: "Samarqand" is the second-largest city in Uzbekistan and the capital of Istanbul (historically Byzantium and later Constantinople; see the other Names of Istanbul) is the largest city of Turkey Rotation period Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun (its mean solar day is 86400 Seconds of mean solar time Supporters of this theory included Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī, Nizam al-Din al-Nisaburi (c. 1311), al-Sayyid al-Sharif al-Jurjani (1339-1413), Ali al-Qushji (d. 1474), and Abd al-Ali al-Birjandi (d. Abd al-Ali ibn Muhammad ibn al-Husayn al-Birjandi (d 934 AH /1528 CE prominent 16th century Muslim astronomer, mathematician and physicist who lived in 1525). Al-Tusi was the first to present empirical observational evidence of the Earth's rotation, using the location of comets relevant to the Earth as evidence, which al-Qushji elaborated on with further empirical observations while rejecting Aristotelian natural philosophy altogether. A comet is a small Solar System body that orbits the Sun and when close enough to the Sun exhibits a visible coma (atmosphere or a tail — For the current in the 19th century German idealism see Naturphilosophie Natural philosophy or the philosophy of nature (from Both of their arguments were similar to the arguments later used by Nicolaus Copernicus in 1543 to explain the Earth's rotation. ^[90]

1450-1900

This period was considered the period of stagnation, when the traditional system of astronomy continued to be practised with enthusiasm, but with decreasing innovation. ^[20] It was believed there was no innovation of major significance during this period, but this view has been rejected by historians of astronomy in recent times, who argue that Muslim astronomers continued to make significant advances in astronomy through to the 16th century and possibly after this as well. ^[91][96] After the 16th century, there appears to have been little concern for theoretical astronomy, but observational astronomy in the Islamic tradition continued in the three Muslim gunpowder empires: the Ottoman Empire, the Safavid dynasty of Persia, and the Mughal Empire of India. Astrophysics is the branch of Astronomy that deals with the Physics of the Universe, including the physical properties ( Luminosity, Observational astronomy is a division of the astronomical Science that is concerned with getting data in contrast with Theoretical astrophysics which is Early Modern warfare is associated with the start of the widespread use of Gunpowder and the development of suitable weapons to use the explosive The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish The Safavids ( صفوی) were an Iranian ref>Helen Chapin Metz The Mughal Empire ( Persian and self-designation گورکانی; مغلیہ سلطنت) was an Islamic imperial power which ruled most

Earth's motion

The work of Ali al-Qushji (d. Ali Kuşçu (? 1403 - 16 December, 1474) was a Turkish astronomer, mathematician, physicist and scientist 1474), who worked at Samarkand and then Istanbul, is seen as a late example of innovation in Islamic astronomy and it is believed he may have had an influence on Nicolaus Copernicus due to similar arguments concerning the Earth's rotation. Samarkand (Samarqand Самарқанд سمرقند UniPers: "Samarqand" is the second-largest city in Uzbekistan and the capital of Istanbul (historically Byzantium and later Constantinople; see the other Names of Istanbul) is the largest city of Turkey Rotation period Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun (its mean solar day is 86400 Seconds of mean solar time Before al-Qushji, the only astronomer to present an empirical argument for the Earth's rotation was Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī (d. In Philosophy, empiricism is a theory of Knowledge which asserts that knowledge arises from Experience. 1274), who used the phenomena of comets to refute Ptolemy's claim that a stationery Earth can be determined through observation alone. A comet is a small Solar System body that orbits the Sun and when close enough to the Sun exhibits a visible coma (atmosphere or a tail — Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca Al-Tusi, however, accepted that the Earth was stationery on the basis of natural philosophy instead, particularly Aristotelian cosmology. For the current in the 19th century German idealism see Naturphilosophie Natural philosophy or the philosophy of nature (from On the Heavens (or De Caelo) is Aristotle 's chief cosmological treatise it contains his astronomical theory In the 15th century, the influence of Aristotelian physics and natural philosophy was declining due to religious opposition. The Greek Philosopher Aristotle ( 384 BC – 322 BC) developed many theories on the nature of Physics that are completely different Al-Qushji, in his Concerning the Supposed Dependence of Astronomy upon Philosophy, thus rejected Aristotelian physics and completely separated natural philosophy from astronomy, allowing astronomy to become a purely empirical and mathematical science. This allowed him to explore alternatives to the Aristotelian notion of a stationery Earth, as he explored the idea of a moving Earth. He elaborated on al-Tusi's argument and concluded, on the basis of empiricism rather than speculative philosophy, that the moving Earth theory is just as likely to be true as the stationary Earth theory and that it is not possible to empirically deduce which theory is true. In Philosophy, empiricism is a theory of Knowledge which asserts that knowledge arises from Experience. A central concept in Science and the Scientific method is that all Evidence must be empirical, or empirically based that is dependent on evidence ^[90][91][97]

In the 16th century, the debate on the Earth's motion was continued by al-Birjandi (d. Abd al-Ali ibn Muhammad ibn al-Husayn al-Birjandi (d 934 AH /1528 CE prominent 16th century Muslim astronomer, mathematician and physicist who lived in 1528), who in his analysis of what might occur if the Earth were rotating, develops a hypothesis similar to Galileo Galilei's notion of "circular inertia",^[98] which he described in the following observational test (as a response to one of Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi's arguments):

"The small or large rock will fall to the Earth along the path of a line that is perpendicular to the plane (sath) of the horizon; this is witnessed by experience (tajriba). Galileo Galilei (15 February 1564 &ndash 8 January 1642 was a Tuscan ( Italian) Physicist, Mathematician, Astronomer, and Philosopher The vis insita or innate force of matter is a power of resisting by which every body as much as in it lies endeavors to preserve in its present state whether it be of rest or of moving TemplateInfobox Persian scholars --> Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi (1236 &ndash 1311 (قطب‌الدین شیرازی was a 13th And this perpendicular is away from the tangent point of the Earth’s sphere and the plane of the perceived (hissi) horizon. This point moves with the motion of the Earth and thus there will be no difference in place of fall of the two rocks. "^[99]

Theoretical astronomy

It was traditionally believed that Islamic astronomers made no more advances in planetary theory after the work of Ibn al-Shatir in the 14th century, but recent studies have shown that there were several significant advances in planetary theory through to the 16th century, after George Saliba studied the works of a 16th century astronomer, Shams al-Din al-Khafri (d. Ala Al-Din Abu'l-Hasan Ali Ibn Ibrahim Ibn al-Shatir (1304 &ndash 1375 (ابن الشاطر was an Arab Muslim astronomer, mathematician, engineer George Saliba has been Professor of Arabic and Islamic Science at the Department of Middle East and Asian Languages and Cultures Columbia University, 1550), a Safavid commentator on earlier Maragha astronomers. The Safavids ( صفوی) were an Iranian ref>Helen Chapin Metz Maragheh observatory ( Persian:رصدخانه مراغه Rasad Khaneh) is an Ancient Observatory, which was established in 1259 by Saliba wrote the following on al-Khafri's work:

"By his sheer insight into the role of mathematics in describing natural phenomena, this astronomer managed to bring the hay'a tradition to such unparalleled heights that could not be matched anywhere else in the world at that time neither mathematically nor astronomically. By working on the alternative mathematical models that could replace those of Ptolemy, and by scrutinizing the works of his predecessors who were all searching for unique mathematical models that could describe the physical phenomena consistently, this astronomer finally realized that all mathematical modeling had no physical truth by itself and was simply another language with which one could describe the physical observed reality. He also realized that the specific phenomena that were being described by the Ptolemaic models did not have unique mathematical solutions that were subject to the same restraints. Rather there were several mathematical models that could account for the Ptolemaic observations, yield identical predictive results at the same critical points used by Ptolemy to construct his own models (thus accounting for the observations as perfectly as Ptolemy could) and still meet the consistency requirement that was imposed by the Aristotelian cosmology which was adopted by the writers in the hay'a tradition. "^[96]

Ali al-Qushji also improved on al-Tusi's planetary model and presented an alternative planetary model for Mercury. Ali Kuşçu (? 1403 - 16 December, 1474) was a Turkish astronomer, mathematician, physicist and scientist ^[100]

Observational astronomy

Another notable 16th century Muslim astronomer was the Ottoman astronomer Taqi al-Din, who built the Istanbul observatory of al-Din in 1577, where he carried out astronomical observations until 1580. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf al-Shami al-Asadi ( Arabic: تقي الدين محمد بن معروف الشامي السعدي Turkish: Takiyuddin) (1526&ndash1585 He produced a Zij (named Unbored Pearl) and astronomical catalogues that were more accurate than those of his contemporaries, Tycho Brahe and Nicolaus Copernicus. Zīj ( Arabic: زيج) is the generic name applied to Arabic astronomical books that tabulate parameters used for astronomical calculations of An astronomical catalog or catalogue is a list or tabulation of Astronomical objects typically grouped together because they share a common type morphology origin Tycho Brahe, born Tyge Ottesen Brahe ( December 14 1546 &ndash October 24 1601) was a Danish nobleman Taqi al-Din was also the first astronomer to employ a decimal point notation in his observations rather than the sexagesimal fractions used by his contemporaries and predecessors. In a positional Numeral system, the decimal separator is a Symbol used to mark the boundary between the integral and the fractional Observation is either an activity of a living being (such as a Human) which senses and assimilates the Knowledge of a Phenomenon, or the recording of data Sexagesimal ( base-sixty) is a Numeral system with sixty as the base. ^[101] After the destruction of the Istanbul observatory of al-Din in 1580, however, astronomical activity stagnated in the Ottoman Empire, until the introduction of Copernican heliocentrism in 1660, when the Ottoman scholar Ibrahim Efendi al-Zigetvari Tezkireci translated Noël Duret's French astronomical work (written in 1637) into Arabic. See also Nicolaus Copernicus, Heliocentrism Earlier theories See also Heliocentrism Early traces of a Heliocentric model ^[102]

