A significant number of inventions occurred in the Islamic world, a geopolitical region that has at various times extended from al-Andalus and Africa in the west to the Indian subcontinent and Malay Archipelago in the east. An invention is a new form composition of matter device or Process. The term Muslim world (or Islamic world) has several meanings Geopolitics is the study that analyzes Geography, History and Social science with reference to Spatial politics and patterns at various scales Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or This article deals with the geophysical region in Asia For geopolitical treatments see South Asia. The Malay Archipelago is a name given to the Archipelago located between mainland Southeastern Asia ( Indochina) and Australia. ^[1] Many of these inventions had direct implications for Fiqh related issues. Fiqh ( Arabic: فقه, fɪqəh is Islamic Jurisprudence. Fiqh is an expansion of the Sharia Islamic law—based directly on the

According to Bernard Lewis in What Went Wrong? Western Impact and Middle Eastern Response:

"In English we use the word “Islam” with two distinct meanings, and the distinction is often blurred and lost and gives rise to considerable confusion. Bernard Lewis (born May 31, 1916 in London, England) is a British - American What Went Wrong? Western Impact and Middle Eastern Response is a book by Bernard Lewis released in January 2002 For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. In the one sense, Islam is the counterpart of Christianity; that is to say, a religion in the strict sense of the word: a system of belief and worship. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos In the other sense, Islam is the counterpart of Christendom; that is to say, a civilization shaped and defined by a religion, but containing many elements apart from and even hostile to that religion, yet arising within that civilization. Christendom usually refers to Christianity as a territorial phenomenon A Civilization is a society in which large numbers of people share a variety of common elements "^[2]

Astronomical instruments

Main article: Islamic astronomy

Muslim astronomers developed a number of astronomical instruments, including several variations of the astrolabe, originally invented by Hipparchus in the 2nd century BCE, but with considerable improvements made to the device in the Muslim world. The astrolabe is a historical Astronomical instrument used by classical astronomers, Navigators Hipparchus ( Greek; ca 190 BC &ndash ca 120 BC was a Greek Astronomer, Geographer, and Mathematician of the Hellenistic The term Muslim world (or Islamic world) has several meanings These instruments were used by Muslims for a variety of purposes related to astronomy, astrology, horoscopes, navigation, surveying, timekeeping, Qibla, Salah, etc. Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study This is a sub-article of History of science in the Islamic World and Astrology. Navigation is the process of reading and controlling the movement of a craft or vehicle from one place to another Surveying is the technique and science of accurately determining the terrestrial or three-dimensional space Position of points and the distances and angles between For other uses see Time (disambiguation Time is a component of a measuring system used to sequence events to compare the durations of Qiblah ( ar قبلة, also transliterated as Kiblah) is an Arabic word for the direction that should be faced when a Muslim prays during Ṣalāt ( Arabic: صلاة‎, pl ṣalawāt, Qur'anic Arabic: صلوة ṣalawah) (also munz in Pashto and

Analog computers

• Equatorium by Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī (Arzachel) in Islamic Spain circa 1015. An equitorium (plural equitoria) was an astronomical calculating instrument. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or ^[3]
• Saphaea, the first universal astrolabe developed for all latitudes, by Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī (Arzachel) in 11th century Islamic Spain. The astrolabe is a historical Astronomical instrument used by classical astronomers, Navigators Latitude, usually denoted symbolically by the Greek letter phi ( Φ) gives the location of a place on Earth (or other planetary body north or south of the Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or
• Mechanical lunisolar calendar computer with gear train and gear-wheels by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī. Mechanical Engineering is an Engineering discipline that involves the application of principles of physics for analysis Design, Manufacturing A lunisolar calendar is a Calendar in many Cultures whose date indicates both the Moon phase and the time of the solar Year. An analog computer (spelt analogue in British English is a form of Computer that uses continuous physical phenomena such as electrical mechanical A gear train is a set or system of Gears arranged to transfer rotational Torque from one part of a mechanical system to another This is the page for mechanical Gears For other uses see Gear (disambiguation For the gear-like device used to drive a roller chain see Sprocket ^[4]
• Fixed-wired knowledge processing machine by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī. A wire is a single usually cylindrical, elongated string of drawn Metal. A machine is any device that uses Energy to perform some activity ^[5]
• Mechanical astrolabe with calendar computer and gear-wheels by Abi Bakr of Isfahan in 1235. The astrolabe is a historical Astronomical instrument used by classical astronomers, Navigators The word Calendar consist of two words 1 Cal ( in Pashto means Year in Hindi and Persian is Sal- also means Year An analog computer (spelt analogue in British English is a form of Computer that uses continuous physical phenomena such as electrical mechanical This is the page for mechanical Gears For other uses see Gear (disambiguation For the gear-like device used to drive a roller chain see Sprocket Esfahān or Isfahan (historically also rendered as Ispahan or Hispahan, Old Persian: Aspadana, Middle Persian: Spahān ^[6]
• The Plate of Conjunctions, a computing instrument used to determine the time of day at which planetary conjunctions will occur,^[7] and for performing linear interpolation,^[8] invented by al-Kashi in the 15th century. Conjunction is a term used in Positional astronomy and Astrology. Linear interpolation is a method of Curve fitting using linear polynomials (or, Persian: غیاث‌الدین جمشید کاشانی (c
• A mechanical planetary computer called the Plate of Zones, which could graphically solve a number of planetary problems, invented by al-Kashi in the 15th century. (or, Persian: غیاث‌الدین جمشید کاشانی (c It could predict the true positions in longitude of the Sun and Moon,^[8] and the planets in terms of elliptical orbits;^[9] the latitudes of the Sun, Moon, and planets; and the ecliptic of the Sun. Longitude (ˈlɒndʒɪˌtjuːd or ˈlɒŋgɪˌtjuːd symbolized by the Greek character Lambda (λ is the east-west Geographic coordinate measurement The Sun (Sol is the Star at the center of the Solar System. A planet, as defined by the International Astronomical Union (IAU is a celestial body Orbiting a Star or stellar remnant that is In Astrodynamics or Celestial mechanics an elliptic orbit is a Kepler orbit with the eccentricity greater than 0 and less than 1 Latitude, usually denoted symbolically by the Greek letter phi ( Φ) gives the location of a place on Earth (or other planetary body north or south of the The ecliptic is the apparent path that the Sun traces out in the sky during the year The instrument also incorporated an alhidade and ruler. An alidade (archaic forms include alhidade, alhidad, alidad) is a device that allows one to sight a distant object and use the line of sight to perform A ruler, or rule, is an instrument used in Geometry, Technical drawing and engineering/building to measure distances and/or to rule straight ^[10]

Globes

Several different types of globes and armillary spheres were invented by Muslim astronomers and engineers:

• Celestial globes which could calculate the altitude of the Sun and the right ascension and declination of the stars in the 11th century. A globe is a three- Dimensional scale model of Earth ( terrestrial globe) or other spheroid celestial body such as a planet star or moon Altitude is the Elevation of a point or object from a known level or datum (plural data The Sun (Sol is the Star at the center of the Solar System. Right ascension (abbrev RA; symbol α) is the Astronomical term for one of the two Coordinates of a point on the Celestial sphere In Astronomy, declination (abbrev dec or δ) is one of the two coordinates of the Equatorial coordinate system, the other being either A star is a massive luminous ball of plasma. The nearest star to Earth is the Sun, which is the source of most of the Energy on Earth
• The spherical astrolabe was first produced in the Islamic world by the 14th century. ^[11]
• The seamless celestial globe is considered one of the most remarkable feats in metallurgy. The quality of having no visible Seams often applied Idiomatically to any Construct, even the most vague (i Metallurgy is a domain of Materials science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds, and their It was invented in Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in 998 AH (1589-90 CE), and twenty other such globes were later produced in Lahore and Kashmir during the Mughal Empire. This article is about the geographical region of greater Kashmir ( lahor is the capital of the Pakistani province of Punjab and is the second largest city in Pakistan after Karachi. The Mughal Empire ( Persian and self-designation گورکانی; مغلیہ سلطنت) was an Islamic imperial power which ruled most Before they were rediscovered in the 1980s, it was believed by modern metallurgists to be technically impossible to produce metal globes without any seams, even with modern technology. Metallurgy is a domain of Materials science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds, and their The techniques used by these Mughal metallurgists in order to produce these seamless metal globes thus continue to remain a mystery. ^[12]

Mural instruments

• The first quadrants and mural instruments by al-Khwarizmi in 9th century Baghdad, Iraq. A quadrant is an instrument that is used to measure angles up to 90° A mural instrument is an angle measuring device mounted on or built into a wall Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. ^[13]
• Sine quadrant for astronomical calculations by al-Khwarizmi in 9th century Baghdad. Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous ^[13]
• Horary quadrant for specific latitudes by al-Khwarizmi in 9th century Baghdad. Latitude, usually denoted symbolically by the Greek letter phi ( Φ) gives the location of a place on Earth (or other planetary body north or south of the Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous ^[13]
• The Quadrans Vetus, a universal horary quadrant which could be used for any latitude and at any time of the year to determine the time, as well as the times of Salah, invented by al-Khwarizmi in 9th century Baghdad. Latitude, usually denoted symbolically by the Greek letter phi ( Φ) gives the location of a place on Earth (or other planetary body north or south of the Ṣalāt ( Arabic: صلاة‎, pl ṣalawāt, Qur'anic Arabic: صلوة ṣalawah) (also munz in Pashto and Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous This was the second most widely used astronomical instrument during the Middle Ages after the astrolabe. The astrolabe is a historical Astronomical instrument used by classical astronomers, Navigators ^[14]
• The Quadrans Novus, an astrolabic quadrant invented in Egypt in the 11th century or 12th century, and later known in Europe as the "Quadrans Novus" (New Quadrant). The astrolabe is a historical Astronomical instrument used by classical astronomers, Navigators This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. ^[15]
• Almucantar quadrant, invented in the medieval Islamic world. An Almucantar, also spelled almucantarat or almacantara, is a Circle on the Celestial sphere parallel to the Horizon. It employed the use of trigonometry. Circle-trig6svg|300px|thumb|right|All of the Trigonometric functions of an angle θ can be constructed geometrically in terms of a unit circle centered at O. The term "almucantar" is itself derived from Arabic. ^[16]
• Astronomical sextant by Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi in Ray, Iran in 994. This article is about the Sextant as used for Astrometry. For the navigator's sextant, see Sextant. Abu Mahmood Khujandi or Abu Mahmud Hamid ibn al-Khidr Al-Khujandi (Persian ابومحمود خجندی was a Persian ( Tajik) astronomer and See Rayshahr for the Sassanid center of learning in Fars province Events By Place Europe Sweyn Forkbeard marries Sigrid the Haughty ^[17]

Other instruments

• Alhidade (the term "alhidade" is itself derived from Arabic). An alidade (archaic forms include alhidade, alhidad, alidad) is a device that allows one to sight a distant object and use the line of sight to perform
• Shadow square, an instrument used to determine the linear height of an object, in conjunction with the alidade for angular observations, invented by Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī in 9th century Baghdad. An alidade (archaic forms include alhidade, alhidad, alidad) is a device that allows one to sight a distant object and use the line of sight to perform Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous ^[18]
• The "observation tube" (without lens) was invented by al-Battani (Albatenius) (853-929) and first described by al-Biruni (973-1048). A lens is an optical device with perfect or approximate Axial symmetry which transmits and refracts Light, converging or diverging These observation tubes were later adopted in Europe, where they influenced the development of the telescope. A telescope is an instrument designed for the observation of remote objects and the collection of Electromagnetic radiation. ^[19]
• Highly accurate astronomical clocks. An astronomical clock is a Clock with special Mechanisms and Dials to display Astronomical information such as the relative positions of ^[20]
• Astrometric device in Islamic Spain around 1015. Astrometry is the branch of Astronomy that relates to precise measurements and explanations of the positions and movements of Stars and other celestial bodies Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or

Aviation technology

Parachute

In 9th century Islamic Spain, Abbas Ibn Firnas (Armen Firnas) invented a primitive version of the parachute. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or Abbas Ibn Firnas (810 &ndash 887 AD) was also known as Abbas Qasim Ibn Firnas and العباس بن فرناس ( Arabic language) A parachute is a device used to slow the motion of an object through an atmosphere by creating drag. ^{[21][22][23][24]} John H. Lienhard described it in The Engines of Our Ingenuity as follows:

"In 852, a new Caliph and a bizarre experiment: A daredevil named Armen Firman decided to fly off a tower in Cordova. He glided back to earth, using a huge winglike cloak to break his fall. He survived with minor injuries, and the young Ibn Firnas was there to see it. "^[25]

Controlled flight

Abbas Ibn Firnas was the first to make an attempt at controlled flight, as opposed to earlier gliding attempts in ancient China which were not controllable. Abbas Ibn Firnas (810 &ndash 887 AD) was also known as Abbas Qasim Ibn Firnas and العباس بن فرناس ( Arabic language) Flight is the process by which an object achieves sustained movement either through the Air (or movement beyond Earth's atmosphere, in the case of Gliding is a Recreational activity and competitive Sport in which pilots fly un-powered aircraft known as Gliders or sailplanes Ibn Firnas manuipulated the flight controls of his hang glider using two sets of artificial wings to adjust his altitude and to change his direction. History See also History of hang gliding Summary: Hang gliding existed in China perhaps by the 4th century AD according to the writing of the WING "ESPN 1410" is a commercial AM radio station in Dayton Ohio operating with 5000 watts at 1410 kHz with studios offices and transmitter located on David Altitude is the Elevation of a point or object from a known level or datum (plural data He successfully returned to where he had lifted off from, but his landing was unsuccessful. Landing is the last part of a Flight, where a flying Animal, Aircraft, or Spacecraft returns to the ground ^[26][27]