Meanwhile in the Mughal Empire, the 16th and 17th centuries saw a synthesis between Islamic and Indian astronomy, where Islamic observational techniques and instruments were combined with Hindu computational techniques. The Mughal Empire ( Persian and self-designation گورکانی; مغلیہ سلطنت) was an Islamic imperial power which ruled most Indian astronomy —the earliest textual mention of which is given in the religious literature of India (2nd millennium BCE—became an established tradition by the 1st millennium BCE Indian mathematics &mdashwhich here is the mathematics that emerged in South Asia zero, Negative numbers, Arithmetic, and Algebra. While there appears to have been little concern for theoretical astronomy, Muslim and Hindu astronomers in India continued to make advances in observational astronomy and produced nearly a hundred Zij treatises. A Hindu ( Devanagari: हिन्दू is an adherent of the philosophies and scriptures of Hinduism, a set of religious, Philosophical This article is about the history of South Asia prior to the Partition of British India in 1947 Observational astronomy is a division of the astronomical Science that is concerned with getting data in contrast with Theoretical astrophysics which is Humayun built a personal observatory near Delhi, while Jahangir and Shah Jahan were also intending to build observatories but were unable to do so. Background Babur's decision to divide the territories of his empire between two of his sons was unusual in India but it had been a common Central Asian practice since the time of Delhi (दिल्ली ਦਿੱਲੀ دلی d̪ɪlːiː sometimes referred to as Dilli) is the second largest metropolis of India, with a population Nuruddin Salim Jahangir (full title Al-Sultan al-'Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram Khushru-i-Giti Panah Abu'l-Fath Nur ud-din Muhammad Jahangir Padshah Ghazi ''( September 20 Shihab-ud-din Muhammad Shah Jahan I (full title Al-Sultan al-'Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram Abu'l-Muzaffar Shihab ud-din Muhammad Sahib-i-Qiran-i-Sani Shah Jahan I Padshah Ghazi After the decline of the Mughal Empire, however, it was a Hindu king, Jai Singh II of Amber, who attempted to revive the Islamic tradition of astronomy in India. The situation on his accession When Jai Singh sat on the ancestral throne at Amber he had barely enough resources to pay for the support of 1000 cavalry—this abysmal situation In the early 18th century, he built several large observatories in order to rival the famous Samarkand observatory, and in order to update Ulugh Beg's Zij-i-Sultani with more accurate observations. Ulugh Beg ( Chaghatay / - also Uluğ Bey, Ulugh Bek and Ulug Bek) (c Zij-i-Sultani is a Zij astronomical table and star catalogue that was published by Ulugh Beg in 1437. The instruments and observational techniques used at the observatory were mainly derived from the Islamic tradition, and the computational techniqes from the Hindu tradition. ^[103][104] In particular, one of the most remarkable astronomical instruments invented by Muslims in Mughal India is the seamless celestial globe (see Globes below).

Jai Singh also invited European Jesuit astronomers to his observatory, who had bought back the astronomical tables compiled by Philippe de La Hire in 1702. The Society of Jesus ( Latin: Societas Iesu, SJ and SI or SJ, SI) is a Catholic religious order Philippe de La Hire (or Lahire or Phillipe de La Hire) ( March 18, 1640 — April 21, 1718) was a French After examining La Hire's work, Jai Singh concluded that the techniques and instruments used in the European tradition were inferior to the Islamic and Indian traditions. It is uncertain whether Islamic astronomers in India were aware of the Copernican Revolution via the Jesuits, but it appears they were not concerned with theoretical astronomy, hence the theoretical advances in Europe did not interest them at the time. The Copernican Revolution refers to the Paradigm shift away from the Ptolemaic model of the heavens which placed Earth at the center of the Universe ^[105]

1900-present

In the 20th and 21st centuries, Muslim astronomers have been making advances in moon sighting, while Muslim astronauts and rocket scientists have been involved in research on astronautics and space exploration. An astronaut or cosmonaut (космона́вт) is a person trained Astronautics, or Astronautical Engineering is the branch of Engineering that deals with machines designed to exit or work entirely beyond the Earth's atmosphere. History First orbital flights The first successful orbital launch was of the Soviet unmanned Sputnik

Muslim participation in astronautics and space exploration

Kerim Kerimov from Azerbaijan (then part of the Soviet Union) was one of the most important key figures in early space exploration. Kerim Aliyevich Kerimov (Kərim Əli oğlu Kərimov Керим Алиевич Керимов 1917 – 2003 was an Azerbaijani Soviet rocket scientist one of the founders Azerbaijan ( English; Azərbaycan officially the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azərbaycan Respublikası is the largest and most populous country in the South The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 He was one of the founders of the Soviet space program, one of the lead architects behind the first human spaceflight (Vostok 1), and responsible for the launch of the first space stations (the Salyut and Mir series) as well as their predecessors (the Cosmos 186 and Cosmos 188). The Soviet space program consisted of initiatives within the Soviet Union by competing design groups A human spaceflight is a Spaceflight with a human crew, and possibly passengers Vostok 1 (Восток-1 meaning Orient -1 or East-1 was the first Human spaceflight. A space station is an artificial structure designed for Humans to live in Outer space. The Salyut program (Салют lit  Salute or Fireworks) was the first Space station program undertaken by the Soviet Union, which consisted Mir (Мир which can mean both Peace and World, and was the name given to peasant communes in pre-revolutionary Russia was a Soviet (and Cosmos 186 and Cosmos 188 incorporated a Soyuz programme descent module for landing scientific instruments and test objects Cosmos 186 and Cosmos 188 incorporated a Soyuz programme descent module for landing scientific instruments and test objects ^[106][107]

Farouk El-Baz from Egypt worked for the rival NASA and was involved in the first Moon landings with the Apollo program, where he was secretary of the Landing Site Selection Committee, Principal Investigator of Visual Observations and Photography, chairman of the Astronaut Training Group, and assisted in the planning of scientific explorations of the Moon, including the selection of landing sites for the Apollo missions and the training of astronauts in lunar observations and photography. Dr Farouk El-Baz ( فاروق الباز) is an Egyptian American scientist who worked with NASA to assist in the planning of scientific exploration of This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA, ˈnæsə is an agency of the United States government, responsible for the nation's public space program A moon landing is the arrival of an intact manned or unmanned Spacecraft on the surface of a Planet 's Natural satellite. ^[108]

In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, there have also been a number of Muslim astronauts, the first being Sultan bin Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud as a Payload Specialist aboard STS-51-G Space Shuttle Discovery, followed by Muhammed Faris aboard Soyuz TM-2 and Soyuz TM-3 to Mir space station; Abdul Ahad Mohmand aboard Soyuz TM-5 to Mir; Talgat Musabayev (one of the top 25 astronauts by time in space) as a flight engineer aboard Soyuz TM-19 to Mir, commander of Soyuz TM-27 to Mir, and commander of Soyuz TM-32 and Soyuz TM-31 to International Space Station (ISS); and Anousheh Ansari, the first woman to travel to ISS and the fourth space tourist. Sultan bin Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud ( Arabic: سلطان بن سلمان بن عبد العزيز آل سعود) is an officer in the Royal Saudi In NASA vernacular a Payload Specialist (PS was an individual selected and trained by commercial or research organizations for flights of a specific payload on a STS 51-G was the eighteenth flight of a space shuttle, and the fifth flight of ''Discovery''. Space Shuttle Discovery ( Orbiter Vehicle Designation: OV-103 is one of the three currently operational orbiters in the Space Shuttle fleet of Muhammed Ahmed Faris ( محمد أحمد فارس) (born May 26 1951) is a Syrian military aviator Soyuz TM-2 was a manned mission to the Space station Mir. It was part of the Soyuz programme. Soyuz TM-3 was the third Soviet expedition to the Mir space station Mir (Мир which can mean both Peace and World, and was the name given to peasant communes in pre-revolutionary Russia was a Soviet (and A space station is an artificial structure designed for Humans to live in Outer space. Abdul Ahad Mohmand ( Pashto: عبدالاحد مومند, born January 1, 1959) became the first Astronaut (or Cosmonaut Soyuz TM-5 was the fifth expedition to the Russian Space Station Mir. Talgat Amangeldyuly Musabayev ( Kazakh: Талғат Аманкелдіұлы Мұсабаев born 7 January 1951, Kargaly, Kazakhstan This is a list of spaceflight records. Most of these records relate to Human spaceflights but some unmanned and canine records are included In Aviation, a flight engineer is a member of the aircrew of some Aircraft. Crew Launched 1 Yuri Malenchenko (1 - Commander 2 Talgat Musabayev (1 - Flight Engineer - Kazakhstan Landed Crew Launched 1 Talgat Musabayev (2 - Commander 2 Nikolai Budarin (2 - Flight Engineer 3 Léopold Eyharts (1 - Soyuz TM-32 was a manned Russian space launch on 28 April, 2001. Crew Launched ISS Expedition 1 crew Yuri Gidzenko (2 Sergei Krikalev (5 William Shepherd Anousheh Ansari (انوشه انصاری born 12 September 1966) is the Iranian-American co-founder and chairman of Prodea Systems, Inc and Space tourism is the recent Phenomenon of tourists paying for flights into space pioneered by Russia