According to Philip Hitti in History of the Arabs:

"Ibn Firnas was the first man in history to make a scientific attempt at flying. Philip Khuri Hitti (1886 - 1978 born in Shimlan, Ottoman Syria (now Lebanon) was a scholar of Islam and introduced the field of Arab culture For other uses see History of the Arabs History of the Arabs is a book written by Philip Khuri Hitti and was first published in "

Artificially-powered manned rocket

According to Evliya Çelebi in the 17th century, Lagari Hasan Çelebi launched himself in the air in a seven-winged rocket, which was composed of a large cage with a conical top filled with gunpowder. Evliya Çelebi (اوليا چلبي the son of the imperial goldsmith Derviş Mehmed Zılli ( March 25 (? 1611 &ndash 1682 was the most famous Ottoman Lagari Hasan Çelebi was an Ottoman Turk who was the first person to have made a successful manned Rocket Flight. WING "ESPN 1410" is a commercial AM radio station in Dayton Ohio operating with 5000 watts at 1410 kHz with studios offices and transmitter located on David A rocket or rocket vehicle is a Missile, Aircraft or other Vehicle which obtains Thrust by the reaction of the Gunpowder is a an explosive mixture of Sulfur, Charcoal and Potassium nitrate (also known as saltpetre/saltpeter that burns rapidly producing volumes The flight was accomplished as a part of celebrations performed for the birth of Ottoman Emperor Murad IV's daughter in 1633. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish Murad IV ( Ottoman Turkish: مراد رابع Murād-i rābi‘) ( June 16, 1612 February 9, 1640 Evliya reported that Lagari made a soft landing in the Bosporus by using the wings attached to his body as a parachute after the gunpowder was consumed, foreshadowing the sea-landing methods of astronauts with parachutes after their voyages into outer space. The Bosporus or Bosphorus, also known as the Istanbul Strait, (İstanbul Boğazı (Βόσπορος is a Strait that forms the boundary between the A parachute is a device used to slow the motion of an object through an atmosphere by creating drag. This article is about the body of water For other uses see SEA and Seas. An astronaut or cosmonaut (космона́вт) is a person trained Outer space, often simply called space, comprises the relatively empty regions of the Universe outside the escape velocities of Celestial bodies. Lagari's flight was estimated to have lasted about twenty seconds and the maximum height reached was around 300 metres. This was the first known example of a manned rocket and an artificially-powered aircraft. ^[28]

Camera technology

Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), the "father of optics" and pioneer of the modern scientific method, invented the camera obscura and pinhole camera. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena The camera obscura (Latin dark chamber) is an optical device used for example in drawing or for entertainment A' pinhole camera' is a very simple Camera with no lens and a single very small Aperture.

In ancient times, Euclid and Ptolemy believed that the eyes emitted rays which enabled us to see. Euclid ( Greek:.) fl 300 BC also known as Euclid of Alexandria, is often referred to as the Father of Geometry Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca The first person to realise that rays of light enters the eye, rather than leaving it, was the 10th century Muslim mathematician, astronomer and physicist Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), who is regarded as the "father of optics". TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized ^[29] He is also credited with being the first man to shift physics from a philosophical activity to an experimental one, with his development of the scientific method. Physics (Greek Physis - φύσις in everyday terms is the Science of Matter and its motion. Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena

Pinhole camera

Ibn al-Haytham first described pinhole camera after noticing the way light came through a hole in window shutters. A' pinhole camera' is a very simple Camera with no lens and a single very small Aperture. ^[30]

Camera obscura

Ibn al-Haytham worked out that the smaller the hole, the better the picture, and set up the first camera obscura,^[30] a precursor to the modern camera. The camera obscura (Latin dark chamber) is an optical device used for example in drawing or for entertainment A camera is a device used to capture images either as still Photographs or as sequences of moving images ( Movies or Videos.

Chemical technology

Main article: Alchemy and chemistry in Islam

Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber), the father of chemistry, invented the alembic still and many chemicals, including distilled alcohol, and established the perfume industry. For the 12th century astronomer see Jabir ibn Aflah. For the anonymous 14th century Spanish alchemist see Pseudo-Geber. Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem meaning "earth") is the Science concerned with the composition structure and properties An alembic (from Arabic Al-inbiq الأنبيق is an alchemical Still consisting of two Retorts connected by a tube A still is an apparatus used to distill Miscible or immiscible (eg A chemical substance is a Material with a definite chemical composition. Perfume is a mixture of fragrant Essential oils and Aroma compounds Fixatives and Solvents used to give the human body animals objects and living

Early forms of distillation were known to the Babylonians, Greeks and Egyptians since ancient times, but it was Muslim chemists who first invented pure distillation processes which could fully purify chemical substances. Distillation is a method of separating Mixtures based on differences in their volatilities in a boiling liquid mixture Babylonia was an Amorite state in lower Mesopotamia (modern southern Iraq) with Babylon as its capital The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions This article is about the contemporary North African ethnic group A chemist is a Scientist trained in the Science of Chemistry. A chemical substance is a Material with a definite chemical composition. They also developed several different variations of distillation (such as dry distillation, destructive distillation and steam distillation) and introduced new distillation aparatus (such as the alembic, still, and retort), and invented a variety of new chemical processes and over 2,000 chemical substances. Dry distillation is the Heating of Solid materials to produce Liquid or Gaseous products (which may condense into solids Destructive distillation is the process of Pyrolysis conducted in a distillation apparatus ( Retort) to allow the volatile products to be collected Steam distillation is a special type of Distillation (a separation process) for temperature sensitive materials like natural aromatic compounds An alembic (from Arabic Al-inbiq الأنبيق is an alchemical Still consisting of two Retorts connected by a tube A still is an apparatus used to distill Miscible or immiscible (eg In a Chemistry laboratory a retort is a glassware device used for Distillation or Dry distillation of substances In a " scientific " sense a chemical process is a method or means of somehow changing one or more Chemicals or Chemical compounds Such a chemical A chemical substance is a Material with a definite chemical composition. ^[31]

Chemical processes

Geber first invented the following chemical processes in the 8th century:

• Pure distillation (al-taqtir) which could fully purify chemical substances with the alembic. For the 12th century astronomer see Jabir ibn Aflah. For the anonymous 14th century Spanish alchemist see Pseudo-Geber. In a " scientific " sense a chemical process is a method or means of somehow changing one or more Chemicals or Chemical compounds Such a chemical Distillation is a method of separating Mixtures based on differences in their volatilities in a boiling liquid mixture A chemical substance is a Material with a definite chemical composition. An alembic (from Arabic Al-inbiq الأنبيق is an alchemical Still consisting of two Retorts connected by a tube
• Filtration (al-tarshih). Filtration is a mechanical or physical operation which is used for the separation of solids from fluids (liquids or gases by interposing a medium to fluid flow through which the fluid ^[32]

Other chemical processes introduced by Muslim chemists include:

• Dry distillation
• Solution (al-tahlil), sublimation (al-tas'id), amalgamation (al-talghim), ceration (al-tashmi), and a method of converting a substance into a thick paste or fusible solid. Dry distillation is the Heating of Solid materials to produce Liquid or Gaseous products (which may condense into solids In Chemistry, a solution is a Homogeneous Mixture composed of two or more substances Sublimation of an element or compound is a transition from the Solid to Gas phase with no intermediate liquid stage Ceration is a chemical process, a common practice in Alchemy. A fusible alloy, usually Eutectic Alloy is capable of being fused, as well as being liquefied by heat ^[33]
• Destructive distillation was invented by Muslim chemists in the 8th century to produce tar from petroleum. Destructive distillation is the process of Pyrolysis conducted in a distillation apparatus ( Retort) to allow the volatile products to be collected Tar is a viscous black Liquid derived from the Destructive distillation of organic matter Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit ^[34]
• Steam distillation was invented by Avicenna in the early 11th century for the purpose of producing essential oils. Steam distillation is a special type of Distillation (a separation process) for temperature sensitive materials like natural aromatic compounds TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born An essential oil is a concentrated Hydrophobic Liquid containing volatile Aroma compounds from Plants They are also known as volatile ^[35]
• Water purification

Ahmad Y Hassan wrote:

"The distillation of wine and the properties of alcohol were known to Islamic chemists from the eighth century. Water purification is the process of removing contaminants and other harmful microorganisms from a raw water source Ahmad Y Hassan أحمد يوسف الحسن(born 1925 is a chevalier of the Légion d'honneur and a historian of Arabic and Islamic science and technology Distillation is a method of separating Mixtures based on differences in their volatilities in a boiling liquid mixture Wine is an Alcoholic beverage made from the fermentation of Grape juice In Chemistry, an alcohol is any Organic compound in which a Hydroxyl group ( - O[[hydrogen H]]) is bound to a Carbon For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. A chemist is a Scientist trained in the Science of Chemistry. The prohibition of wine in Islam did not mean that wine was not produced or consumed or that Arab alchemists did not subject it to their distillation processes. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Jabir ibn Hayyan described a cooling technique which can be applied to the distillation of alcohol. For the 12th century astronomer see Jabir ibn Aflah. For the anonymous 14th century Spanish alchemist see Pseudo-Geber. "^[36]

Laboratory apparatus

• Alembic and still by Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber) in the 9th century. An alembic (from Arabic Al-inbiq الأنبيق is an alchemical Still consisting of two Retorts connected by a tube A still is an apparatus used to distill Miscible or immiscible (eg For the 12th century astronomer see Jabir ibn Aflah. For the anonymous 14th century Spanish alchemist see Pseudo-Geber. The 9th century is the period from 801 to 900 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. ^[37]
• Retort by Jabir ibn Hayyan. In a Chemistry laboratory a retort is a glassware device used for Distillation or Dry distillation of substances For the 12th century astronomer see Jabir ibn Aflah. For the anonymous 14th century Spanish alchemist see Pseudo-Geber. ^[38]
• Thermometer and air thermometer by Abū Alī ibn Sīnā (Avicenna) in the 11th century. The thermometer is a device that measures Temperature or Temperature gradient using a variety of different principles it comes from the Greek roots The thermometer is a device that measures Temperature or Temperature gradient using a variety of different principles it comes from the Greek roots TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born ^[39]
• Conical measure by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī in the 11th century. A conical measure is a type of Laboratory glassware which consists of a conical cup with a notch on the top to allow for the easy pouring of liquids and graduated markings on ^[40][41]
• Laboratory flask and pycnometer by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī. Laboratory flasks are vessels (containers which fall into the category of Laboratory equipment known as glassware. ^[42]
• Hydrostatic balance and steelyard by al-Khazini in 1121. Hydrostatic equilibrium occurs when compression due to Gravity is balanced by a Pressure gradient which creates a Pressure gradient force in the opposite The Steelyard, from the German Stalhof, was in the Middle Ages the main trading base of the Hanseatic League in London. Abd al-Rahman al-Khazini ( عبدالرحمن الخزيني) (flourished 1115–1130 was a Muslim scientist, physicist, astronomer, biologist ^[42]
• Al-Razi also first described the following tools for the preparation of drugs (li-tadbir al-aqaqir): cucurbit and still with evacuation tube (qar aq anbiq dhu-khatm), receiving matras (qabila), blind still (without evacuation tube) (al-anbiq al-ama), aludel (al-uthal), goblets (qadah), flasks (qarura or quwarir), rosewater flasks (ma wariyya), cauldron (marjal aw tanjir), earthenware pots varnished on the inside with their lids (qudur aq tanjir), water bath or sand bath (qadr), oven (al-tannur in Arabic, athanor in Latin), small cylindirical oven for heating aludel (mustawqid), funnels, sieves, filters, etc. A drug, broadly speaking is any chemical substance that when absorbed into the body A still is an apparatus used to distill Miscible or immiscible (eg This article is about the electronic device not an evacuated pipe used for experiments in Free-fall. Aludel s in medieval Chemistry, are subliming Pots The term refers to a range of earthen tubes or pots without bottoms fitted one over another and diminishing A chalice (from Latin calix, cup borrowed from Greek kalyx, shell husk is a goblet intended to hold drink The Flux Advanced Security Kernel ( FLASK) is an Operating system security architecture that provides flexible support for security policies thumb|right|250px|Rose water Rose water or rose syrup (گلاب Golâb, Gül suyu ماء ورد Māʾ ward, Urdu: گلاب رس A cauldron or caldron (from Latin Caldarium, hot bath is a large Metal pot ( Kettle) for cooking and/or boiling Earthenware is a common Ceramic material which is used extensively for Pottery tableware and decorative objects A sand bath is a common piece of laboratory equipment made from a container filled with heated Sand. An oven is an enclosed compartment for Heating, Baking or Drying. Aludel s in medieval Chemistry, are subliming Pots The term refers to a range of earthen tubes or pots without bottoms fitted one over another and diminishing A funnel is a pipe with a wide often conical mouth and a narrow stem ^[33]

Chemical industries

Chemical substances invented for use in the chemical industries include:

• Sulfuric acid, originally coined as oil of vitriol when it was discovered by Jabir ibn Hayyan. A chemical substance is a Material with a definite chemical composition. The chemical industry comprises the companies that produce industrial chemicals Sulfuric (or sulphuric acid, H 2 S[[oxygen O]]4 is a strong Mineral acid. For the 12th century astronomer see Jabir ibn Aflah. For the anonymous 14th century Spanish alchemist see Pseudo-Geber. ^[43]
• The mineral acids: nitric acid, sulfuric acid, and hydrochloric acid, by Geber. A mineral acid is an Acid derived by Chemical reaction from inorganic Minerals as opposed to Organic acids These have Hydrogen Nitric acid ( H[[nitrate NO3]] also known as Aqua fortis and spirit of nitre, is a highly corrosive and Sulfuric (or sulphuric acid, H 2 S[[oxygen O]]4 is a strong Mineral acid. Hydrochloric acid is the Solution of Hydrogen chloride ( H[[Chlorine Cl]] in water For the 12th century astronomer see Jabir ibn Aflah. For the anonymous 14th century Spanish alchemist see Pseudo-Geber. ^[3]
• Pure distilled alcohol (ethanol) by Jabir ibn Hayyan in the 8th century. In Chemistry, an alcohol is any Organic compound in which a Hydroxyl group ( - O[[hydrogen H]]) is bound to a Carbon For the 12th century astronomer see Jabir ibn Aflah. For the anonymous 14th century Spanish alchemist see Pseudo-Geber. ^[44]
• Uric acid and nitric acid by Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber) in the 8th century. Uric acid (or urate) is an Organic compound of Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen and Hydrogen with the formula C5H4N4O3 Nitric acid ( H[[nitrate NO3]] also known as Aqua fortis and spirit of nitre, is a highly corrosive and For the 12th century astronomer see Jabir ibn Aflah. For the anonymous 14th century Spanish alchemist see Pseudo-Geber. ^[30]
• Cheese glue, and plated mail, by Geber. Cheese is a Food made from Milk, usually the milk of cows, Buffalo, Goats or sheep, by coagulation. Glue or adhesive is a compound that adheres or bonds two items together Plated mail (sometimes called plated chainmail, splinted mail or splinted chainmail) is a type of mail with embedded plates For the 12th century astronomer see Jabir ibn Aflah. For the anonymous 14th century Spanish alchemist see Pseudo-Geber. ^[45]
• Lustreware, by Geber in the 8th century. Lusterware is a type of Pottery or Porcelain with a Metallic glaze that gives the effect of Iridescence, produced by metallic Oxides For the 12th century astronomer see Jabir ibn Aflah. For the anonymous 14th century Spanish alchemist see Pseudo-Geber. ^[46]
• Tin-glazing of ceramics invented by potters in 8th-century Basra, Iraq. Tin-glazing is the process of giving Ceramic items a tin-based glaze which is white shiny and opaque normally applied to red or buff Earthenware. Basra ( BGN: AlBasrah also called Basorah Abillah and Uruk or IRAQ The name that British colony has adopted for Basra For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. ^[47]
• Stonepaste ceramics invented in 9th-century Iraq. Stoneware a Vitreous or semivitreous ceramic ware of fine texture made primarily from nonrefactory fire clay For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. ^[48]
• Kerosene and kerosene lamp by al-Razi in the 9th century. Kerosene, sometimes spelled kerosine in scientific and industrial usage is a Combustible Hydrocarbon liquid The kerosene lamp (widely known in Britain as a paraffin lamp) is any type of lighting device which uses Kerosene (paraffin as a fuel ^[49]
• Essential oil by Abū Alī ibn Sīnā (Avicenna) in the 11th century. An essential oil is a concentrated Hydrophobic Liquid containing volatile Aroma compounds from Plants They are also known as volatile TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born ^[35]
• Petrol by Muslim chemists. ^[50]
• Hygienic cosmetics by Muslim chemists. Hygiene refers to practices associated with ensuring good health and cleanliness ^[51]
• Vitriol
• Aqua regia
• 2,000 medicinal substances. Sulfuric (or sulphuric acid, H 2 S[[oxygen O]]4 is a strong Mineral acid. Aqua regia ( Latin for royal water) is a highly corrosive fuming yellow or red solution A chemical substance is a Material with a definite chemical composition. ^[31]

Will Durant wrote in The Story of Civilization IV: The Age of Faith:

"Chemistry as a science was almost created by the Moslems; for in this field, where the Greeks (so far as we know) were confined to industrial experience and vague hypothesis, the Saracens introduced precise observation, controlled experiment, and careful records. William James Durant ( November 5, 1885 &ndash November 7, 1981) was a prolific American popularizer in the fields of History The Story of Civilization by Will and Ariel Durant is an eleven-volume set of books Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem meaning "earth") is the Science concerned with the composition structure and properties A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions A hypothesis (from Greek) consists either of a suggested explanation for a phenomenon (an event that is observable or of a reasoned proposal suggesting a possible Saracen was a term used by Europeans in the Middle Ages for Fatimids at first then later for all who professed the religion of Islam. Observation is either an activity of a living being (such as a Human) which senses and assimilates the Knowledge of a Phenomenon, or the recording of data In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or They invented and named the alembic (al-anbiq), chemically analyzed innumerable substances, composed lapidaries, distinguished alkalis and acids, investigated their affinities, studied and manufactured hundreds of drugs. An alembic (from Arabic Al-inbiq الأنبيق is an alchemical Still consisting of two Retorts connected by a tube A lapidary (the word means "concerned with stones" is an Artisan who practices the craft of working forming and finishing stone, Mineral, In Chemistry, an alkali (from Arabic: Al-Qaly القلي القالي) is a basic, ionic salt of an Alkali metal In Computer science, ACID ( Atomicity Consistency Isolation Durability) is a set of properties that guarantee that Database transactions are A drug, broadly speaking is any chemical substance that when absorbed into the body Alchemy, which the Moslems inherited from Egypt, contributed to chemistry by a thousand incidental discoveries, and by its method, which was the most scientific of all medieval operations. Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now "^[37]

Robert Briffault wrote in The Making of Humanity:

"Chemistry, the rudiments of which arose in the processes employed by Egyptian metallurgists and jewellers combining metals into various alloys and 'tinting' them to resemble gold processes long preserved as a secret monopoly of the priestly colleges, and clad in the usual mystic formulas, developed in the hands of the Arabs into a widespread, organized passion for research which led them to the invention of distillation, sublimation, filtration, to the discovery of alcohol, of nitric and sulphuric acids (the only acid known to the ancients was vinegar), of the alkalis, of the salts of mercury, of antimony and bismuth, and laid the basis of all subsequent chemistry and physical research. Robert Briffault ( 1876 - 11 December 1948) was a French novelist historian social anthropologist and surgeon Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now Metallurgy is a domain of Materials science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds, and their Jewellery (also spelled jewelry, see spelling differences) is a personal Ornament, such as a necklace ring or bracelet made from Gemstones The M acro E xpansion T emplate A ttribute L anguage complements TAL, providing macros which allow the reuse of code across An alloy is a Solid solution or Homogeneous mixture of two or more elements, at least one of which is a Metal, which itself has Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding Distillation is a method of separating Mixtures based on differences in their volatilities in a boiling liquid mixture Sublimation of an element or compound is a transition from the Solid to Gas phase with no intermediate liquid stage Filtration is a mechanical or physical operation which is used for the separation of solids from fluids (liquids or gases by interposing a medium to fluid flow through which the fluid In Chemistry, an alcohol is any Organic compound in which a Hydroxyl group ( - O[[hydrogen H]]) is bound to a Carbon Nitric acid ( H[[nitrate NO3]] also known as Aqua fortis and spirit of nitre, is a highly corrosive and Sulfuric (or sulphuric acid, H 2 S[[oxygen O]]4 is a strong Mineral acid. In Computer science, ACID ( Atomicity Consistency Isolation Durability) is a set of properties that guarantee that Database transactions are Vinegar is an acidic liquid processed from the Fermentation of Ethanol in a process that yields its key ingredient Acetic acid (also called ethanoic acid In Chemistry, an alkali (from Arabic: Al-Qaly القلي القالي) is a basic, ionic salt of an Alkali metal Salt is a Dietary mineral composed primarily of Sodium chloride that is essential for Animal life but toxic to most land plants Mercury (ˈmɜrkjʊri also called quicksilver or hydrargyrum, is a Chemical element with the symbol Hg ( Latinized hydrargyrum Antimony (IPA (Received Pronunciation, /ˈæntɪmoʊni/ (US is a Chemical element with the symbol Sb (stibium meaning "mark" and Bismuth (ˈbɪzməθ is a Chemical element that has the symbol Bi and Atomic number 83 "^[52]

Drinking industry

• Coffee by Khalid in Kaffa, Ethiopia. CoFFEE is an Open source Software for computer supported collaborative learning (CSCL in a digital classroom Kaffa was a province on the southwestern side of Ethiopia; its capital city was Jimma. NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page ^[30]
• Distilled water and purified water by Muslim chemists. Purified water is water from any source that is physically processed to remove impurities Water purification is the process of removing contaminants and other harmful microorganisms from a raw water source ^[53]
• Purified distilled alcohol by Jabir ibn Hayyan in the 8th century. For the 12th century astronomer see Jabir ibn Aflah. For the anonymous 14th century Spanish alchemist see Pseudo-Geber. ^[44]
• Sherbet and sharab, the first juiced carbonated soft drinks. Şerbet ( Turkish) (Soda powder Etymology Turkish & Persian Turkish şerbet from Persian & Urdu شربت Hindi sharbat from Arabic Soft drink is a beverage that does not contain Alcohol. Carbonated soft drinks are commonly known as soda soda pop pop, or ^[54][55]
• Recipes for drink syrups that can be kept outside the refrigerator for weeks or months. In Cooking, a syrup (from Arabic' ar شراب sharab, beverage via Latin siropus) is a thick Viscous Liquid ^[55]

Glass industry

• Silica glass and Quartz glass, the production of glass from stone and sand, by Abbas Ibn Firnas in the 9th century. Fused quartz and fused silica are types of Glass containing primarily Silica in amorphous (non- Crystalline form Fused quartz and fused silica are types of Glass containing primarily Silica in amorphous (non- Crystalline form In Geology, rock is a naturally occurring aggregate of Minerals and/or Mineraloids The Earth's outer solid layer the ‘ Lithosphere Sand is a naturally occurring Granular material composed of finely divided rock and Mineral particles Abbas Ibn Firnas (810 &ndash 887 AD) was also known as Abbas Qasim Ibn Firnas and العباس بن فرناس ( Arabic language) ^[56]
• Refracting parabolic mirror, by Ibn Sahl in the 10th century. Refraction is the change in direction of a Wave due to a change in its Speed. A parabolic reflector (or dish or mirror) is a Parabola -shaped reflective device used to collect or distribute Energy such as This article is about the physicist For the physician see Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari. ^[57]

Hygiene industries

• True soap, made of vegetable oils (such as olive oil) with sodium hydroxide and aromatics (such as thyme oil) was invented in the Islamic world, as opposed to the soap-like detergents used in ancient times. SOAP (see below for name and origins is a protocol for exchanging XML -based messages over Computer networks normally using Olive oil is a fruit oil obtained from the olive ( Olea europaea; family Oleaceae along with Lilacs Jasmine and ash trees Sodium hydroxide ( Na[[hydroxide OH]]) also known as Lye, caustic soda and (incorrectly according to IUPAC nomenclature Thyme (ˈtaɪm is a well known herb in common usage the name may refer to either the any or all members of the plant Genus Thymus, An oil is a substance that is in a viscous Liquid state ( "oily") at ambient temperatures or slightly warmer and is A detergent (as a noun is a material intended to assist Cleaning. ^[3][30]
• Soap bar. ^[3][30]