In 2007, Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor from Malaysia travelled to ISS with his Expedition 16 crew aboard Soyuz TMA-11 as part of the Angkasawan program during Ramadan, for which the National Fatwa Council wrote Guidelines for Performing Islamic Rites (Ibadah) at the International Space Station, giving advice on issues such as prayer in a low-gravity environment, the location of Mecca from ISS, determination of prayer times, and issues surrounding fasting. Datuk Dr Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor (born Sheikh Muszaphar Shukor Al Masrie bin Sheikh Mustapha on July 27, 1972) is a Malaysian orthopaedic For the biogeographical region see Malesia Malaysia (məˈleɪʒə or /məˈleɪziə/ is a country that consists of thirteen states and Expedition 16 was the 16th expedition to the International Space Station (ISS Soyuz TMA-11 was a Human spaceflight mission using a Soyuz-TMA spacecraft to transport personnel to and from the International Space Station (ISS The Angkasawan program was an initiative by the Malaysian government to send a Malaysian to the International Space Station on board Soyuz TMA-11 Ramadan or Ramazan ( Arabic: رمضان Ramaḍān) is a Muslim religious observance that takes place during the ninth month of the Islamic Islam is the official religion of Malaysia, and the Government actively promotes the spread of Islam in the country and its friendship with other Muslim countries The Arabic word ibadah (عبادة or ibada, usually translated "worship" is connected with related words literally meaning " Slavery " Ṣalāt ( Arabic: صلاة‎, pl ṣalawāt, Qur'anic Arabic: صلوة ṣalawah) (also munz in Pashto and Mecca ˈmɛkə also spelled Makkah ˈmækə (in full Makkah Al-Mukarramah (Arabic mækːæ(t ælmʊkarˑamæ مكّة المكرمة, literally Honored Sawm ( Arabic: صوم is an Arabic word for Fasting regulated by Islamic jurisprudence. Shukor also celebrated Eid ul-Fitr aboard ISS. Eid ul-Fitr or Id-ul-Fitr (عيد الفطر ‘Īdu l-Fiṭr) often abbreviated to Eid, is a Muslim Holiday that marks the end of He was both an astronaut and an orthopedic surgeon, and is most notable for being the first to perform biomedical research in space, mainly related to the characteristics and growth of liver cancer and leukemia cells and the crystallisation of various proteins and microbes in space. Orthopedic surgery or orthopedics (also spelled orthopaedics) is the branch of Surgery concerned with injuries to or conditions involving the Biomedical research (or experimental medicine) in general simply known as medical research, is the Basic research or Applied research conducted Cancer (medical term Malignant Neoplasm) is a class of Diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled Leukemia or leukaemia (Greek leukos λευκός, "white" aima αίμα, "blood" is a Cancer of the Blood Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl A microorganism (also spelled micro organism or micro-organism and also called a microbe) is an Organism that is Microscopic (usually ^[109]

Other prominent Muslim scientists involved in research on the space sciences and space exploration include Essam Heggy who is working in the NASA Mars Exploration Program in the Lunar and Planetary Institute in Houston, as well as Ahmed Salem, Alaa Ibrahim, Mohamed Sultan, and Ahmed Noor. Space science is an all-encompassing term that describes all of the various science fields that are concerned with the study of the Universe, generally also meaning "excluding ^[110]

New efforts in moon sighting

According to Islam, Muslims should observe religious duties during special days on the basis of the Islamic lunar calendar. The Islamic calendar or Muslim calendar ( Arabic: التقويم الهجري at-taqwīm al-hijrī; Persian: تقویم هجری قمری ‎ Therefore, moon sighting is an important issue for Muslims. ^[111] In recent years, due to global communication and using modern technologies to see the new moon, a new trend has formed among Muslims in this field^{[112][113][114]} and new religious questions have emerged. This article is about the lunar phase for other uses see New Moon (disambiguation. Fiqh ( Arabic: فقه, fɪqəh is Islamic Jurisprudence. Fiqh is an expansion of the Sharia Islamic law—based directly on the ^[115]

In 2005, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, religious scholar and supreme leader of Iran, issued a fatwa to use modern technologies for moon sighting. Ayatollah ( Persian: آيت‌الله, âyato-llâh, from Arabic: آية الله, āyatu 'llāh, meaning 'the sign of (fa علی حسینی خامنه‌ای born 17 July 1939 also known as Ali Khamenei, is an Iranian Azeri politician and cleric A Faqih (plural Fuqaha') (فقيه pl فقهاء is an expert in Fiqh, or Islamic Jurisprudence. The post of Supreme Leader ( Persian: رهبر انقلاب Rahbare Enqelab, lit For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. A fatwā (فتوى plural fatāwā فتاوى in the Islamic faith is a religious opinion on Islamic law issued by an The Islamic Society of North America in Plainfield, Ind. The Islamic Society of North America ( ISNA) based in Plainfield Indiana, USA, is an immigrant Muslim umbrella group that describes itself as the , followed suit last year. Muslims are scrambling for a technological edge in the annual moon-hunting ritual. ^[111][116]

Ayatollah Khamenei has established a Moon Observation Committee, composed of clerics who pore over sightings reported to centers. A cleric ( Ancient Greek κληρικός - klērikos clergyman (pl Scientists note the moon's angle, position, and illumination, and compare the sightings from the field with computerized charts that pinpoint where the moon should be. A computer is a Machine that manipulates data according to a list of instructions. A chart or graph is a type of Information graphic, that represents tabular numeric data and/or functions. In Iran, groups of astronomers accompanied by a cleric are dispatched across the country, some using night vision gear lent by the military of Iran and high-definition telescopes from the universities. Night vision is the ability to see in a dark environment Whether by biological or technological means night vision is made possible by a combination of two approaches sufficient The Armed Forces of the Islamic Republic of Iran (نيروهای مسلح جمهوری اسلامی ايران include the IRIA (ارتش جمهوری اسلامی This is a list of universities in Iran: See Higher education in Iran, for more information Iran also sends up a chartered airplane with an astronomer aboard. The plane is loaded with sensitive observation and photographic equipment, along with a laptop. A laptop computer, also known as a notebook computer, is a small Personal computer designed for mobile use. Iranian mapmakers at the National Geography Organization in Tehran have created a three-dimensional map of the country identifying 70 locations where the new moon might best be seen. Tehran (or Teheran) ( Persian: تهران Tehrān) is the capital and largest City of Iran, and the administrative center of ^[111] There are similar efforts in other Muslim countries as well.

There is also a competition among astronomers to see the younger moon with naked eyes. According to the Islamic lunar calendar in Iran, the new "World Record for Lunar Crescent Sighting" has been established on September 7, 2002 (Jamadi-al Thani 29, 1423 AH) by Mohsen Ghazi Mirsaeed on the north-west heights (2,110 meters ) of Zarand in Rashk Bala village (31°, 04' N , 56°, 28' E). Zarand is a town in the Kerman province of Iran. With a population of about 30000 people it is located about 75 km northwest of the provincial capital The record for the moon age at the moment of first visibility with naked eyes is 11 hours and 42 minutes. ^[117]

Observatories

The modern astronomical observatory as a research institute^[118] (as opposed to a private observation post as was the case in ancient times)^[119] was first introduced by medieval Muslim astronomers, who produced accurate Zij treatises using these observatories. An observatory is a location used for observing terrestrial and/or celestial events A research institute is an establishment endowed for doing Research. An observation post, temporary or fixed is a position from which soldiers can watch enemy movements to warn of approaching soldiers (such as in Trench warfare Zīj ( Arabic: زيج) is the generic name applied to Arabic astronomical books that tabulate parameters used for astronomical calculations of The Islamic observatory was the first specialized astronomical institution with its own scientific staff,^[118] director, astronomical programme,^[119] large astronomical instruments, and building where astronomical research and observations are carried out. A director is the Chief executive officer of a University or other educational institution Program Management is the process of managing multiple ongoing inter-dependent Projects An example would be that of designing manufacturing and providing support Research is defined as Human activity based on Intellectual application in the investigation of Matter. Observation is either an activity of a living being (such as a Human) which senses and assimilates the Knowledge of a Phenomenon, or the recording of data Islamic observatories were also the first to employ enormously large astronomical instruments in order to improve the accuracy of their observations. ^[118]

The medieval Islamic observatories were also the earliest institutions to emphasize group research (as opposed to individual research) and where "theoretical investigations went hand in hand with observations. " In this sense, they were similar to modern scientific research institutions. ^[120]

Early observatories

The first systematic observations in Islam are reported to have taken place under the patronage of al-Ma'mun, and the first Islamic observatories were built in 9th century Iraq under his patronage. Abu Jafar al-Ma'mun ibn Harun (also spelled Almamon and el-Mâmoûn) ( September 14, 786 &ndash August 9, 833) (المأمون For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics.

In many private observatories from Damascus to Baghdad, meridian degrees were measured, solar parameters were established, and detailed observations of the Sun, Moon, and planets were undertaken. Damascus ( دمشق,, also commonly known as الشام ash-Shām) is the capital and largest city of Syria. Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous This article is about the geographical concept For other uses of the word see Meridian. The Sun (Sol is the Star at the center of the Solar System. A planet, as defined by the International Astronomical Union (IAU is a celestial body Orbiting a Star or stellar remnant that is

In the 10th century, the Buwayhid dynasty encouraged the undertaking of extensive works in Astronomy, such as the construction of a large scale instrument with which observations were made in the year 950. The Buyids (آل بویه Āl-e Buye, Caspian: Bowyiyün also known as Buwaihids or Buyyids, were a Shī‘ah Iranian We know of this by recordings made in the zij of astronomers such as Ibn al-Alam. The great astronomer Abd Al-Rahman Al Sufi was patronised by prince Adud o-dowleh, who systematically revised Ptolemy's catalogue of stars. Aḍud al-Dawla ( Arabic: عضد الدولة) or Azod od-Dowleh Fana Khusraw ( ( September 24, 936, Isfahan - March Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca A star is a massive luminous ball of plasma. The nearest star to Earth is the Sun, which is the source of most of the Energy on Earth Sharaf al-Daula also established a similar observatory in Baghdad. Shirdil Abu'l-Fawaris (c 960 - September 7, 988 or September 6, 989) was the Buyid amir of Kerman and Fars Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous And reports by Ibn Yunus and al-Zarqall in Toledo and Cordoba indicate the use of sophisticated instruments for their time. Ibn Yunus ( Arabic: ابن يونس) (full name Abu al-Hasan 'Ali abi Sa'id 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Ahmad ibn Yunus al-Sadafi al-Misri (c Toledo Spain locationpng|thumb|right|200px|Location of Toledo in Spain ||-||-||} Córdoba ( Cordova in English is a City in Andalusia, southern Spain, and the capital of the province of Córdoba.

It was Malik Shah I who established the first large observatory, probably in Isfahan. Jalāl al-Dawlah Mālikshāh or simply Malik Shah ( Persian: fa ملكشاه Turkish: Melikşah) (died 1092 was the Esfahān or Isfahan (historically also rendered as Ispahan or Hispahan, Old Persian: Aspadana, Middle Persian: Spahān It was here where Omar Khayyám with many other collaborators constructed a zij and formulated the Persian solar calendar, a. For the Thoroughbred racehorse see Omar Khayyam (horse Ghiyās od-Dīn Abol-Fath Omār ibn Ebrāhīm Khayyām Neyshābūri (غیاث الدین Zīj ( Arabic: زيج) is the generic name applied to Arabic astronomical books that tabulate parameters used for astronomical calculations of The Iranian calendar or Solar Hejri (تقویم هجری شمسی؛ سالنمای هجری خورشیدی Taqwim Hejri Shamsi Salanmay Hejri Khurshidi) is an astronomical k. a. the jalali calendar, the most accurate solar calendar to date. A solar calendar is a Calendar whose dates indicate the position of the earth on its revolution around the Sun (or equivalently the apparent position of the sun moving A modern version of this calendar is still in official use in Iran today. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics.

Late medieval observatories

Further information: Maragheh observatory and Istanbul observatory of al-Din

The more influential observatories, however, were established beginning in the 13th century. Maragheh observatory ( Persian:رصدخانه مراغه Rasad Khaneh) is an Ancient Observatory, which was established in 1259 by The Maragheh observatory was founded by Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī under the patronage of Hulegu Khan in the 13th century. Maragheh observatory ( Persian:رصدخانه مراغه Rasad Khaneh) is an Ancient Observatory, which was established in 1259 by This article is about the founder of the Ilkhanate For the head of the Chagatai khanate please see Qara Hülëgü Hulagu Khan, also known as Here, al-Tusi supervised its technical construction at Maragheh. The facility contained resting quarters for Hulagu Khan, as well as a library and mosque. This article is about the founder of the Ilkhanate For the head of the Chagatai khanate please see Qara Hülëgü Hulagu Khan, also known as Some of the top astronomers of the day gathered there, and their collaboration resulted in important alternatives to the Ptolemaic model over a period of 50 years. In Astronomy, the geocentric model of the Universe is the superseded theory that the Earth is the center of the universe and other The observations of al-Tusi and his team of researchers were compiled in the Zij-i Ilkhani. Zij-i Ilkhani or Ilkhanic Tables (literal translation "The Ilkhan Stars" after ilkhan Hulagu, who was the patron of the author at that time

In 1420, prince Ulugh Beg, himself an astronomer and mathematician, founded another large observatory in Samarkand, the remains of which were excavated in 1908 by Russian teams. Ulugh Beg ( Chaghatay / - also Uluğ Bey, Ulugh Bek and Ulug Bek) (c Samarkand (Samarqand Самарқанд سمرقند UniPers: "Samarqand" is the second-largest city in Uzbekistan and the capital of In 1577, Taqi al-Din bin Ma'ruf founded the large Istanbul observatory of al-Din, which was on the same scale as those in Maragha and Samarkand. Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf al-Shami al-Asadi ( Arabic: تقي الدين محمد بن معروف الشامي السعدي Turkish: Takiyuddin) (1526&ndash1585

In the Mughal Empire, Humayun built a personal observatory near Delhi in the 16th century, while Jahangir and Shah Jahan were also intending to build observatories but were unable to do so. The Mughal Empire ( Persian and self-designation گورکانی; مغلیہ سلطنت) was an Islamic imperial power which ruled most Background Babur's decision to divide the territories of his empire between two of his sons was unusual in India but it had been a common Central Asian practice since the time of Delhi (दिल्ली ਦਿੱਲੀ دلی d̪ɪlːiː sometimes referred to as Dilli) is the second largest metropolis of India, with a population Nuruddin Salim Jahangir (full title Al-Sultan al-'Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram Khushru-i-Giti Panah Abu'l-Fath Nur ud-din Muhammad Jahangir Padshah Ghazi ''( September 20 Shihab-ud-din Muhammad Shah Jahan I (full title Al-Sultan al-'Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram Abu'l-Muzaffar Shihab ud-din Muhammad Sahib-i-Qiran-i-Sani Shah Jahan I Padshah Ghazi After the decline of the Mughal Empire, the Hindu king Jai Singh II of Amber built several large observatories inspired by the famous Samarkand observatory. The situation on his accession When Jai Singh sat on the ancestral throne at Amber he had barely enough resources to pay for the support of 1000 cavalry—this abysmal situation The instruments and observational techniques used at the observatory were mainly derived from the Islamic tradition, and the computational techniqes from the Hindu tradition. ^[103][104]

Modern observatories

In modern times, many well-equipped observatories can be found in Jordan,^[121] Palestine,^[122] Lebanon,^[123] UAE,^[124] Tunisia,^[125] and other Arab states are also active as well. Jordan, officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (الأردنّ al-Urdunn) is an Arab country in Southwest Asia spanning the southern Palestine is a name which has been widely used since Roman times to refer to the region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. Lebanon (ˈlɛbənɒn Arabic: ar لبنان Lubnān) officially the Republic of Lebanon or Lebanese Republic (ar الجمهورية اللبنانية Tunisia (تونس Tūnis officially the Tunisian Republic ( is a country located in North Africa. Iran has modern facilities at Shiraz University and Tabriz University. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. Shiraz University (in Persian دانشگاه شیراز formerly known as Pahlavi University, is a Public university located in Shiraz Iran. The University of Tabriz ( sometimes referred to as Tabriz University) is a Public university in Tabriz, Iran. In December 2005, Physics Today reported of Iranian plans to construct a "world class" facility with a 2. Physics Today magazine created in 1948 is the membership journal of The American Institute of Physics. 0 metre telescope observatory in the near future. A telescope is an instrument designed for the observation of remote objects and the collection of Electromagnetic radiation. ^[126]

Instruments

See also: Inventions in the Muslim world

Modern knowledge of the instruments used by Muslim astronomers primarily comes from two sources. First the remaining instruments in private and museum collections today, and second the treatises and manuscripts preserved from the Middle Ages.

Muslims made many improvements to instruments already in use before their time, such as adding new scales or details, and invented many of their own new instruments. Their contributions to astronomical instrumentation are abundant. Many of these instruments were often invented or designed for Islamic purposes, such as the determination of the direction of Qibla or the times of Salah. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Qiblah ( ar قبلة, also transliterated as Kiblah) is an Arabic word for the direction that should be faced when a Muslim prays during Ṣalāt ( Arabic: صلاة‎, pl ṣalawāt, Qur'anic Arabic: صلوة ṣalawah) (also munz in Pashto and

Astrolabes

Brass astrolabes were developed in much of the Islamic world, often as an aid to finding the qibla. The astrolabe is a historical Astronomical instrument used by classical astronomers, Navigators For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Qiblah ( ar قبلة, also transliterated as Kiblah) is an Arabic word for the direction that should be faced when a Muslim prays during The earliest known example is dated 315 (in the Islamic calendar, corresponding to 927-8CE). The Islamic calendar or Muslim calendar ( Arabic: التقويم الهجري at-taqwīm al-hijrī; Persian: تقویم هجری قمری ‎ The first person credited for building the Astrolabe in the Islamic world is reportedly Fazari. Abu abdallah Muhammad ibn Ibrahim al-Fazari (d 796 or 806 was a Muslim Philosopher, Mathematician and Astronomer. ^[127] Though the first primitive astrolabe to chart the stars was invented in the Hellenistic civilization, al-Fazari made several improvements to the device. This article focuses on the cultural aspects of the Hellenistic age for the historical aspects see Hellenistic period. The Arabs then took it during the Abbasid Caliphate and perfected it to be used to find the beginning of Ramadan, the hours of prayer (Salah), the direction of Mecca (Qibla), and over a thousand other uses. A caliphate (from the Arabic خلافة or khilāfa) is the political leadership of the Muslim community in classical and medieval Islamic history Ramadan or Ramazan ( Arabic: رمضان Ramaḍān) is a Muslim religious observance that takes place during the ninth month of the Islamic Prayer is the act of attempting to communicate with a Deity or spirit Ṣalāt ( Arabic: صلاة‎, pl ṣalawāt, Qur'anic Arabic: صلوة ṣalawah) (also munz in Pashto and Mecca ˈmɛkə also spelled Makkah ˈmækə (in full Makkah Al-Mukarramah (Arabic mækːæ(t ælmʊkarˑamæ مكّة المكرمة, literally Honored Qiblah ( ar قبلة, also transliterated as Kiblah) is an Arabic word for the direction that should be faced when a Muslim prays during ^[128]

In the 10th century, al-Sufi first described over 1000 different uses of an astrolabe, in areas as diverse as astronomy, astrology, horoscopes, navigation, surveying, timekeeping, Qibla, Salah, etc. Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study This is a sub-article of History of science in the Islamic World and Astrology. The mariner's astrolabe, also called sea astrolabe, is not an Astrolabe proper but rather a graduated circle with an Alidade used to measure Surveying is the technique and science of accurately determining the terrestrial or three-dimensional space Position of points and the distances and angles between For other uses see Time (disambiguation Time is a component of a measuring system used to sequence events to compare the durations of Qiblah ( ar قبلة, also transliterated as Kiblah) is an Arabic word for the direction that should be faced when a Muslim prays during Ṣalāt ( Arabic: صلاة‎, pl ṣalawāt, Qur'anic Arabic: صلوة ṣalawah) (also munz in Pashto and ^[128]

Large astrolabe

Ibn Yunus accurately observed more than 10,000 entries for the sun's position for many years using a large astrolabe with a diameter of nearly 1. Ibn Yunus ( Arabic: ابن يونس) (full name Abu al-Hasan 'Ali abi Sa'id 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Ahmad ibn Yunus al-Sadafi al-Misri (c 4 metres. ^[35]

Mechanical geared astrolabe

The first mechanical astrolabes with gears were invented in the Muslim world, and were perfected by Ibn Samh (c. Mechanical Engineering is an Engineering discipline that involves the application of principles of physics for analysis Design, Manufacturing This is the page for mechanical Gears For other uses see Gear (disambiguation For the gear-like device used to drive a roller chain see Sprocket 1020). One such device with eight gear-wheels was also constructed by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī in 996. This is the page for mechanical Gears For other uses see Gear (disambiguation For the gear-like device used to drive a roller chain see Sprocket These can be considered as an ancestor of the mechanical clocks developed by later Muslim engineers. A pendulum clock is a Clock that uses a Pendulum, a swinging weight as its Timekeeping element ^[129]

Navigational astrolabe

The first navigational astrolabe was invented in the Islamic world during the Middle Ages, and employed the use of a polar projection system. The mariner's astrolabe, also called sea astrolabe, is not an Astrolabe proper but rather a graduated circle with an Alidade used to measure In Mathematics, the polar coordinate system is a two-dimensional Coordinate system in which each point on a plane is determined by A map projection is any method of representing the Surface of a sphere or other shape on a plane. ^[130]