Perfumery industry

• Perfume usage recorded in 7th century Arabian Peninsula. The Arabian Peninsula (in Arabic: شبه الجزيرة العربية šibh al-jazīra al-ʻarabīya or جزيرة العرب jazīrat al-ʻarab)
• Perfume industry established by Geber (Jabir) (b. For the 12th century astronomer see Jabir ibn Aflah. For the anonymous 14th century Spanish alchemist see Pseudo-Geber. 722, Iraq) and al-Kindi (b. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c 801, Iraq). For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. ^[58]
• Jabir developed many techniques, including distillation, evaporation and filtration, which enabled the collection of the odour of plants into a vapour that could be collected in the form of water or oil. Distillation is a method of separating Mixtures based on differences in their volatilities in a boiling liquid mixture Evaporation is the process by which Molecules in a Liquid state (e Filtration is a mechanical or physical operation which is used for the separation of solids from fluids (liquids or gases by interposing a medium to fluid flow through which the fluid Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. A vapor or vapour (see Spelling differences) is a substance in the Gas phase at a Temperature lower than its Critical temperature ^[58]
• Al-Kindi carried out extensive research and experiments in combining various plants and other sources to produce a variety of scent products. ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. Olfaction (also known as olfactics or smell) refers to the Sense of smell.
• Al-Kindi elaborated a vast number of recipes for a wide range of perfumes, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c Perfume is a mixture of fragrant Essential oils and Aroma compounds Fixatives and Solvents used to give the human body animals objects and living A drug, broadly speaking is any chemical substance that when absorbed into the body
• The preparation of a perfume called ghaliya, which contained musk, amber and other ingredients, and the use of various drugs and apparatus, by al-Kindi. Musk is the name originally given to a substance with a penetrating Odor obtained from a Gland of the male Musk deer, which is situated between its Amber is Fossil tree Resin, which is appreciated for its color and beauty A drug, broadly speaking is any chemical substance that when absorbed into the body ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c
• Extraction of fragrances through steam distillation by Abū Alī ibn Sīnā (Avicenna) in the 11th century. Perfume is a mixture of fragrant Essential oils and Aroma compounds Fixatives and Solvents used to give the human body animals objects and living Steam distillation is a special type of Distillation (a separation process) for temperature sensitive materials like natural aromatic compounds TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born
• Introduction of new raw ingredients in perfumery. Perfume is a mixture of fragrant Essential oils and Aroma compounds Fixatives and Solvents used to give the human body animals objects and living
• Perfumery produced from different spices, herbals, and other fragrance materials. Perfume is a mixture of fragrant Essential oils and Aroma compounds Fixatives and Solvents used to give the human body animals objects and living
• Introduction of jasmine from South and Southeast Asia, and citrus fruits from East Asia in modern perfumery. Jasmine or Jessamine ( Jasminum) (from Persian yasmin, ie "gift from God" via Arabic) is a Genus of Shrubs Citrus is a common term and Genus of Flowering plants in the family Rutaceae, originating in tropical and subtropical southeast regions of Perfume is a mixture of fragrant Essential oils and Aroma compounds Fixatives and Solvents used to give the human body animals objects and living
• Cheap mass production of incenses. Incense is composed of Aromatic biotic materials It releases fragrant Smoke when burned
• Musk and floral perfumes in the 11th-12th century Arabian Peninsula. Musk is the name originally given to a substance with a penetrating Odor obtained from a Gland of the male Musk deer, which is situated between its A flower, also known as a bloom or Blossom, is the reproductive structure found in Flowering plants (plants of the division Magnoliophyta, also The Arabian Peninsula (in Arabic: شبه الجزيرة العربية šibh al-jazīra al-ʻarabīya or جزيرة العرب jazīrat al-ʻarab) ^[59]

Civil engineering

Bridge dam

The bridge dam was used to power a water wheel working a water-raising mechanism. A bridge is a Structure built to span a Gorge, Valley, Road, railroad track, River, Body of water A dam is a barrier that divides waters. Dams generally serve the primary purpose of retaining water while other structures such as Floodgates, Levees A water wheel is a means of extracting power from the flow (or fall of water otherwise known as Hydropower. Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. The first was built in Dezful, Iran, which could raise 50 cubits of water for the water supply to all houses in the town. Dezful ( Dezh-pol, دزفول Fortress Bridge) is a City in the Khuzestan province in southwestern Iran. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. For the multi-touch interface see CUBIT (multi-touch. For the unit of information see Qubit. Water supply is the process of self-provision or provision by third parties of water of various qualities to different users Similar bridge dams later appeared in other parts of the Islamic world. ^[60]

Diversion dam

The first diversion dam was built by medieval Muslim engineers over the River Uzaym in Jabal Hamrin, Iraq. A diversion dam is the term for a Dam that diverts all or a portion of the flow of a River from its natural course For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Many of these were later built in other parts of the Islamic world. ^[60]

Street lighting and litter collection facilities

The first street lamps were built in the Arab Empire,^[61] especially in Cordoba, which also had the first facilities and waste containers for litter collection. A street light, lamppost, street lamp, light standard or lamp standard, is a raised source of Light on the edge of a Road ||-||-||} Córdoba ( Cordova in English is a City in Andalusia, southern Spain, and the capital of the province of Córdoba. 'Wastebin' redirects here For the temporary deletion of a computer file see Recycle bin (computing. Litter is Waste disposed in the wrong place by Unlawful human action and can vary in size of incident occurrence or items ^[62]

Surveying instruments

Muslim engineers invented a variety of surveying instruments for accurate levelling, including: a wooden board with a plumb line and two hooks, an equilateral triangle with a plumb line and two hooks, and a "reed level". LEVEL is a Computer and video games Magazine originating in the Czech Republic with branches in Romania and Turkey A plumb-bob or a plummet is a weight with a pointed tip on the bottom that is suspended from a string and used as a vertical reference line Properties The area of an equilateral triangle with sides of length a\\! A reed is a thin strip of material which vibrates to produce a sound on a Musical instrument. They also invented a rotating alhidade used for accurate alignment, and a surveying astrolabe used for alignment, measuring angles, triangulation, finding the width of a river, and the distance between two points separated by an impassable obstruction. An alidade (archaic forms include alhidade, alhidad, alidad) is a device that allows one to sight a distant object and use the line of sight to perform The astrolabe is a historical Astronomical instrument used by classical astronomers, Navigators In Trigonometry and Geometry, triangulation is the process of determining the location of a point by measuring angles to it from known points at either Length is the long Dimension of any object The length of a thing is the distance between its ends its linear extent as measured from end to end "Riverine" redirects here For the use of that term in Maritime geography, see there ^[63]

Clock technology

Astronomical clocks

Muslim astronomers and engineers constructed a variety of highly accurate astronomical clocks for use in their observatories. An astronomical clock is a Clock with special Mechanisms and Dials to display Astronomical information such as the relative positions of ^[34]

• In the 10th century, al-Sufi first described over 1000 different uses of an astrolabe, including timekeeping and Salah. The astrolabe is a historical Astronomical instrument used by classical astronomers, Navigators For other uses see Time (disambiguation Time is a component of a measuring system used to sequence events to compare the durations of Ṣalāt ( Arabic: صلاة‎, pl ṣalawāt, Qur'anic Arabic: صلوة ṣalawah) (also munz in Pashto and ^[64]
• Mechanical lunisolar calendar computer with gear train and gear-wheels by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī. Mechanical Engineering is an Engineering discipline that involves the application of principles of physics for analysis Design, Manufacturing A lunisolar calendar is a Calendar in many Cultures whose date indicates both the Moon phase and the time of the solar Year. An analog computer (spelt analogue in British English is a form of Computer that uses continuous physical phenomena such as electrical mechanical A gear train is a set or system of Gears arranged to transfer rotational Torque from one part of a mechanical system to another This is the page for mechanical Gears For other uses see Gear (disambiguation For the gear-like device used to drive a roller chain see Sprocket ^[4]
• Mechanical astrolabe with calendar computer and gear-wheels by Abi Bakr of Isfahan in 1235. The astrolabe is a historical Astronomical instrument used by classical astronomers, Navigators The word Calendar consist of two words 1 Cal ( in Pashto means Year in Hindi and Persian is Sal- also means Year An analog computer (spelt analogue in British English is a form of Computer that uses continuous physical phenomena such as electrical mechanical This is the page for mechanical Gears For other uses see Gear (disambiguation For the gear-like device used to drive a roller chain see Sprocket Esfahān or Isfahan (historically also rendered as Ispahan or Hispahan, Old Persian: Aspadana, Middle Persian: Spahān ^[6]
• The Quadrans Vetus, a universal horary quadrant which could be used for any latitude and at any time of the year to determine the time, as well as the times of Salah, invented by al-Khwarizmi in 9th century Baghdad. A quadrant is an instrument that is used to measure angles up to 90° Latitude, usually denoted symbolically by the Greek letter phi ( Φ) gives the location of a place on Earth (or other planetary body north or south of the Ṣalāt ( Arabic: صلاة‎, pl ṣalawāt, Qur'anic Arabic: صلوة ṣalawah) (also munz in Pashto and Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous This was the second most widely used astronomical instrument during the Middle Ages after the astrolabe. The astrolabe is a historical Astronomical instrument used by classical astronomers, Navigators ^[14]
• Al-Jazari invented monumental water-powered astronomical clocks which displayed moving models of the Sun, Moon, and stars. Abū al-'Iz Ibn Ismā'īl ibn al-Razāz al-Jazarī ( 1136 - 1206) (أَبُو اَلْعِزِ بْنُ إسْماعِيلِ بْنُ الرِّزاز الجزري A water clock or clepsydra ( Greek kleptein to steal; hydro water) is any timekeeper operated by means of a regulated flow of liquid into (inflow An astronomical clock is a Clock with special Mechanisms and Dials to display Astronomical information such as the relative positions of The Sun (Sol is the Star at the center of the Solar System. A star is a massive luminous ball of plasma. The nearest star to Earth is the Sun, which is the source of most of the Energy on Earth His largest astronomical clock displayed the zodiac and the solar and lunar orbits. Zodiac denotes an annual cycle of twelve stations along the Ecliptic, the apparent path of the sun across the heavens through the Constellations that divide the ecliptic A heliocentric orbit is an Orbit around the Sun. In our Solar System, all Planets Comets and Asteroids are in such orbits In Astronomy, lunar orbit (also known as a Selenocentric orbit) refers to the orbit of an object around the Moon. Another innovative feature of the clock was a pointer which travelled across the top of a gateway and caused automatic doors to open every hour. A gate is a point of entry to a space enclosed by Walls or an opening in a Fence. A door is a panel or barrier usually hinged or sliding that is used to cover an opening in a Wall or partition going into a building or space The hour (symbol h) is a unit of Time. It is not an SI unit but is accepted for use with the SI ^[65]
• Taqi al-Din invented the "observational clock", which he described as "a mechanical clock with three dials which show the hours, the minutes, and the seconds", used this for astronomical purposes, specifically for measuring the right ascension of the stars. Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf al-Shami al-Asadi ( Arabic: تقي الدين محمد بن معروف الشامي السعدي Turkish: Takiyuddin) (1526&ndash1585 A pendulum clock is a Clock that uses a Pendulum, a swinging weight as its Timekeeping element The hour (symbol h) is a unit of Time. It is not an SI unit but is accepted for use with the SI A minute is a Unit of measurement of Time or of Angle. The minute is a unit of Time equal to 1/60th of an Hour or 60 The second ( SI symbol s) sometimes abbreviated sec, is the name of a unit of Time, and is the International System of Units Right ascension (abbrev RA; symbol α) is the Astronomical term for one of the two Coordinates of a point on the Celestial sphere A star is a massive luminous ball of plasma. The nearest star to Earth is the Sun, which is the source of most of the Energy on Earth This is considered one of the most important innovations in 16th century practical astronomy, as previous clocks were not accurate enough to be used for astronomical purposes. ^[66]

Dials

• Universal sundials for all latitudes used for timekeeping and for the determination of the times of Salah in 9th century Baghdad. A sundial is a device that measures time by the position of the Sun. Latitude, usually denoted symbolically by the Greek letter phi ( Φ) gives the location of a place on Earth (or other planetary body north or south of the For other uses see Time (disambiguation Time is a component of a measuring system used to sequence events to compare the durations of Ṣalāt ( Arabic: صلاة‎, pl ṣalawāt, Qur'anic Arabic: صلوة ṣalawah) (also munz in Pashto and Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous ^[67]
• The Navicula de Venetiis, a universal horary dial used for accurate timekeeping by the Sun and Stars, and could be observed from any latitude, invented in 9th century Baghdad. For other uses see Time (disambiguation Time is a component of a measuring system used to sequence events to compare the durations of The Sun (Sol is the Star at the center of the Solar System. A star is a massive luminous ball of plasma. The nearest star to Earth is the Sun, which is the source of most of the Energy on Earth Latitude, usually denoted symbolically by the Greek letter phi ( Φ) gives the location of a place on Earth (or other planetary body north or south of the Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous ^[68] This was later considered the most sophisticated timekeeping instrument of the Renaissance. For other uses see Time (disambiguation Time is a component of a measuring system used to sequence events to compare the durations of The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere ^[69]
• The compass dial, a timekeeping device incorporating both a universal sundial and a magnetic compass, invented by Ibn al-Shatir in the 13th century. A compass, magnetic compass or mariner's compass is a navigational instrument for determining direction relative to the earth's Magnetic poles It consists For other uses see Time (disambiguation Time is a component of a measuring system used to sequence events to compare the durations of A sundial is a device that measures time by the position of the Sun. A compass, magnetic compass or mariner's compass is a navigational instrument for determining direction relative to the earth's Magnetic poles It consists Ala Al-Din Abu'l-Hasan Ali Ibn Ibrahim Ibn al-Shatir (1304 &ndash 1375 (ابن الشاطر was an Arab Muslim astronomer, mathematician, engineer ^[70]

The elephant clock from Al-Jazari's manuscript. The elephant clock was a medieval Muslim invention by Al-Jazari (1136–1206 consisting of a water-powered Clock in the form of an Abū al-'Iz Ibn Ismā'īl ibn al-Razāz al-Jazarī ( 1136 - 1206) (أَبُو اَلْعِزِ بْنُ إسْماعِيلِ بْنُ الرِّزاز الجزري

Elephant clock with automaton, regulator and closed loop

Main article: Elephant clock

The elephant clock described by al-Jazari in 1206 is notable for several innovations. The elephant clock was a medieval Muslim invention by Al-Jazari (1136–1206 consisting of a water-powered Clock in the form of an The elephant clock was a medieval Muslim invention by Al-Jazari (1136–1206 consisting of a water-powered Clock in the form of an Abū al-'Iz Ibn Ismā'īl ibn al-Razāz al-Jazarī ( 1136 - 1206) (أَبُو اَلْعِزِ بْنُ إسْماعِيلِ بْنُ الرِّزاز الجزري It was the first clock in which an automaton reacted after certain intervals of time (in this case, a humanoid robot striking the cymbal and a mechanical bird chirping), the first mechanism to employ a flow regulator, and the earliest example of a closed-loop system in a mechanism. This article is about a self-operating machine For other uses of Automaton see Automaton (disambiguation or Automata (disambiguation. A Humanoid Robot is a Robot with its overall appearance based on that of the Human body. Cymbals are a modern percussion instrument Cymbals consist of thin normally round plates of various Cymbal alloys; see Cymbal making for a discussion of their In Automatic control, a regulator is a device which has the function of maintaining a designated characteristic Control theory is an interdisciplinary branch of Engineering and Mathematics, that deals with the behavior of Dynamical systems The desired output ^[71]