Orthographical astrolabe

Abu Rayhan al-Biruni invented and wrote the earliest treatise on the orthographical astrolabe in the 1000s. Orthographic projection is a Map projection of Cartography. Like the Stereographic projection and Gnomonic projection, Orthographic ^[55]

Saphaea and Zuraqi

The first astrolabe instruments were used to read the rise of the time of rise of the Sun and fixed stars. The Sun (Sol is the Star at the center of the Solar System. In the 11th century, Arzachel (al-Zarqali) of al-Andalus constructed the first universal astrolabe which, unlike its predecessors, did not depend on the latitude of the observer, and could be used anywhere on the Earth. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or Latitude, usually denoted symbolically by the Greek letter phi ( Φ) gives the location of a place on Earth (or other planetary body north or south of the This universal astrolabe instrument became known in Europe as the "Saphaea". Another astrolabe, the Zuraqi is a unique astrolabe invented by al-Sijzi for a heliocentric planetary model in which the Earth is moving rather than the sky. Abu Sa'id Ahmed ibn Mohammed ibn Abd al-Jalil al-Sijzi (short for al-Sijistani was a Persian astronomer and mathematician. In Astronomy, heliocentrism is the theory that the Sun is at the center of the Solar System. ^[40]

Linear astrolabe

A famous work by Sharaf al-Dīn al-Tūsī is one in which he describes the linear astrolabe, sometimes called the "staff of al-Tusi", which he invented. (1135 - 1213 was a Persian mathematician and astronomer of the Islamic Golden Age (during the Middle Ages) ^[131]

Astrolabic clock

Ibn al-Shatir invented the astrolabic clock in 14th century Syria. Ala Al-Din Abu'l-Hasan Ali Ibn Ibrahim Ibn al-Shatir (1304 &ndash 1375 (ابن الشاطر was an Arab Muslim astronomer, mathematician, engineer Circadian Locomotor Output Cycles Kaput, or Clock is a gene which encodes proteins regulating Circadian rhythm. Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية ^[132]

Analog computers

Various analog computer devices were invented to compute the latitudes of the Sun, Moon, and planets, the ecliptic of the Sun, the time of day at which planetary conjunctions will occur and for performing linear interpolation. An analog computer (spelt analogue in British English is a form of Computer that uses continuous physical phenomena such as electrical mechanical Latitude, usually denoted symbolically by the Greek letter phi ( Φ) gives the location of a place on Earth (or other planetary body north or south of the The ecliptic is the apparent path that the Sun traces out in the sky during the year Conjunction is a term used in Positional astronomy and Astrology. Linear interpolation is a method of Curve fitting using linear polynomials

Equatorium

The Equatorium was an analog computer invented by Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī (Arzachel) in al-Andalus, probably around 1015 CE. An equitorium (plural equitoria) was an astronomical calculating instrument. An analog computer (spelt analogue in British English is a form of Computer that uses continuous physical phenomena such as electrical mechanical Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or It is a mechanical device for finding the longitudes and positions of the Moon, Sun, and planets, without calculation using a geometrical model to represent the celestial body's mean and anomalistic position. Longitude (ˈlɒndʒɪˌtjuːd or ˈlɒŋgɪˌtjuːd symbolized by the Greek character Lambda (λ is the east-west Geographic coordinate measurement The Sun (Sol is the Star at the center of the Solar System. A planet, as defined by the International Astronomical Union (IAU is a celestial body Orbiting a Star or stellar remnant that is s are significant physical entities, associations or structures which current Science has confirmed to exist in Space. ^[133]

Planisphere and mechanical geared calendar computer

Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī invented and wrote the earliest treatise on the planisphere, an analog computer, in the 1000s. An analog computer (spelt analogue in British English is a form of Computer that uses continuous physical phenomena such as electrical mechanical ^[55] He also invented the first mechanical lunisolar calendar computer which employed a gear train and eight gear-wheels. Mechanical Engineering is an Engineering discipline that involves the application of principles of physics for analysis Design, Manufacturing A lunisolar calendar is a Calendar in many Cultures whose date indicates both the Moon phase and the time of the solar Year. An analog computer (spelt analogue in British English is a form of Computer that uses continuous physical phenomena such as electrical mechanical A gear train is a set or system of Gears arranged to transfer rotational Torque from one part of a mechanical system to another This is the page for mechanical Gears For other uses see Gear (disambiguation For the gear-like device used to drive a roller chain see Sprocket ^[134] This was an early example of a fixed-wired knowledge processing machine. A wire is a single usually cylindrical, elongated string of drawn Metal. A machine is any device that uses Energy to perform some activity ^[135]

Torquetum

Jabir ibn Aflah (Geber) (c. Abu Muhammad Jabir ibn Aflah (أبو محمد جابر بن أفلح born 1100 in Seville, Spain &ndash died 1150 was an Arab Muslim astronomer 1100-1150) invented the torquetum, an observational instrument and mechanical analog computer device used to transform between spherical coordinate systems. The torquetum or turquet is a medieval astronomical instrument designed to take and convert measurements made in three sets of coordinates Horizon equatorial and In Mathematics, the spherical coordinate system is a Coordinate system for representing geometric figures in three dimensions using three coordinates the radial ^[136] It was designed to take and convert measurements made in three sets of coordinates: horizon, equatorial, and ecliptic. The horizon ( Ancient Greek ὁ ὁρίζων, /ho horídzôn/ from ὁρίζειν, "to limit" is the apparent line that separates The equator (sometimes referred to colloquially as "the Line") is the intersection of the Earth 's surface with the plane perpendicular to the The ecliptic is the apparent path that the Sun traces out in the sky during the year

Mechanical astrolabe with geared calendar computer

In 1235, Abi Bakr of Isfahan invented a brass astrolabe with a geared calendar movement based on the design of Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī's mechanical calendar computer. Esfahān or Isfahan (historically also rendered as Ispahan or Hispahan, Old Persian: Aspadana, Middle Persian: Spahān The astrolabe is a historical Astronomical instrument used by classical astronomers, Navigators This is the page for mechanical Gears For other uses see Gear (disambiguation For the gear-like device used to drive a roller chain see Sprocket The word Calendar consist of two words 1 Cal ( in Pashto means Year in Hindi and Persian is Sal- also means Year ^[137] Abi Bakr's geared astrolabe uses a set of gear-wheels and is the oldest surviving complete mechanical geared machine in existence. This is the page for mechanical Gears For other uses see Gear (disambiguation For the gear-like device used to drive a roller chain see Sprocket A machine is any device that uses Energy to perform some activity ^[138][139]

Plate of Conjunctions

In the 15th century, al-Kashi invented the Plate of Conjunctions, a computing instrument used to determine the time of day at which planetary conjunctions will occur,^[140] and for performing linear interpolation. (or, Persian: غیاث‌الدین جمشید کاشانی (c Conjunction is a term used in Positional astronomy and Astrology. Linear interpolation is a method of Curve fitting using linear polynomials ^[141]

Planetary computer

In the 15th century, al-Kashi also invented a mechanical planetary computer which he called the Plate of Zones, which could graphically solve a number of planetary problems, including the prediction of the true positions in longitude of the Sun and Moon,^[141] and the planets in terms of elliptical orbits;^[142] the latitudes of the Sun, Moon, and planets; and the ecliptic of the Sun. (or, Persian: غیاث‌الدین جمشید کاشانی (c Longitude (ˈlɒndʒɪˌtjuːd or ˈlɒŋgɪˌtjuːd symbolized by the Greek character Lambda (λ is the east-west Geographic coordinate measurement The Sun (Sol is the Star at the center of the Solar System. A planet, as defined by the International Astronomical Union (IAU is a celestial body Orbiting a Star or stellar remnant that is In Astrodynamics or Celestial mechanics an elliptic orbit is a Kepler orbit with the eccentricity greater than 0 and less than 1 Latitude, usually denoted symbolically by the Greek letter phi ( Φ) gives the location of a place on Earth (or other planetary body north or south of the The ecliptic is the apparent path that the Sun traces out in the sky during the year The instrument also incorporated an alhidade and ruler. An alidade (archaic forms include alhidade, alhidad, alidad) is a device that allows one to sight a distant object and use the line of sight to perform A ruler, or rule, is an instrument used in Geometry, Technical drawing and engineering/building to measure distances and/or to rule straight ^[143]

Astronomical clocks

The Muslims constructed a variety of highly accurate astronomical clocks for use in their observatories. An astronomical clock is a Clock with special Mechanisms and Dials to display Astronomical information such as the relative positions of ^[144]

Water-powered astronomical clocks

Al-Jazari invented monumental water-powered astronomical clocks which displayed moving models of the Sun, Moon, and stars. Abū al-'Iz Ibn Ismā'īl ibn al-Razāz al-Jazarī ( 1136 - 1206) (أَبُو اَلْعِزِ بْنُ إسْماعِيلِ بْنُ الرِّزاز الجزري A water clock or clepsydra ( Greek kleptein to steal; hydro water) is any timekeeper operated by means of a regulated flow of liquid into (inflow An astronomical clock is a Clock with special Mechanisms and Dials to display Astronomical information such as the relative positions of The Sun (Sol is the Star at the center of the Solar System. A star is a massive luminous ball of plasma. The nearest star to Earth is the Sun, which is the source of most of the Energy on Earth His largest astronomical clock displayed the zodiac and the solar and lunar orbits. Zodiac denotes an annual cycle of twelve stations along the Ecliptic, the apparent path of the sun across the heavens through the Constellations that divide the ecliptic A heliocentric orbit is an Orbit around the Sun. In our Solar System, all Planets Comets and Asteroids are in such orbits In Astronomy, lunar orbit (also known as a Selenocentric orbit) refers to the orbit of an object around the Moon. Another innovative feature of the clock was a pointer which traveled across the top of a gateway and caused automatic doors to open every hour. A gate is a point of entry to a space enclosed by Walls or an opening in a Fence. A door is a panel or barrier usually hinged or sliding that is used to cover an opening in a Wall or partition going into a building or space The hour (symbol h) is a unit of Time. It is not an SI unit but is accepted for use with the SI ^[145]

Mechanical observational clock

Taqi al-Din invented the "observational clock", which he described as "a mechanical clock with three dials which show the hours, the minutes, and the seconds. Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf al-Shami al-Asadi ( Arabic: تقي الدين محمد بن معروف الشامي السعدي Turkish: Takiyuddin) (1526&ndash1585 A pendulum clock is a Clock that uses a Pendulum, a swinging weight as its Timekeeping element The hour (symbol h) is a unit of Time. It is not an SI unit but is accepted for use with the SI A minute is a Unit of measurement of Time or of Angle. The minute is a unit of Time equal to 1/60th of an Hour or 60 The second ( SI symbol s) sometimes abbreviated sec, is the name of a unit of Time, and is the International System of Units " He used this for astronomical purposes, specifically for measuring the right ascension of the stars. An astronomical clock is a Clock with special Mechanisms and Dials to display Astronomical information such as the relative positions of Right ascension (abbrev RA; symbol α) is the Astronomical term for one of the two Coordinates of a point on the Celestial sphere A star is a massive luminous ball of plasma. The nearest star to Earth is the Sun, which is the source of most of the Energy on Earth This is considered one of the most important innovations in 16th century practical astronomy, as previous clocks were not accurate enough to be used for astronomical purposes. Circadian Locomotor Output Cycles Kaput, or Clock is a gene which encodes proteins regulating Circadian rhythm. ^[101]

Dials

Muslim astronomers and engineers invented a variety of dials for timekeeping, and for determining the times of the five daily prayers. A timekeeper is an instrument or person that measures the passage of Time; in the case of the latter often with the assistance of a Clock or Stopwatch. Ṣalāt ( Arabic: صلاة‎, pl ṣalawāt, Qur'anic Arabic: صلوة ṣalawah) (also munz in Pashto and

Sundials

Muslims made several important improvements to the theory and construction of sundials, which they inherited from their Indian and Hellenistic predecessors. A sundial is a device that measures time by the position of the Sun. Indian astronomy —the earliest textual mention of which is given in the religious literature of India (2nd millennium BCE—became an established tradition by the 1st millennium BCE This article focuses on the cultural aspects of the Hellenistic age for the historical aspects see Hellenistic period. Al-Khwarizmi made tables for these instruments which considerably shortened the time needed to make specific calculations. Muslim sundials could also be observed from anywhere on the Earth. Sundials were frequently placed on mosques to determine the time of prayer. Ṣalāt ( Arabic: صلاة‎, pl ṣalawāt, Qur'anic Arabic: صلوة ṣalawah) (also munz in Pashto and One of the most striking examples was built in the 14th century by the muwaqqit (timekeeper) of the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, Ibn al-Shatir. The Grand Mosque of Damascus, also known as the Ummayad Mosque' ( Arabic: جامع بني أمية الكبير transl Damascus ( دمشق,, also commonly known as الشام ash-Shām) is the capital and largest city of Syria. Ala Al-Din Abu'l-Hasan Ali Ibn Ibrahim Ibn al-Shatir (1304 &ndash 1375 (ابن الشاطر was an Arab Muslim astronomer, mathematician, engineer ^[146] Muslim astronomers and engineers were the first to write instructions on the construction of horizantal sundials, vertical sundials, and polar sundials. ^[147]

Navicula de Venetiis

This was a universal horary dial invented in 9th century Baghdad. Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous It was used for accurate timekeeping by the Sun and Stars, and could be observed from any latitude. Latitude, usually denoted symbolically by the Greek letter phi ( Φ) gives the location of a place on Earth (or other planetary body north or south of the ^[148] This was later known in Europe as the "Navicula de Venetiis",^[149] which was considered the most sophisticated timekeeping instrument of the Renaissance. The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere ^[150]

Compass dial

In the 13th century, Ibn al-Shatir invented the compass dial, a timekeeping device incorporating both a universal sundial and a magnetic compass. Ala Al-Din Abu'l-Hasan Ali Ibn Ibrahim Ibn al-Shatir (1304 &ndash 1375 (ابن الشاطر was an Arab Muslim astronomer, mathematician, engineer A compass, magnetic compass or mariner's compass is a navigational instrument for determining direction relative to the earth's Magnetic poles It consists For other uses see Time (disambiguation Time is a component of a measuring system used to sequence events to compare the durations of A sundial is a device that measures time by the position of the Sun. A compass, magnetic compass or mariner's compass is a navigational instrument for determining direction relative to the earth's Magnetic poles It consists He invented for the purpose of finding the times of Salah. Ṣalāt ( Arabic: صلاة‎, pl ṣalawāt, Qur'anic Arabic: صلوة ṣalawah) (also munz in Pashto and ^[151]

Globes

Armillary sphere

An armillary sphere had similar applications to a celestial globe. No early Islamic armillary spheres survive, but several treatises on “the instrument with the rings” were written.

Spherical astrolabe

The spherical astrolabe was first produced in the Islamic world. ^[152] It was an Islamic variation of the astrolabe and the armillary sphere, of which only one complete instrument, from the 14th century, has survived.

Celestial globes

Celestial globes were used primarily for solving problems in celestial astronomy. Today, 126 such instruments remain worldwide, the oldest from the 11th century. The altitude of the sun, or the Right Ascension and Declination of stars could be calculated with these by inputting the location of the observer on the meridian ring of the globe. Right ascension (abbrev RA; symbol α) is the Astronomical term for one of the two Coordinates of a point on the Celestial sphere In Astronomy, declination (abbrev dec or δ) is one of the two coordinates of the Equatorial coordinate system, the other being either A globe is a three- Dimensional scale model of Earth ( terrestrial globe) or other spheroid celestial body such as a planet star or moon

In the 12th century, Jabir ibn Aflah (Geber) was "the first to design a portable celestial sphere to measure and explain the movements of celestial objects. Abu Muhammad Jabir ibn Aflah (أبو محمد جابر بن أفلح born 1100 in Seville, Spain &ndash died 1150 was an Arab Muslim astronomer "^[153]

Seamless celestial globe

The seamless celestial globe invented by Muslim metallurgists and instrument-makers in Mughal India, specifically Lahore and Kashmir, is considered to be one of the most remarkable feats in metallurgy and engineering. The quality of having no visible Seams often applied Idiomatically to any Construct, even the most vague (i The Mughal Empire ( Persian and self-designation گورکانی; مغلیہ سلطنت) was an Islamic imperial power which ruled most ( lahor is the capital of the Pakistani province of Punjab and is the second largest city in Pakistan after Karachi. This article is about the geographical region of greater Kashmir Metallurgy is a domain of Materials science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds, and their Engineering is the Discipline and Profession of applying technical and scientific Knowledge and All globes before and after this were seamed, and in the 20th century, it was believed by metallurgists to be technically impossible to create a metal globe without any seams. A globe is a three- Dimensional scale model of Earth ( terrestrial globe) or other spheroid celestial body such as a planet star or moon It was in the 1980s, however, that Emilie Savage-Smith discovered several celestial globes without any seams in Lahore and Kashmir. The earliest was invented in Kashmir by the Muslim metallurgist Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in 998 AH (1589-90 CE) during Akbar the Great's reign; another was produced in 1070 AH (1659-60 CE) by Muhammad Salih Tahtawi with Arabic and Sanskrit inscriptions; and the last was produced in Lahore by a Hindu metallurgist Lala Balhumal Lahuri in 1842 during Jagatjit Singh Bahadur's reign. Akbar redirects here For other uses see Akbar (disambiguation Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar ( Jalāl ud-Dīn Muhammad Akbar Jagatjit Singh Bahadur ( 24 November 1872 - 19 June 1949) was the ruling Maharaja of the Princely state of Kapurthala 21 such globes were produced, and these remain the only examples of seamless metal globes. These Mughal metallurgists developed the method of lost-wax casting in order to produce these globes. Lost-wax casting, sometimes called by the French name of cire perdue, is the process by which a bronze is cast from an artist's sculpture in industrial uses the modern process ^[154][155]

These seamless celestial globes are considered to be an unsurpassed feat in metallurgy, hence some consider this achievement to be comparable to that of the Great Pyramid of Giza which was considered an unsurpassed feat in architecture until the 19th century. The Great Pyramid of Giza, also called Khufu's Pyramid or the Pyramid of Khufu, and Pyramid of Cheops, is the oldest and largest of the three The term architecture (from Greek αρχιτεκτονικήarchitektoniki) can be used to mean a process a profession or documentation ^[155]

Mural instruments

A number of mural instruments (including several different quadrants and sextants) were invented by Muslim astronomers and engineers. A mural instrument is an angle measuring device mounted on or built into a wall A quadrant is an instrument that is used to measure angles up to 90° This article is about the Sextant as used for Astrometry. For the navigator's sextant, see Sextant.