The float regulator employed in the clock later had an important influence during the Industrial Revolution of the 18th century, when it was employed in the boiler of a steam engine and in domestic water systems. The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the A boiler is a closed vessel in which Water or other Fluid is heated A steam engine is a Heat engine that performs Mechanical work using Steam as its Working fluid. Tap water ( running water) is part of indoor Plumbing, which became available in the late 19th century and common in the mid-20th century ^[3]

Mechanical clocks

The first mechanical clocks driven by weights and gears were invented by Muslim engineers. A pendulum clock is a Clock that uses a Pendulum, a swinging weight as its Timekeeping element In the Physical sciences weight is a Measurement of the gravitational Force acting on an object This is the page for mechanical Gears For other uses see Gear (disambiguation For the gear-like device used to drive a roller chain see Sprocket ^[72][73] The first geared mechanical clocks were invented by the 11th century Arab engineer Ibn Khalaf al-Muradi from Islamic Spain. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or The first weight-driven mechanical clocks, employing a mercury escapement mechanism and a clock face similar to an astrolabe dial, were first invented by Muslim engineers in the 11th century. In Horology, a maintaining power is a mechanism for keeping a clock or watch going while it is being wound Mercury (ˈmɜrkjʊri also called quicksilver or hydrargyrum, is a Chemical element with the symbol Hg ( Latinized hydrargyrum In Mechanical watches and Clocks an escapement is a device which converts continuous rotational motion into an oscillating or back and forth motion A clock face is the part of an Analog clock that displays the time through the use of a fixed numbered dial or dials and moving hands The astrolabe is a historical Astronomical instrument used by classical astronomers, Navigators A similar weight-driven mechanical clock later appeared in a Spanish language work compiled from earlier Arabic sources for Alfonso X in 1277. Alfonso X (November 23 1221 Toledo Spain &ndash April 4 1284 Seville Spain) was a Spanish monarch who ruled as the King of Castile, ^[3] The knowledge of weight-driven mechanical clocks produced by Muslim engineers in Spain was transmitted to other parts of Europe through Latin translations of Arabic and Spanish texts on Muslim mechanical technology. ^[34]

Al-Jazari invented some of the earliest mechanical clocks driven by both water and weights, including a water-powered scribe clock. Abū al-'Iz Ibn Ismā'īl ibn al-Razāz al-Jazarī ( 1136 - 1206) (أَبُو اَلْعِزِ بْنُ إسْماعِيلِ بْنُ الرِّزاز الجزري A water clock or clepsydra ( Greek kleptein to steal; hydro water) is any timekeeper operated by means of a regulated flow of liquid into (inflow This water powered portable clock was a meter high and half a meter wide. The scribe with his pen was synonymous to the hour hand of a modern clock. This is an example of an ingenious water system by al-Jazari. ^[74][75] Al-Jazari's famous water-powered scribe clock was reconstructed successfully at the Science Museum (London) in 1976. For science museums in general check out Science museum. The Science Museum on Exhibition Road, South Kensington, London is part

Other monumental water clocks constructed by medieval Muslim engineers also employed complex gear trains, arrays of automata, and weight-drives, while the escapement mechanism was present in their mercury clocks and in the hydraulic controls they used to make heavy floats descend at a slow and steady rate. A gear train is a set or system of Gears arranged to transfer rotational Torque from one part of a mechanical system to another ^[76]

Industrial milling

Further information: Muslim Agricultural Revolution - Industrial growth

Bridge mill

The bridge mill was a unique type of water mill that was built as part of the superstructure of a bridge. The Islamic Golden Age from the 8th century to the 13th century witnessed a fundamental transformation in Agriculture known as the Arab Agricultural This article is about a type of structure For other locational uses see Milldam. A superstructure is an upward extension of an existing structure above a baseline A bridge is a Structure built to span a Gorge, Valley, Road, railroad track, River, Body of water The earliest record of a bridge mill is from Cordoba, Spain in the 12th century. ||-||-||} Córdoba ( Cordova in English is a City in Andalusia, southern Spain, and the capital of the province of Córdoba. ^[77]

Factory milling installation

The first factory milling installations were built by Muslim engineers throughout every city and urban community in the Islamic world. A factory (previously manufactory) or manufacturing plant is an industrial Building where workers manufacture goods For example, the factory milling complex in 10th century Baghdad could produce 10 tonnes of flour every day. Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous Flour is a powder made of Cereal grains It is the key ingredient of Bread, which is a staple food in many countries and therefore the availability ^[78] The first large milling installations in Europe were built in 12th century Islamic Spain. ^[79]

Geared and wind-powered gristmills with trip hammers

The first geared gristmills^[80] were invented by Muslim engineers in the Islamic world, and were used for grinding corn and other seeds to produce meals, and many other industrial uses such as fulling cloth, husking rice, papermaking, pulping sugarcane, and crushing metalic ores before extraction. This is the page for mechanical Gears For other uses see Gear (disambiguation For the gear-like device used to drive a roller chain see Sprocket A gristmill or grist mill is a building where Grain is ground into Flour, or the grinding mechanism itself A gristmill or grist mill is a building where Grain is ground into Flour, or the grinding mechanism itself A grinding mill is a Unit operation designed to break a solid material into smaller pieces For the coarsely ground flour see Flour. A meal is an instance of Eating, specifically one that takes place at a specific time and includes For other uses of this term see Industry (disambiguation An industry (from Latin industrius, "diligent industrious" A huller (or sometimes called a rice husker) is a kind of Agricultural machinery to hull Rice. Papermaking is the process of making Paper, a material which is used ubiquitously today for writing and packaging A Sugar Refinery or sugar Mill is a Factory which refines sugar from various organic sources like sugar cane or beets into a A stamp mill (or stamp battery) is a type of mill that crushes material by pounding rather than grinding either for further processing or for extraction of metallic ores Gristmills in the Islamic world were often made from both watermills and windmills. This article is about a type of structure For other locational uses see Milldam. A windmill is a machine that is powered by the energy of the wind In order to adapt water wheels for gristmilling purposes, cams were used for raising and releasing trip hammers to fall on a material. A water wheel is a means of extracting power from the flow (or fall of water otherwise known as Hydropower. A cam is a projecting part of a rotating Wheel or shaft that strikes a Lever at one or more points on its circular path A trip hammer (alt helve hammer) is a massive powered Hammer, usually raised by a Cam and then released to fall under the force of gravity. ^[65]

The first wind powered gristmills driven by windmills were built in what are now Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iran in the 9th and 10th centuries. Wind Power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form such as electricity using Wind turbines At the end of 2007 worldwide capacity of wind-powered generators was A windmill is a machine that is powered by the energy of the wind Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. ^[79]

Milling dam

The milling dam was used to provide additional power for milling, which Muslim engineers called the Pul-i-Bulaiti. A dam is a barrier that divides waters. Dams generally serve the primary purpose of retaining water while other structures such as Floodgates, Levees The first was built at Shustar on the River Karun, Iran, and many of these were later built in other parts of the Islamic world. The Karūn (also spelled as Karoun is Iran 's most effluent and the only navigable River. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. ^[60] Water was conducted from the back of the dam through a large pipe to drive a water wheel and water mill. ^[77]

Paper mill

Paper was introduced into the Muslim world by Chinese prisoners after the Battle of Talas. Paper is thin material mainly used for writing upon printing upon or packaging The Battle of Talas in 751 CE was a conflict between the Arab Abbasid Caliphate and the Chinese Tang Dynasty for control Muslims made several improvements to papermaking and built the first paper mills in Baghdad, Iraq, as early as 794. Papermaking is the process of making Paper, a material which is used ubiquitously today for writing and packaging A paper mill is a Factory devoted to making Paper from wood pulp and other ingredients using a Fourdrinier Machine or similar apparatus Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Events By Place Asia Kyoto becomes the Japanese capital ending the Nara period, and beginning the Heian period. Papermaking was transformed from an art into a major industry as a result. ^[81]

Spiral scoop-wheel

The spiral scoop-wheel is a device which raises large quantities of water to ground level with a high degree of efficiency. A water wheel is a means of extracting power from the flow (or fall of water otherwise known as Hydropower. This was invented in 12th century Baghdad and is still commonly used in modern Egypt. Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. ^[82]

Sugar refinery

The first sugar refineries were built by Muslim engineers. A Sugar Refinery or sugar Mill is a Factory which refines sugar from various organic sources like sugar cane or beets into a ^[83] They were first driven by water mills, and then windmills from the 9th and 10th centuries in Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iran. ^[79]

Water-powered finery forge

The first forge to be driven by a hydropowered water mill rather than manual labour, also known as a finery forge, was invented in 12th century Islamic Spain. A forge is the workplace of a smith or a Blacksmith. A forge is sometimes referred to as a smithy. Hydropower, hydraulic power or water power is power that is derived from the Force or Energy of moving water which may Manual labour (or manual labor) is physical work done with the hands especially in an unskilled job such as fruit and vegetable picking road building or any Iron tapped from the Blast furnace is Pig iron, and contains significant amounts of Carbon and Silicon. ^[79]

Water turbine

The first water turbine, which had water wheels with curved blades onto which water flow was directed axially, was first described in a 9th century Arabic text for use in a watermill. A water turbine is a rotary Engine that takes energy from moving water A water wheel is a means of extracting power from the flow (or fall of water otherwise known as Hydropower. Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. A rotation is a movement of an object in a circular motion A two- Dimensional object rotates around a center (or point) of rotation This article is about a type of structure For other locational uses see Milldam. ^[65]

Windmill

Windmills were first built in Sistan, Afghanistan, sometime between the 7th century and 9th century, as described by Muslim geographers. A windmill is a machine that is powered by the energy of the wind Modern Sistan ( is a border region in southeastern Iran (see Sistan and Baluchestan Province) and southwestern Afghanistan (see Nimruz Province Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, The 7th century is the period from 601 to 700 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. The 9th century is the period from 801 to 900 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion These were vertical axle windmills, which had long vertical driveshafts with rectangle shaped blades. An axle is a central shaft for a rotating Wheel or Gear. In some cases the axle may be fixed in position with a bearing or Bushing A blade is the flat part of a Tool, Weapon, or Machine (such as a fan) that normally has a cutting edge and/or pointed end typically made ^[84] The first windmill may have been contructed as early as the time of the second Rashidun caliph Umar (634-644 AD), though some argue that this account may have been a 10th century amendment. The Rightly Guided Caliphs or The Righteous Caliphs ( ar الخلفاء الراشدون) is a term used in Sunni Islam to refer to the first The Caliph is the Head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah Umar (a=عمر بن الخطاب|t=`Umar ibn al-Khattāb c 581-83 CE &ndash 7 November, 644) also known as Umar the Great or Omar the Great ^[85] Made of six to twelve sails covered in reed matting or cloth material, these windmills were used to grind corn and draw up water, and used in the gristmilling and sugarcane industries. A sail is any type of surface intended to generate Thrust by being placed in a Wind &mdashin essence a vertically-oriented Wing. A textile is a flexible material comprised of a network of natural or artificial Fibres often referred to as thread or Yarn. Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. A gristmill or grist mill is a building where Grain is ground into Flour, or the grinding mechanism itself Sugarcane ( Saccharum) is a genus of 6 to 37 species (depending on taxonomic interpretation of tall perennial grasses (family Poaceae tribe Andropogoneae For other uses of this term see Industry (disambiguation An industry (from Latin industrius, "diligent industrious" ^[65]

The first horizontal windmills were built in what are now Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iran in the 9th and 10th centuries. Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. They had a variety of uses, such as grinding grain, pumping water, and crushing sugar-cane. A gristmill or grist mill is a building where Grain is ground into Flour, or the grinding mechanism itself A Sugar Refinery or sugar Mill is a Factory which refines sugar from various organic sources like sugar cane or beets into a ^[79]

A windmill operating an organ is described as early as the 1st century AD by Hero of Alexandria, marking probably the first instance of a wind powering machine in history. The organ (from Greek όργανον – organon "organ instrument tool" is a Keyboard instrument of one or more divisions each Hero (or Heron) of Alexandria ( Ήρων ο Αλεξανδρεύς) (c ^[86][87] Horizontal axle windmills of the type generally used today were invented in Northwestern Europe in the 1180s. ^[88]

Mechanical technology

Diagram of a water device from a book by Al-Jazari. Abū al-'Iz Ibn Ismā'īl ibn al-Razāz al-Jazarī ( 1136 - 1206) (أَبُو اَلْعِزِ بْنُ إسْماعِيلِ بْنُ الرِّزاز الجزري

Agricultural devices

The early Muslim Arab Empire was ahead of its time regarding domestic water systems such as water cleaning systems and advanced water transportation systems resulting in better agriculture, something that helped in issues related to Islamic hygienical jurisprudence. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion Tap water ( running water) is part of indoor Plumbing, which became available in the late 19th century and common in the mid-20th century Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. Water transportation is the intentional movement of Water over large distances Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture This is a sub-article to Fiqh and Hygiene Hygiene is a prominent topic in Islam. ^[89]