Sine quadrant

The sine quadrant, invented by Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī in 9th century Baghdad, was used for astronomical calculations. Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous ^[156]

Horary quadrant

The first horary quadrant for specific latitudes, was invented by Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī in 9th century Baghdad, center of the development of quadrants. A quadrant is an instrument that is used to measure angles up to 90° Latitude, usually denoted symbolically by the Greek letter phi ( Φ) gives the location of a place on Earth (or other planetary body north or south of the ^[156] It was used to determine time (especially the times of prayer) by observations of the Sun or stars. ^[157]

Quadrans Novus

Quadrans Vetus was a universal horary quadrant, an ingeniuous mathematical device invented by al-Khwarizmi in 9th century Baghdad and later known as the "Quadrans Vetus" (Old Quadrant) in medieval Europe from the 13th century. A quadrant is an instrument that is used to measure angles up to 90° Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous It could be used for any latitude on Earth and at any time of the year to determine the time in hours from the altitude of the Sun. Latitude, usually denoted symbolically by the Greek letter phi ( Φ) gives the location of a place on Earth (or other planetary body north or south of the Altitude is the Elevation of a point or object from a known level or datum (plural data This was the second most widely used astronomical instrument during the Middle Ages after the astrolabe. The astrolabe is a historical Astronomical instrument used by classical astronomers, Navigators One of its main purposes in the Islamic world was to determine the times of Salah. Ṣalāt ( Arabic: صلاة‎, pl ṣalawāt, Qur'anic Arabic: صلوة ṣalawah) (also munz in Pashto and ^[156]

Quadrans Vetus

The astrolabic quadrant was invented in Egypt in the 11th century or 12th century, and later known in Europe as the "Quadrans Vetus" (New Quadrant). The astrolabe is a historical Astronomical instrument used by classical astronomers, Navigators A quadrant is an instrument that is used to measure angles up to 90° This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. ^[158]

Almucantar quadrant

The first almucantar quadrant was invented in the medieval Islamic world, and it employed the use of trigonometry. An Almucantar, also spelled almucantarat or almacantara, is a Circle on the Celestial sphere parallel to the Horizon. A quadrant is an instrument that is used to measure angles up to 90° Circle-trig6svg|300px|thumb|right|All of the Trigonometric functions of an angle θ can be constructed geometrically in terms of a unit circle centered at O. The term "almucantar" is itself derived from Arabic. ^[159] The Almucantar quadrant was originally modified from the astrolabe. The astrolabe is a historical Astronomical instrument used by classical astronomers, Navigators ^[147]

Sextant

The first sextant was constructed in Ray, Iran, by Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi in 994. This article is about the Sextant as used for Astrometry. For the navigator's sextant, see Sextant. See Rayshahr for the Sassanid center of learning in Fars province Abu Mahmood Khujandi or Abu Mahmud Hamid ibn al-Khidr Al-Khujandi (Persian ابومحمود خجندی was a Persian ( Tajik) astronomer and Events By Place Europe Sweyn Forkbeard marries Sigrid the Haughty It was a very large sextant that achieved a high level of accuracy for astronomical measurements, which he described his in his treatise, On the obliquity of the ecliptic and the latitudes of the cities. Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study ^[160] In the 15th century, Ulugh Beg constructed the "Fakhri Sextant", which had a radius of approximately 36 meters. Ulugh Beg ( Chaghatay / - also Uluğ Bey, Ulugh Bek and Ulug Bek) (c Constructed in Samarkand, Uzbekistan, the arc was finely constructed with a staircase on either side to provide access for the assistants who performed the measurements. Samarkand (Samarqand Самарқанд سمرقند UniPers: "Samarqand" is the second-largest city in Uzbekistan and the capital of Uzbekistan, officially the Republic of Uzbekistan ( Uzbek: O‘zbekiston Respublikasi or Ўзбекистон Республикаси is a doubly

Observation tube

The first reference to an "observation tube" is found in the work of al-Battani (Albatenius) (853-929), and the first exact description of the observation tube was given by al-Biruni (973-1048), in a section of his work that is "dedicated to verifying the presence of the new cresent on the horizon. " Though these early observation tubes did not have lenses, they "enabled an observer to focus on a part of the sky by eliminating light inteference. A lens is an optical device with perfect or approximate Axial symmetry which transmits and refracts Light, converging or diverging Light, or visible light, is Electromagnetic radiation of a Wavelength that is visible to the Human eye (about 400–700 " These observation tubes were later adopted in Latin-speaking Europe, where they influenced the development of the telescope. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. A telescope is an instrument designed for the observation of remote objects and the collection of Electromagnetic radiation. ^[161]

Other instruments

Various other astrononmical instruments were also invented in the Islamic world:

• The first astronomical uses of the magnetic compass is found in a treatise on astronomical instruments written by the Yemeni sultan al-Ashraf (d. A compass, magnetic compass or mariner's compass is a navigational instrument for determining direction relative to the earth's Magnetic poles It consists Yemen ( Arabic: اليَمَن al-Yaman officially the Republic of Yemen ( Arabic: الجمهورية اليمنية al-Jumhuuriyya Sultan (سلطان is an Islamic title with several historical meanings For the name see Ashraf (name. For the city see Camp Ashraf. Ashrâf ( Arabic: اشرف) is an Arabic 1296). This was the first reference to the compass in astronomical literature. ^[162]

• The Alhidade was invented in the Islamic world, while the term "alhidade" is itself derived from Arabic. An alidade (archaic forms include alhidade, alhidad, alidad) is a device that allows one to sight a distant object and use the line of sight to perform
• A compendium was a multi-purpose astronomical instrument, first constructed by the Muslim astronomer Ibn al-Shatir in the 13th century. A compendium is a concise yet comprehensive compilation of a body of Knowledge. Ala Al-Din Abu'l-Hasan Ali Ibn Ibrahim Ibn al-Shatir (1304 &ndash 1375 (ابن الشاطر was an Arab Muslim astronomer, mathematician, engineer His compendium featured an alhidade and polar sundial among other things. An alidade (archaic forms include alhidade, alhidad, alidad) is a device that allows one to sight a distant object and use the line of sight to perform A sundial is a device that measures time by the position of the Sun. Al-Wafa'i developed another compendium in the 15th century which he called the "equatorial circle", which also featured a horizontal sundial. These compendia later became popular in Renaissance Europe. The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere ^[147]
• Islamic quadrants used for various astronomical and timekeeping purposes from the 10th century introduced orthogonal and regular grids and markings that are identical to modern graph paper. A quadrant is an instrument that is used to measure angles up to 90° In Mathematics, two Vectors are orthogonal if they are Perpendicular, i A regular grid is a Tessellation of the Euclidean plane by congruent rectangles or a space-filling tessellation of rectilinear Parallelepipeds Format and availability of graph paper Graph paper is available either as Loose leaf paper or bound in Notebooks It is becoming ^[163][164]
• In 17th century Safavid Persia, two unique brass instruments with Mecca-centred world maps engraved on them were produced primarily for the purpose of finding the Qibla. The Safavids ( صفوی) were an Iranian ref>Helen Chapin Metz Brass is any Alloy of Copper and Zinc; the proportions of zinc and copper can be varied to create a range of brasses with varying properties Mecca ˈmɛkə also spelled Makkah ˈmækə (in full Makkah Al-Mukarramah (Arabic mækːæ(t ælmʊkarˑamæ مكّة المكرمة, literally Honored If you are looking for an editable blank World political map go to A world map is a Map of the surface of the Earth, which may be Qiblah ( ar قبلة, also transliterated as Kiblah) is an Arabic word for the direction that should be faced when a Muslim prays during These instruments were engraved with cartographic grids to make it more convenient to find the direction and distance to Mecca at the centre from anywhere on the Earth, which may be based on cartographic grids dating back to 10th century Baghdad. Grid references define locations on Maps using Cartesian coordinates. Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous ^[150] One of the two instruments, produced by Muhammad Husayn,^[165] also had a sundial and compass attached to it. A sundial is a device that measures time by the position of the Sun. A compass, magnetic compass or mariner's compass is a navigational instrument for determining direction relative to the earth's Magnetic poles It consists ^[166]
• The shadow square was an instrument used to determine the linear height of an object, in conjunction with the alidade, for angular observations. An alidade (archaic forms include alhidade, alhidad, alidad) is a device that allows one to sight a distant object and use the line of sight to perform ^[167] It was invented by Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī in 9th century Baghdad. ^[168]

List of notable treatises

Zij treatises

Main article: Zij

• Ibrahim al-Fazari (d. Zīj ( Arabic: زيج) is the generic name applied to Arabic astronomical books that tabulate parameters used for astronomical calculations of Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Habib ibn Sulaiman ibn Samura ibn Jundab al-Fazari ( Arabic / Persian: أبو إسحاق إبراهيم بن حبيب بن سليمان بن سمورة 777) and Muhammad al-Fazari (d. Abu abdallah Muhammad ibn Ibrahim al-Fazari (d 796 or 806 was a Muslim Philosopher, Mathematician and Astronomer. 796/806)
  • Az-Zij ‛alā Sinī al-‛Arab (c. 750)
• Yaqūb ibn Tāriq (d. was an 8th century Persian Astronomer and Mathematician. lived in Baghdad, and is considered to be one of the greatest astronomers of his 796)
  • Az-Zij al-Mahlul min as-Sindhind li-Darajat Daraja
• Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī (Latinized as Algorismi) (c. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. 780-850)
  • Zij al-Sindhind (c. 830)
• Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī (Latinized as Albategni) (853-929)
  • Az-Zij as-Sabi
• Abd Al-Rahman Al Sufi (Latinized as Azophi) (903-986)
  • Book of Fixed Stars (c. The Book of Fixed Stars (in Arabic: كتاب الكواكب الثابتة is an astronomical text composed by Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi (Azophi 964)
• Al-Zarqali (Latinized as Arzachel) (1028-1087)
  • Tables of Toledo
• Al-Khazini (fl. Gerard of Cremona (1114–1187 edited for Latin readers the Tables of Toledo ( Toledan Tables) the most accurate compilation of Abd al-Rahman al-Khazini ( عبدالرحمن الخزيني) (flourished 1115–1130 was a Muslim scientist, physicist, astronomer, biologist 1115-1130)
  • Az-Zij as-Sanjarī (Sinjaric Tables) (1115-1116)
• Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī (1201-1274)
  • Zij-i Ilkhani (Ilkhanic Tables) (1272)
• Jamshīd al-Kāshī (1380-1429)
  • Khaqani Zij
• Ulugh Beg (1394-1449)
  • Zij-i-Sultani (1437)
• Taqi al-Din (1526-1585)
  • Unbored Pearl (1577-1580)

Almanacs

The word "Almanac" is an Arabic word. Zij-i Ilkhani or Ilkhanic Tables (literal translation "The Ilkhan Stars" after ilkhan Hulagu, who was the patron of the author at that time (or, Persian: غیاث‌الدین جمشید کاشانی (c Ulugh Beg ( Chaghatay / - also Uluğ Bey, Ulugh Bek and Ulug Bek) (c Zij-i-Sultani is a Zij astronomical table and star catalogue that was published by Ulugh Beg in 1437. Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf al-Shami al-Asadi ( Arabic: تقي الدين محمد بن معروف الشامي السعدي Turkish: Takiyuddin) (1526&ndash1585 ALMANAC is the name of a major Breast cancer trial The Acronym stands for "Axillary Lymphatic Mapping Against Nodal Axillary Clearance Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language ^[169] The modern almanac differs from earlier astronomical tables (such as the earlier Babylonian, Ptolemaic and Zij tables) in the sense that "the entries found in the almanacs give directly the positions of the celestial bodies and need no further computation", in contrast to the more common "auxiliary astronomical tables" based on Ptolemy's Almagest. Babylonian astronomy refers to the astronomical theories and methods that were developed in ancient Mesopotamia, the "land between the rivers" Tigris Zīj ( Arabic: زيج) is the generic name applied to Arabic astronomical books that tabulate parameters used for astronomical calculations of The earliest known almanac in this modern sense is the Almanac of Azarqueil written in 1088 by Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī (Latinized as Azarqueil) in Toledo, al-Andalus. Toledo Spain locationpng|thumb|right|200px|Location of Toledo in Spain Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or The work provided the true daily positions of the sun, moon and planets for four years from 1088 to 1092, as well as many other related tables. A Latin translation and adaptation of the work appeared as the Tables of Toledo in the 12th century and the Alfonsine tables in the 13th century. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Gerard of Cremona (1114–1187 edited for Latin readers the Tables of Toledo ( Toledan Tables) the most accurate compilation of The Alfonsine tables (sometimes spelled Alphonsine tables) were Ephemeris (astronomical tables drawn up at Toledo by order of ^[170]

Treatises on instruments

In the 12th century, al-Khazini wrote the Risala fi'l-alat (Treatise on Instruments) which had seven parts describing different scientific instruments: the triquetrum, dioptra, a triangular instrument he invented, the quadrant and sextant, the astrolabe, and original instruments involving reflection. Abd al-Rahman al-Khazini ( عبدالرحمن الخزيني) (flourished 1115–1130 was a Muslim scientist, physicist, astronomer, biologist The triquetrum (from the Latin word for triangular) was the medieval name for an ancient Astronomical instrument first described by Ptolemy A dioptra is a classical astronomical and surveying instrument dating from the 3rd century BCE. A triangle is one of the basic Shapes of Geometry: a Polygon with three corners or vertices and three sides or edges which are Line A quadrant is an instrument that is used to measure angles up to 90° This article is about the Sextant as used for Astrometry. For the navigator's sextant, see Sextant. The astrolabe is a historical Astronomical instrument used by classical astronomers, Navigators ^[171]

In 14th century Egypt, Najm al-Din al-Misri (c. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. 1325) wrote a treatise describing over 100 different types of scientific and astronomical instruments, many of which he invented himself. ^[150]

In 1416, al-Kashi wrote the Treatise on Astronomical Observational Instruments, which described a variety of different instruments, including the triquetrum and armillary sphere, the equinoctial armillary and solsticial armillary of Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi, the sine and versine instrument of Urdi, the sextant of al-Khujandi, the Fakhri sextant at the Samarqand observatory, a double quadrant Azimuth-altitude instrument he invented, and a small armillary sphere incorporating an alhidade which he invented. (or, Persian: غیاث‌الدین جمشید کاشانی (c The triquetrum (from the Latin word for triangular) was the medieval name for an ancient Astronomical instrument first described by Ptolemy An equinox is the event of the Sun passing over the Earth's equator in its annual cycle Solstices occur twice a year when the tilt of the Earth's axis is most oriented toward or away from the Sun, causing the Sun to reach its northernmost and southernmost extremes Mu’ayyad al-Din al-’Urdi (d 1266 was an Arab Muslim astronomer, mathematician, architect and engineer working at the Maragheh The versed sine, also called the versine and in Latin, the sinus versus ("flipped sine" or the sagitta ("arrow" is a This article is about the Sextant as used for Astrometry. For the navigator's sextant, see Sextant. Abu Mahmood Khujandi or Abu Mahmud Hamid ibn al-Khidr Al-Khujandi (Persian ابومحمود خجندی was a Persian ( Tajik) astronomer and Samarkand (Samarqand Самарқанд سمرقند UniPers: "Samarqand" is the second-largest city in Uzbekistan and the capital of Azimuth ( is a mathematical concept defined as the angle usually measured in degrees (° between a reference plane and a point. Altitude is the Elevation of a point or object from a known level or datum (plural data An alidade (archaic forms include alhidade, alhidad, alidad) is a device that allows one to sight a distant object and use the line of sight to perform ^[172]

Other works

• Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir (Latinized as Mohammed Ben Musa) (800-873)
  • Book on the motion of the orbs
  • Astral Motion
  • The Force of Attraction
• Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Kathīr al-Farghānī (Latinized as Alfraganus) (d. 850)
  • Elements of astronomy on the celestial motions (c. 833)
  • Kitab fi Jawami Ilm al-Nujum
• Ibn al-Haytham (Latinized as Alhacen) (965-1039)
  • On the Configuration of the World
  • Doubts concerning Ptolemy (c. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized 1028)
  • The Resolution of Doubts (c. 1029)
  • The Model of the Motions of Each of the Seven Planets (1029-1039)
• Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī (973-1048)
  • Kitab al-Qanun al-Mas'udi (Latinized as Canon Mas’udicus) (1031)
• Abu Ubayd al-Juzjani (c. Abu Ubaid al-Juzjani was a Persian physician from Juzjan in Afghanistan. 1070)
  • Tarik al-Aflak (1070)
• Al-Istidrak ala Batlamyus (Recapitulation regarding Ptolemy) (11th century)
• Al-Khazini (fl. Abd al-Rahman al-Khazini ( عبدالرحمن الخزيني) (flourished 1115–1130 was a Muslim scientist, physicist, astronomer, biologist 1115-1130)
  • Risala fi'l-alat (Treatise on Instruments)
• Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī (1201-1274)
  • Al-Tadhkirah fi'ilm al-hay'ah (Memento in astronomy)
• 'Umar al-Katibi al-Qazwini (d. 1277)
  • Hikmat al-'Ain
• Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi (1236-1311)
  • The Limit of Accomplishment concerning Knowledge of the Heavens
• Ibn al-Shatir (1304–1375)
  • A Final Inquiry Concerning the Rectification of Planetary Theory
• Ali al-Qushji (d. TemplateInfobox Persian scholars --> Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi (1236 &ndash 1311 (قطب‌الدین شیرازی was a 13th Ala Al-Din Abu'l-Hasan Ali Ibn Ibrahim Ibn al-Shatir (1304 &ndash 1375 (ابن الشاطر was an Arab Muslim astronomer, mathematician, engineer Ali Kuşçu (? 1403 - 16 December, 1474) was a Turkish astronomer, mathematician, physicist and scientist 1474)
  • Concerning the Supposed Dependence of Astronomy upon Philosophy
• Shams al-Din al-Khafri (d. 1525)
  • The complement to the explanation of the memento

Arabic star names

Main article: List of Arabic star names

Many of the modern names for numerous stars and constellations are derived from their Arabic language names. This is a list of traditional Arabic names for Stars In Western Astronomy, most of the accepted star names are Arabic a few are Greek and some are of unknown A star is a massive luminous ball of plasma. The nearest star to Earth is the Sun, which is the source of most of the Energy on Earth In common usage a constellation is a group of celestial bodies that are connected together in some arrangement typically stars to form a visible figure or picture Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Examples include: Acamar, Aldebaran, Altair, Baham, Baten Kaitos, Caph, Dabih, Edasich, Furud, Gienah, Hadar, Izar, Jabbah, Keid, Lesath, Mirak, Nashira, Okda, Phad, Rigel, Sadr, Tarf, and Vega, as well as a number of other stars. Theta Eridani (θ Eri / θ Eridani is a Star in the Constellation Eridanus. Aldebaran ( α Tau α Tauri Alpha Tauri is the brightest star in the constellation Taurus and one of the brightest stars in the nighttime sky Altair (α Aql / α Aquilae / Alpha Aquilae / Atair is the brightest Star in the Constellation Aquila and the twelfth brightest star Theta Pegasi (θ Peg is a Star in the Constellation Pegasus. It also has the traditional name Baham ("the livestocks" is a role-playing Video game that was developed by Tri-Crescendo and Monolith Soft and published by Namco for the Beta Cassiopeiae (β Cas / β Cassiopeiae is a Delta Scuti variable Star in the Constellation Cassiopeia. Beta Capricorni (β Cap / β Capricorni is a Star system in the Constellation Capricornus. Iota Draconis (ι Dra / ι Draconis is an orange giant Star located away in the Constellation Draco. Zeta Canis Majoris (ζ CMa / ζ Canis Majoris is a Spectroscopic binary in the Constellation Canis Major. Gienah can be a Star: Gienah in Corvus, or γ Corvi, is a star in the Corvus constellation Gienah in Cygnus Nu Scorpii (ν Sco / ν Scorpii is a Star system in the Constellation Scorpius. 40 Eridani (also known as Omicron2 Eridani, or Keid, from the Arabic word qayd, (egg shells) is a triple Star Upsilon Scorpii (υ Sco / υ Scorpii is a Star in the Constellation Scorpius. Gamma Capricorni (γ Cap / γ Capricorni is a Giant star in the Constellation Capricornus. Alpha Piscium (α Psc / α Piscium is a Star in the Constellation Pisces. Gamma Ursae Majoris (γ UMa / γ Ursae Majoris is a Star in the Constellation Ursa Major. Rigel (ˈraɪʤəl (β Ori / β Orionis / Beta Orionis is the brightest star in the constellation Orion and the sixth brightest star in the sky with Visual Beta Cancri (β Cnc / β Cancri is the brightest Star in the Constellation Cancer. Vega (α Lyr / α Lyrae / Alpha Lyrae ( or) is the brightest Star in the Constellation Lyra, the fifth brightest star in the night Some of these names originated in the pre-Islamic Arabian Peninsula, but many came later, as translations of Ancient Greek descriptions. The Arabian Peninsula (in Arabic: شبه الجزيرة العربية šibh al-jazīra al-ʻarabīya or جزيرة العرب jazīrat al-ʻarab) The Ancient Greek language is the historical stage in the development of the Hellenic language family spanning the Archaic (c ^[173]

See also

• Arab and Persian astrology
• History of astronomy
• Hebrew astronomy
• Inventions in the Muslim world
• Islamic astrology
• Islamic Golden Age
• Islamic science
• Islamic physics
• List of Arab scientists and scholars
• List of Iranian scientists and scholars
• List of Muslim astronomers
• List of Muslim scientists
• Zij

Notes

References

External links

• The Arab Union for Astronomy and Space Sciences (AUASS)
• King Abdul Aziz Observatory
• History of Islamic Astrolabes

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