Al-Jazari invented a variety of machines for raising water in 1206,^[90] as well as water mills and water wheels with cams on their axle used to operate automata in the 12th century. Abū al-'Iz Ibn Ismā'īl ibn al-Razāz al-Jazarī ( 1136 - 1206) (أَبُو اَلْعِزِ بْنُ إسْماعِيلِ بْنُ الرِّزاز الجزري A machine is any device that uses Energy to perform some activity This article is about a type of structure For other locational uses see Milldam. A water wheel is a means of extracting power from the flow (or fall of water otherwise known as Hydropower. A cam is a projecting part of a rotating Wheel or shaft that strikes a Lever at one or more points on its circular path An axle is a central shaft for a rotating Wheel or Gear. In some cases the axle may be fixed in position with a bearing or Bushing ^[74]

Artificial weather simulation

Abbas Ibn Firnas invented an artificial weather simulation room, in which spectators saw stars and clouds, and were astonished by artificial thunder and lightning. Abbas Ibn Firnas (810 &ndash 887 AD) was also known as Abbas Qasim Ibn Firnas and العباس بن فرناس ( Arabic language) Weather control is the act of manipulating or altering certain aspects of the environment to produce desirable changes in weather Simulation is the imitation of some real thing state of affairs or process A star is a massive luminous ball of plasma. The nearest star to Earth is the Sun, which is the source of most of the Energy on Earth A cloud is a visible mass of droplets or frozen crystals floating in the atmosphere above the surface of the Earth or another Planetary body Thunder is the sound made by Lightning. Depending on the nature of the lightning and distance of the listener it can range from a sharp Lightning is an atmospheric discharge of Electricity, which typically occurs during Thunderstorms and sometimes during volcanic eruptions or These were due to mechanisms hidden in the basement. A basement is one or more floors of a building that are either completely or partially below the Ground floor. ^[26]

Complex segmental and epicyclic gears

Segmental gears ("a piece for receiving or communicating reciprocating motion from or to a cogwheel, consisting of a sector of a circular gear, or ring, having cogs on the periphery, or face. This is the page for mechanical Gears For other uses see Gear (disambiguation For the gear-like device used to drive a roller chain see Sprocket Reciprocating motion, also called Reciprocation, is an up and down (or back-and-forth motion which repeats over and over again This is the page for mechanical Gears For other uses see Gear (disambiguation For the gear-like device used to drive a roller chain see Sprocket "^[91]) and epicyclic gears were both first invented by the 11th century Arab engineer Ibn Khalaf al-Muradi from Islamic Spain. Epicyclic gearing or planetary gearing is a Gear system that consists of one or more outer gears or planet gears revolving about a central or The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or He employed both these types of gears in the gear trains of his mechanical clocks. A gear train is a set or system of Gears arranged to transfer rotational Torque from one part of a mechanical system to another A pendulum clock is a Clock that uses a Pendulum, a swinging weight as its Timekeeping element Simple gears have been known before him, but this was the the first known case of complex gears used to transmit high torque. This is the page for mechanical Gears For other uses see Gear (disambiguation For the gear-like device used to drive a roller chain see Sprocket A torque (τ in Physics, also called a moment (of force is a pseudo- vector that measures the tendency of a force to rotate an object about ^[3]

Segmental gears were also later employed by al-Jazari in 1206. Abū al-'Iz Ibn Ismā'īl ibn al-Razāz al-Jazarī ( 1136 - 1206) (أَبُو اَلْعِزِ بْنُ إسْماعِيلِ بْنُ الرِّزاز الجزري Professor Lynn Townsend White, Jr. wrote:

"Segmental gears first clearly appear in Al-Jazari, in the West they emerge in Giovanni de Dondi‘s astronomical clock finished in 1364, and only with the great Sienese engineer Francesco di Giorgio (1501) did they enter the general vocabulary of European machine design. Lynn Townsend White Jr ( April 29 1907 – March 30 1987) was a professor of medieval History at Princeton, Abū al-'Iz Ibn Ismā'īl ibn al-Razāz al-Jazarī ( 1136 - 1206) (أَبُو اَلْعِزِ بْنُ إسْماعِيلِ بْنُ الرِّزاز الجزري Jacopo and Giovanni de'Dondi (father and son were scholars active in 14th century Padua, Italy and are remembered today as being pioneers in the art of clock design and construction Siena is a city in Tuscany, Italy. It is the capital of the Province of Siena. Francesco di Giorgio Martini (baptised September 23, 1439 – 1502 was an Italian painter of the Sienese School, a sculptor an architect "^[92]

Crankshaft and connecting rod

Al-Jazari's invention of the crankshaft (and the crank mechanism) is considered the most important single mechanical invention after the wheel, as it transforms continuous rotary motion into a linear reciprocating motion,^[93] which is central to much of the machinery in the modern world, including the internal combustion engine^[30] and steam engine. Abū al-'Iz Ibn Ismā'īl ibn al-Razāz al-Jazarī ( 1136 - 1206) (أَبُو اَلْعِزِ بْنُ إسْماعِيلِ بْنُ الرِّزاز الجزري The crankshaft, sometimes casually abbreviated to crank, is the part of an Engine which translates reciprocating Linear A crank is an arm at right angles to a shaft (an Axle or spindle by which motion is imparted to or received from the shaft it is also used to change circular into Reciprocating A wheel is a circular device that is capable of rotating on its axis facilitating movement or transportation whilst supporting a load ( Mass) or performing labour in machines The rotary engine was an early type of internal combustion Aircraft engine in which the Crankshaft remains stationary and the entire Cylinder A reciprocating engine, also often known as a piston engine, is a Heat engine that uses one or more reciprocating Pistons to convert The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the Combustion of Fuel and an Oxidizer (typically air occurs in a confined space called a A steam engine is a Heat engine that performs Mechanical work using Steam as its Working fluid. ^[94]

The connecting rod was also invented by al-Jazari, and was used in a crank and connecting rod system in a rotating machine he developed in 1206, in two of his water raising machines. In a reciprocating Piston engine, the connecting rod or conrod connects the Piston to the crank or Crankshaft. This article is about a type of structure For other locational uses see Milldam. ^[93]

Crank-driven screw and screwpump

In ancient times, the screw and screwpump were driven by a treadwheel, but from the 12th and 13th centuries, Muslim engineers operated them using the crankshaft invented by al-Jazari. A screw is a shaft with a helical groove or thread formed on its surface and provision at one end to turn the screw The Archimedes' screw, Archimedean screw, or screwpump is a Machine historically used for transferring water from a low-lying body of water into Irrigation The word Treadmill, originally a type of mill operated by a person treading steps of a wheel to grind grain now designates a piece of indoor sporting equipment for running without The crankshaft, sometimes casually abbreviated to crank, is the part of an Engine which translates reciprocating Linear ^[95]

Double-action reciprocating suction piston pump

The valve-operated reciprocating suction piston pump with crankshaft-connecting rod mechanism from a manuscript of al-Jazari, the "father of modern day engineering". For other uses see Valve (disambiguation. For the electronic component see Thermionic valve. A reciprocating engine, also often known as a piston engine, is a Heat engine that uses one or more reciprocating Pistons to convert Suction is the flow of a fluid into a partial Vacuum, or region of low pressure A piston is a component of Reciprocating engines Pumps and Gas compressors It is located in a cylinder and is made gas-tight by Piston For information on Wikipedia project-related discussions see WikipediaVillage pump. The crankshaft, sometimes casually abbreviated to crank, is the part of an Engine which translates reciprocating Linear In a reciprocating Piston engine, the connecting rod or conrod connects the Piston to the crank or Crankshaft. Abū al-'Iz Ibn Ismā'īl ibn al-Razāz al-Jazarī ( 1136 - 1206) (أَبُو اَلْعِزِ بْنُ إسْماعِيلِ بْنُ الرِّزاز الجزري Engineering is the Discipline and Profession of applying technical and scientific Knowledge and

In 1206, al-Jazari demonstrates the first conversion of rotary to reciprocating motion, the first suction pipes and suction piston pump, the first use of double-action, and one of the earliest valve operations, when he invented a twin-cylinder double-action reciprocating suction piston pump, which seems to have had a direct significance in the development of modern engineering. Abū al-'Iz Ibn Ismā'īl ibn al-Razāz al-Jazarī ( 1136 - 1206) (أَبُو اَلْعِزِ بْنُ إسْماعِيلِ بْنُ الرِّزاز الجزري In Physics, circular motion is Rotation along a Circle: a circular path or a circular Orbit. Reciprocating motion, also called Reciprocation, is an up and down (or back-and-forth motion which repeats over and over again Suction is the flow of a fluid into a partial Vacuum, or region of low pressure For the various smoking devices see Hookah or Bong. For other uses see Pipe. A piston is a component of Reciprocating engines Pumps and Gas compressors It is located in a cylinder and is made gas-tight by Piston For information on Wikipedia project-related discussions see WikipediaVillage pump. A steam engine is a Heat engine that performs Mechanical work using Steam as its Working fluid. For other uses see Valve (disambiguation. For the electronic component see Thermionic valve. A straight-two engine, parallel twin or inline twin is a two-cylinder Piston engine that has its cylinders arranged in a single row Engineering is the Discipline and Profession of applying technical and scientific Knowledge and This pump is driven by a water wheel, which drives, through a system of gears, an oscillating slot-rod to which the rods of two pistons are attached. A water wheel is a means of extracting power from the flow (or fall of water otherwise known as Hydropower. This is the page for mechanical Gears For other uses see Gear (disambiguation For the gear-like device used to drive a roller chain see Sprocket The pistons work in horizontally opposed cylinders, each provided with valve-operated suction and delivery pipes. The delivery pipes are joined above the centre of the machine to form a single outlet into the irrigation system. This pump is remarkable for three reasons:^[96]

1. The earliest known use of a true suction pipe in a pump
2. The first application of the double-acting principle
3. The first conversion of rotary to reciprocating motion

Flywheel-driven chain pump and noria

A flywheel is used to smooth out the delivery of power from a driving device to a driven machine. Suction is the flow of a fluid into a partial Vacuum, or region of low pressure For the various smoking devices see Hookah or Bong. For other uses see Pipe. For information on Wikipedia project-related discussions see WikipediaVillage pump. A steam engine is a Heat engine that performs Mechanical work using Steam as its Working fluid. The rotary engine was an early type of internal combustion Aircraft engine in which the Crankshaft remains stationary and the entire Cylinder A reciprocating engine, also often known as a piston engine, is a Heat engine that uses one or more reciprocating Pistons to convert A flywheel is a mechanical device with significant Moment of inertia used as a storage device for Rotational energy. The mechanical flywheel was first invented by Ibn Bassal (fl. 1038-1075) of Islamic Spain, who pioneered the use of the flywheel in the chain pump (saqiya) and noria. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or A flywheel is a mechanical device with significant Moment of inertia used as a storage device for Rotational energy. The chain pump is a type of water Pump where an endless chain has positioned on it a series of circular discs A noria (ناعورة nā‘ūra, from ܢܥܘܪܐ nā‘urā) is a machine for lifting water into an Aqueduct using energy derived from the water's ^[97]

Fountain pen

The earliest historical record of a reservoir fountain pen dates back to the 10th century. A fountain pen is a Pen that contains a reservoir of water-based liquid ink. In 953, Al-Muizz Lideenillah, the caliph of Egypt, demanded a pen which would not stain his hands or clothes, and was provided with a pen which held ink in a reservoir and delivered it to the nib via gravity and capillary action. Maˤād al-Muˤizz li Dīn Allāh (932&ndash975 (معاذ المعز لدين الله also known as al'Moezz, was the fourth Fatimid Caliph and The Caliph is the Head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. As recorded by Qadi al-Nu'man al-Tamimi (d. Qadi (also known as Qazi or Kazi or Kadi) (قاضي is a judge ruling in accordance with the Sharia, Islamic religious law This is not the Sub-clan of Quraish, for that see Banu Taim Banī Tamīm or Banu Tamim or Banu Tameem 974) in his Kitdb al-Majalis wa 'l-musayardt, al-Mu’izz commissioned the construction of the pen instructing:^[98][99]

‘We wish to construct a pen which can be used for writing without having recourse to an ink-holder and whose ink will be contained inside it. A person can fill it with ink and write whatever he likes. The writer can put it in his sleeve or anywhere he wishes and it will not stain nor will any drop of ink leak out of it. The ink will flow only when there is an intention to write. We are unaware of anyone previously ever constructing (a pen such as this) and an indication of ‘penetrating wisdom’ to whoever contemplates it and realises its exact significance and purpose’. I exclaimed, ‘Is this possible?’ He replied, ‘It is possible if God so wills’.

Mechanical singing birds

Caliph al-Mamun had a silver and golden tree in his palace in Baghdad in 827, which had the features of an automatic machine. The Caliph is the Head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah Abu Jafar al-Ma'mun ibn Harun (also spelled Almamon and el-Mâmoûn) ( September 14, 786 &ndash August 9, 833) (المأمون Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous There were metal birds that sang automatically on the swinging branches of this tree built by Muslim engineers at the time. ^[28][100]

The Abbasid Caliph al-Muktadir also had a golden tree in his palace in Baghdad in 915, with birds on it flapping their wings and singing. ^[28][101]

Metronome

Lynn Townsend White, Jr. wrote that Abbas Ibn Firnas was the inventor of an early metronome. Lynn Townsend White Jr ( April 29 1907 – March 30 1987) was a professor of medieval History at Princeton, Abbas Ibn Firnas (810 &ndash 887 AD) was also known as Abbas Qasim Ibn Firnas and العباس بن فرناس ( Arabic language) A metronome is any device that produces a regulated aural visual or tactile pulse to establish a steady Tempo in the performance of music ^[56]

On/off switch

The on/off switch, an important feedback control principle, was invented by Muslim engineers between the 9th and 12th centuries, and it was employed in a variety of automata and water clocks. A switch is a mechanical device used to connect and disconnect an electric Circuit at will Control theory is an interdisciplinary branch of Engineering and Mathematics, that deals with the behavior of Dynamical systems The desired output A water clock or clepsydra ( Greek kleptein to steal; hydro water) is any timekeeper operated by means of a regulated flow of liquid into (inflow The mechanism later had an influence on the development of the electric on/off switch which appeared in the 1950s. ^[102]

The programmable humanoid robots of al-Jazari, the "father of robotics". A Humanoid Robot is a Robot with its overall appearance based on that of the Human body. Abū al-'Iz Ibn Ismā'īl ibn al-Razāz al-Jazarī ( 1136 - 1206) (أَبُو اَلْعِزِ بْنُ إسْماعِيلِ بْنُ الرِّزاز الجزري See also Robot Robotics is the science and technology of Robots and their design manufacture and application

Programmable humanoid robot

Al-Jazari (1136-1206) created the first recorded designs of a programmable humanoid robot in 1206, as opposed to the non-programmable automata in ancient times. Abū al-'Iz Ibn Ismā'īl ibn al-Razāz al-Jazarī ( 1136 - 1206) (أَبُو اَلْعِزِ بْنُ إسْماعِيلِ بْنُ الرِّزاز الجزري A Humanoid Robot is a Robot with its overall appearance based on that of the Human body. This article is about a self-operating machine For other uses of Automaton see Automaton (disambiguation or Automata (disambiguation. Al-Jazari's robot was originally a boat with four automatic musicians that floated on a lake to entertain guests at royal drinking parties. A robot is a mechanical or Virtual Artificial agent In practice it is usually an electro-mechanical system which by its appearance or movements His mechanism had a programmable drum machine with pegs (cams) that bump into little levers that operate the percussion. A cam is a projecting part of a rotating Wheel or shaft that strikes a Lever at one or more points on its circular path The drummer could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns if the pegs were moved around. ^[103]

Six-cylinder 'Monobloc' pump

In 1559, Taqi al-Din invented a six-cylinder 'Monobloc' pump. Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf al-Shami al-Asadi ( Arabic: تقي الدين محمد بن معروف الشامي السعدي Turkish: Takiyuddin) (1526&ndash1585 For information on Wikipedia project-related discussions see WikipediaVillage pump. It was a hydropowered water-raising machine incorporating valves, suction and delivery pipes, piston rods with lead weights, trip levers with pin joints, and cams on the axle of a water-driven scoop-wheel. Hydropower, hydraulic power or water power is power that is derived from the Force or Energy of moving water which may Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. A machine is any device that uses Energy to perform some activity For other uses see Valve (disambiguation. For the electronic component see Thermionic valve. Suction is the flow of a fluid into a partial Vacuum, or region of low pressure A piston is a component of Reciprocating engines Pumps and Gas compressors It is located in a cylinder and is made gas-tight by Piston Characteristics Lead has a dull luster and is a dense, Ductile, very soft highly A trip hammer (alt helve hammer) is a massive powered Hammer, usually raised by a Cam and then released to fall under the force of gravity. A joint is the location at which two or more Bones make contact A cam is a projecting part of a rotating Wheel or shaft that strikes a Lever at one or more points on its circular path An axle is a central shaft for a rotating Wheel or Gear. In some cases the axle may be fixed in position with a bearing or Bushing A water wheel is a means of extracting power from the flow (or fall of water otherwise known as Hydropower. ^[104]

Ventillator

Ventilators were invented in Egypt and were widely used in many houses throughout Cairo during the Middle Ages. Ventilation is the intentional movement of Air from outside a building to the inside This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Cairo () which means "the Vanquisher" or "the Triumphant" is the capital and largest city of Egypt. These ventillators were later described in detail by Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi in 1200, who reported that almost every house in Cairo has a ventillator, and that they cost anywhere from 1 to 500 dinars depending on their sizes and shapes. Abd-al-latif, Abd-el-latif or Abd-ul-Latif (1162 &ndash 1231 also known as al-Baghdadi ( Arabic, عبداللطيف البغدادي The Dinar is the name of the official currency in several countries Most ventillators in the city were oriented towards the Qibla, as was the city in general. Qiblah ( ar قبلة, also transliterated as Kiblah) is an Arabic word for the direction that should be faced when a Muslim prays during ^[105]

Other mechanical devices

Drawing of the self-trimming lamp in Ahmad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir's Arabic treatise on mechanical devices. The Banū Mūsā brothers (بنو موسى "Sons of Mūsā" were three 9th century Persian Scholars of Baghdad, active in the House Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language

In the 9th century, the Banū Mūsā brothers invented a number of automata (automatic machines) and mechanical devices, and they described a hundred such devices in their Book of Ingenious Devices. The Banū Mūsā brothers (بنو موسى "Sons of Mūsā" were three 9th century Persian Scholars of Baghdad, active in the House This article is about a self-operating machine For other uses of Automaton see Automaton (disambiguation or Automata (disambiguation. A machine is any device that uses Energy to perform some activity The Book of Ingenious Devices ( كتاب الحيل Kitab al-Hiyal) was a large illustrated work on Mechanical devices including Automata Some of their original inventions include:

• Valve^[65][106]
• Float valve^[106]
• Feedback controller^[106]
• Automatic control^[3]
• Float chamber^[3]
• Trick drinking vessels^[65]
• Hurricane lamp^[65]
• Self-trimming lamp^[65] (Ahmad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir)
• Self-feeding lamp^[65]
• Gas mask^[65]
• Grab^[65]
• Clamshell grab^[65]
• Fail-safe system^[65]

The Banu Musa also invented "the earliest known mechanical musical instrument", in this case a hydropowered organ which played interchangeable cylinders automatically. For other uses see Valve (disambiguation. For the electronic component see Thermionic valve. A float valve is a mechanical Feedback mechanism that regulates fluid level by using a float to drive an inlet valve so that a higher fluid level will force the valve closed Control theory is an interdisciplinary branch of Engineering and Mathematics, that deals with the behavior of Dynamical systems The desired output Automatic control is the research area and theoretical base for Mechanization and Automation, employing methods from Mathematics and Engineering A float chamber is a device for automatically regulating the supply of a liquid to a system A mechanical puzzle is a Puzzle presented as a set of mechanically interlinked pieces Drinking is the act of consuming a liquid through the mouth Water, for example is required for many of life's physiological processes and excess or decreased water intake A lantern is a Portable Lighting device used to illuminate broad areas The Banū Mūsā brothers (بنو موسى "Sons of Mūsā" were three 9th century Persian Scholars of Baghdad, active in the House An oil lamp is a simple vessel used to produce light continuously for a period of time from a fuel source A gas mask is a Mask worn over the face to protect the wearer from inhaling airborne Pollutants and Toxic materials A grab is a Mechanical device with two or more Jaws used to pick things up or to capture things Dredging is an Excavation activity or operation usually carried out at least partly underwater in shallow seas or Fresh water areas with the purpose of Fail-safe or fail-secure describes a device or feature which in the event of failure, responds in a way that will cause no harm or at least a minimum of harm A musical instrument is a device constructed or modified for the purpose of making Music. Hydropower, hydraulic power or water power is power that is derived from the Force or Energy of moving water which may The organ (from Greek όργανον – organon "organ instrument tool" is a Keyboard instrument of one or more divisions each According to Charles B. Fowler, this "cylinder with raised pins on the surface remained the basic device to produce and reproduce music mechanically until the second half of the nineteenth century. "^[107] The Banu Musa also invented an automatic flute player which appears to have been the first programmable machine. This article is about a self-operating machine For other uses of Automaton see Automaton (disambiguation or Automata (disambiguation. The flute is a Musical instrument of the Woodwind family Unlike other woodwind instruments a flute is a Reedless wind instrument that produces its ^[108]

In 1206, al-Jazari, along with his inventions above, also designed and constructed a number of other automata, such as home appliances and musical automata powered by water (see one of his works at The Automata of Al-Jazari). Abū al-'Iz Ibn Ismā'īl ibn al-Razāz al-Jazarī ( 1136 - 1206) (أَبُو اَلْعِزِ بْنُ إسْماعِيلِ بْنُ الرِّزاز الجزري Home appliances are electrical/mechanical Appliances which accomplish some Household functions such as Cooking or cleaning. Music is an Art form in which the medium is Sound organized in Time. Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. Al-Jazari also invented water wheels with cams on their axle used to operate automata. A water wheel is a means of extracting power from the flow (or fall of water otherwise known as Hydropower. A cam is a projecting part of a rotating Wheel or shaft that strikes a Lever at one or more points on its circular path An axle is a central shaft for a rotating Wheel or Gear. In some cases the axle may be fixed in position with a bearing or Bushing ^[74] described over fifty mechanical devices in six different categories, most of which he invented himself, along with construction drawings. Along with his inventions above, some of the other mechanival devices and contstruction methods he first described include: combination locks, a hand washing device, accurate calibration of orifices, lamination of timber to reduce warping, static balancing of wheels, use of paper models to establish a design, casting of metals in closed mould boxes with green sand, phlebotomy measures, linkage, water level, and devices able to elevate water from shallow wells or flowing rivers. A combination lock is a type of lock in which a sequence of numbers or symbols is used to open the lock Hand washing is the act of cleansing the Hands with Water or another Liquid, with or without the use of Soap or other Detergents A laminate is a material constructed by uniting two or more layers of material together Lumber or timber is Wood in any of its stages from felling through readiness for use as structural Material for Construction, or The M acro E xpansion T emplate A ttribute L anguage complements TAL, providing macros which allow the reuse of code across A sand casting or a sand molded casting is a cast part produced by forming a mold from a sand mixture and pouring molten liquid metal into the cavity in Green sand may refer to Molding sand used in Sand casting Greensand, a mineral containing Glauconite A mechanical linkage is a series of rigid links connected with joints to form a closed chain or a series of closed chains A spirit level or bubble level is an instrument designed to indicate whether a surface is Level or Plumb. ^{[90][74][28][109][110]}

Medical technology

Main article: Islamic medicine

Avicenna, considered the father of modern medicine and the father of momentum, described various anesthetics and medical and therapeutic drugs in his Canon of Medicine. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the In Classical mechanics, momentum ( pl momenta SI unit kg · m/s, or equivalently N · s) is the product Anesthesia, or anaesthesia (see spelling differences; from Greek grc αν- an-, "without" and grc αἲσθησις The Canon of Medicine ( Arabic: القانون في الطب Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb " The Law of Medicine " Persian

Medical institutions

Main article: Bimaristan

The Islamic hospital-universities were the first free public hospitals, the first medical schools, and the first universities to issue diplomas. Bimaristan is a Middle Persian and modern Persian ( بیمارستان bīmārestān) word meaning Hospital, with Bimar- Bimaristan is a Middle Persian and modern Persian ( بیمارستان bīmārestān) word meaning Hospital, with Bimar- A public hospital is a Hospital which is owned by a Government and receives government funding Medical education A medical school or faculty of medicine is a Tertiary educational institution—or part of such an institution—that teaches Medicine A university is an institution of Higher education and Research, which grants Academic degrees in a variety of subjects A diploma (from Greek δίπλωµα diploma, meaning "folded paper" is a Certificate or Deed issued by an educational institution The first of these institutions was opened in Baghdad during the time of Harun al-Rashid. Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous Hārūn al-Rashīd (and Persian: هارون الرشيد) also spelled Harun ar-Rashid; English: Aaron the Upright, Aaron the They then appeared in Egypt from 872 and then in Islamic Spain, Persia and the Maghreb thereafter. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or See Also Persian Empire History of Iran and Greater Iran (also referred to as the " Iranian Cultural Continent The Maghreb (المغرب العربي al-Maġrib al-ʿArabī) also rendered Maghrib (or rarely Moghreb) meaning "place of Sunset Physicians and surgeons at Islamic hospital-universities gave lectures to medical students and a diploma would be issued to any student who completed his/her education and was qualified to be a doctor of Medicine. A lecture is an oral Presentation intended to present information or teach people about a particular subject for example by a University or College Doctor of Medicine ( MD or MD, from the Latin Medicinæ Doctor meaning "Teacher of Medicine" is a doctoral ^[111] The psychiatric hospitals were also built in the medieval Islamic world. A psychiatric hospital (previously called insane asylum, mental hospital; or derogatorily looney bin, nut house or Funny Farm) is ^[112]

Surgical instruments

A wide variety of surgical instruments and techniques were invented in the Muslim world, as well as the refinement of earlier instruments and techniques. The following instruments are known to have been invented by Muslim surgeons:

• Hollow hypodermic needle and injection syringe by Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili (c. A hypodermic needle is a hollow needle commonly used with a Syringe to inject substances into the body An injection is an infusion method of putting Liquid into the Body, usually with a hollow needle and a Syringe which is pierced through A syringe is a simple piston Pump consisting of a plunger that fits tightly in a tube For the village in Azerbaijan see Mosul Azerbaijan. Mosul (الموصل Al Mūṣul, Kurdish: Mosul/Ninawa, Musul 1000). ^[113]
• Over 200 surgical instruments were listed by Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis) in the Al-Tasrif (1000), many of which were never used before by any previous surgeons. A surgical instrument is a specially designed tool or device for performing specific actions of carrying out desired effects during a Surgery or operation such as modifying TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف The Kitab al-Tasrif ( Arabic, كتاب التفسير) ( The Method of Medicine) was an influential Arabic medical encyclopedia Hamidan, for example, listed at least twenty six innovative surgical instruments that Abulcasis introduced.
• Bone saw by Abulcasis. Bones are rigid organs that form part of the Endoskeleton of Vertebrates They function to move support and protect the various organs of the body produce A saw is a Tool that uses a hard blade or wire with an abrasive edge to cut through softer materials TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف ^[30]
• Use of catgut for internal stitching, by Abulcasis. Catgut is the name applied to cord of great toughness and tenacity prepared from the Intestines of the Sheep or Goat, or occasionally from those of the TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف
• Ligature, by Abulcasis in the Al-Tasrif, for the blood control of arteries in lieu of cauterization. In medicine a ligature is a device similar to a Tourniquet, usually of thread or string tied around a limb blood vessel or similar to restrict blood flow TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف The Kitab al-Tasrif ( Arabic, كتاب التفسير) ( The Method of Medicine) was an influential Arabic medical encyclopedia ^[114]
• Plaster and adhesive bandage, by Abulcasis. The term plaster can refer to plaster of Paris Lime plaster, or Cement plaster. An adhesive bandage (called a sticking plaster, just plaster, or Elastoplast (a trademark in the United Kingdom, New Zealand TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف ^[115][116]
• Modern oral and inhalant anesthesia by Muslim anesthesiologists. Anesthesia, or anaesthesia (see spelling differences; from Greek grc αν- an-, "without" and grc αἲσθησις An anaesthetist ( English) or anesthesiologist ( US English) also "anaesthesiologist" is a medical doctor trained to administer ^[117]
• Surgeries under inhalant anesthesia with the use of narcotic-soaked sponges which were placed over the face, by Abu al-Qasim and Ibn Zuhr in Islamic Spain. Surgery (from the χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via chirurgiae meaning "hand work" is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental Anesthesia, or anaesthesia (see spelling differences; from Greek grc αν- an-, "without" and grc αἲσθησις The term narcotic (ναρκωτικός is believed to have been coined by the Greek physician Galen to refer to agents that benumb or deaden causing loss The sponges or poriferans (from Latin porus "pore" and ferre "to bear" are Animals TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف Abū Merwān ’Abdal-Malik ibn Zuhr ( أبو مروان عبد الملك بن زهر) (also known as Ibn Zuhr, Avenzoar, Abumeron or Ibn-Zohr Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or ^[117]

Military technology

Further information: Alchemy and chemistry in Islam

The first reference to gunpowder is probably a passage in the Zhenyuan miaodao yaolüe, a Taoist text tentatively dated to the mid-800s. Taoism (pronounced /ˈdaʊɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊɪzəm/ also spelled '''Daoism''') refers to a variety of related Philosophical and Religious traditions ^[118] After the spread of early gunpowder from China to the Muslim world, Muslim chemists and engineers developed compositions for explosive gunpowder (naft in Arabic) and their own weapons for use in gunpowder warfare. Gunpowder is a an explosive mixture of Sulfur, Charcoal and Potassium nitrate (also known as saltpetre/saltpeter that burns rapidly producing volumes China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National An explosive material is a material that either is chemically or otherwise Energetically unstable or produces a sudden expansion of the material usually accompanied A weapon is a Tool used either in Hunting, or attack or defence in Combat for the purpose of subduing enemy personnel or to destroy enemy weapons Early Modern warfare is associated with the start of the widespread use of Gunpowder and the development of suitable weapons to use the explosive

Purified potassium nitrate

Muslim chemists were the first to purify potassium nitrate (saltpetre; natrun or barud in Arabic) to the weapons-grade purity for use in gunpowder, as potassium nitrate needs to be purified to be used effectively. Potassium nitrate is a Chemical compound with the Chemical formula K[[Nitrogen N]] O 3 Weapons-grade means that a substance is pure enough to be used to make a Weapon or has properties that make it suitable for weapons use Gunpowder is a an explosive mixture of Sulfur, Charcoal and Potassium nitrate (also known as saltpetre/saltpeter that burns rapidly producing volumes This purification process was first described by Ibn Bakhtawayh in his al-Muqaddimat in 1029. The first complete purification process for potassium nitrate is described in 1270 by the Arab chemist and engineer Hasan al-Rammah of Syria in his book al-Furusiyya wa al-Manasib al-Harbiyya (The Book of Military Horsemanship and Ingenious War Devices, a. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية k. a. the Treatise on Horsemanship and Stratagems of War). He first described the use of potassium carbonate (in the form of wood ashes) to remove calcium and magnesium salts from the potassium nitrate. Carbonate of potash redirects here For one of potassium carbonate's impure forms see Potash. Wood is hard fibrous lignified structural tissue produced as secondary Xylem in the stems of Woody plants notably trees but also shrubs Calcium carbonate is a Chemical compound with the Chemical formula Ca[[Carbon C]] O 3 Magnesium carbonate, MgCO3 is a white Solid that occurs in nature as a Mineral. Salt is a Dietary mineral composed primarily of Sodium chloride that is essential for Animal life but toxic to most land plants ^[119][120] Bert S. Hall,^[121] however, disputes the efficacy of al-Rammah's formula for the purification of potassium nitrate.

Explosive gunpowder

The ideal composition for explosive gunpowder used in modern times is 75% potassium nitrate (saltpetre), 10% sulfur, and 15% carbon. An explosive material is a material that either is chemically or otherwise Energetically unstable or produces a sudden expansion of the material usually accompanied Gunpowder is a an explosive mixture of Sulfur, Charcoal and Potassium nitrate (also known as saltpetre/saltpeter that burns rapidly producing volumes Potassium nitrate is a Chemical compound with the Chemical formula K[[Nitrogen N]] O 3 Sulfur or sulphur (ˈsʌlfɚ see spelling below) is the Chemical element that has the Atomic number 16 Carbon (kɑɹbən is a Chemical element with the symbol C and its Atomic number is 6 Several almost identical compositions were first described by the Arab engineer Hasan al-Rammah as a recipe for the rockets (tayyar) he described in The Book of Military Horsemanship and Ingenious War Devices in 1270. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding A rocket or rocket vehicle is a Missile, Aircraft or other Vehicle which obtains Thrust by the reaction of the Several examples include a tayyar "rocket" (75% saltpetre, 8% sulfur, 15% carbon) and the tayyar buruq "lightning rocket" (74% saltpetre, 10% sulfur, 15% carbon). He also states recipes for fireworks and firecrackers made from these explosive gunpowder compositions. A firework is classified as a low explosive pyrotechnic device used primarily for aesthetic and entertainment purposes A firecracker (also known as a cracker, noise maker, banger or bunger) is a small Explosive device primarily designed to produce He states in his book that many of these recipes were known to his father and grandfather, hence dating back to at least the late 12th century. Compositions for an explosive gunpowder effect were not known in China or Europe until the 14th century. ^[44][120]

Medieval French reports suggest that Muslim armies also used explosives against the Sixth Crusade army led by Ludwig IV, Landgrave of Thuringia in the 13th century. French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people An explosive material is a material that either is chemically or otherwise Energetically unstable or produces a sudden expansion of the material usually accompanied The Sixth Crusade started in 1228 as an attempt to reconquer Jerusalem. Ludwig IV or Louis IV ( 28 October 1200 &ndash 11 September 1227) was the Landgrave of Thuringia from 1217 to ^[28]

Most sources credit the discovery of gunpowder to Chinese alchemists in the 9th century searching for an elixir of immortality. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Alchemy a part of the Occult Tradition is both a philosophy and a practice with an ultimately unknown aim involving the improvement of the alchemist as well as the making of The elixir of life, from Arabic الإكسير also known as the elixir of immortality or Dancing Water or Persian: Aab-e-Hayaat آب حیات ^[122] The discovery of gunpowder was probably the product of centuries of alchemical experimentation. ^[118] Saltpetre was known to the Chinese by the mid-1st century AD and there is strong evidence of the use of saltpetre and sulfur in various largely medicinal combinations. Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the ^[123] A Chinese alchemical text from 492 noted that saltpeter gave off a purple flame when ignited, providing for the first time a practical and reliable means of distinguishing it from other inorganic salts, making it possible to evaluate and compare purification techniques. ^[118]

Hand cannon, handgun, portable firearm

The first portable hand cannons (midfa) loaded with explosive gunpowder, the first example of a handgun and portable firearm, were used by the Egyptians to repel the Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260, and again in 1304. The hand cannon ( Arabic: midfa; Chinese: 手[[wikt 銃|銃]] as it was called was the first handheld portable A firearm is a Tool that projects either single or multiple Projectiles at high velocity through a controlled explosion This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. The Battle of Ain Jalut (or Ayn Jalut, in Arabic ar عين جالوت the "Eye of Goliath" or the "Spring of Goliath" took place on 3 September 1260 between The gunpowder compositions used for the cannons at these battles were later described in several manuscripts in the early 14th century. | NOTE Throughout this article "cannon" is used as BOTH the || singular and plural According to Shams al-Din Muhammad (d. 1327), the cannons had an explosive gunpowder composition (74% saltpetre, 11% sulfur, 15% carbon) again almost identical to the ideal compositions for explosive gunpowder used in modern times. ^[120]

Gunpowder cartridge

Gunpowder cartridges were first employed by the Egyptians, for use in their fire lances and hand cannons against the Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260. A cartridge (also known as a "round" packages the Bullet, Gunpowder and primer into a single metallic case precisely made to fit the The fire lance ( or fire spear is one of the first gunpowder weapons in the world The hand cannon ( Arabic: midfa; Chinese: 手[[wikt 銃|銃]] as it was called was the first handheld portable The Battle of Ain Jalut (or Ayn Jalut, in Arabic ar عين جالوت the "Eye of Goliath" or the "Spring of Goliath" took place on 3 September 1260 between ^[120]

Siege cannon

The use of cannons as siege machines dates back to Abu Yaqub Yusuf who employed them at the siege of Sijilmasa in 1274 according to Ibn Khaldun. | NOTE Throughout this article "cannon" is used as BOTH the || singular and plural A siege engine is a device that is designed to Break or circumvent City walls and other Fortifications in Siege warfare. The Anglicised name used for this article derives from the Arabic Banu Marin (also Benī Merīn, which is the source of the Spanish name Sijilmasa (or Sijilmassa) was a Mediaeval trade centre in the western Maghreb. Ibn Khaldūn or Ibn Khaldoun (full name أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون,, ( May 27, 1332 AD/732 AH &ndash March 19 ^[120]

Ballistic war machine

In the 12th century, the Seljuqs had facilities in Sivas for manufacturing war machines. The Great Seljuq Empire was a Medieval Sunni Muslim empire established by the Qynyq branch of Oghuz Turks that once controlled Sivas (the late-Classical and Medieval Sebastia, sometimes spelt Sebastea or Sebasteia, Greek: Σεβάστεια, Armenian War Machine ( James Rupert Rhodes) is a Fictional character, a Comic book Superhero from the Marvel Comics universe Ballistic weapons were manufactured in the Muslim world since the time of Kublai Khan in the 13th century. Ballistics ( gr βάλλειν ('ba'llein' "throw" is the science of Mechanics that deals with the motion behavior and effects of Projectiles Early years Kublai Khan studied Chinese culture and became enamoured of it According to Chinese sources, two Muslim engineers, Alaaddin and Ismail (d. 1330), built machines of a ballistic-weapons nature before the besieged city of Hang-show between 1271-1273. Alaaddin's weapons also played a major role in the conquest of several other Chinese cities. His son Ma-ho-scha also developed ballistic weapons. Ismail (transliterated as I-ssu-ma-yin) was present in the Mongol siege of Hsiang-yiang, where he built a war machine with the characteristics of a ballistic weapon. The Mongol Empire ( Mongolyn Ezent Güren or mn Их Mонгол улс Ikh Mongol Uls; 1206–1368 was the largest contiguous Empire Chinese sources mention that when this war machines were fired, the earth and skies shook, the cannons were buried seven feet into the ground and destroyed everything. | NOTE Throughout this article "cannon" is used as BOTH the || singular and plural His son Yakub also developed ballistic war machines. ^[28]

Torpedo

The invention of torpedoes occurred in the Muslim world, and were driven by a rocket system. The modern torpedo (historically called an automotive automobile locomotive or fish torpedo is a self-propelled explosive Projectile weapon launched above or below The works of Hasan al-Rammah in Syria in 1275 shows illustrations of a torpedo running on water with a rocket system filled with explosive materials and having three firing points. Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية ^[28]

Supergun

The first supergun was the Great Turkish Bombard, used by the troops of Mehmed II to capture Constantinople in 1453. For the arcade game hardware see SuperGun For the 1990s United Kingdom political scandal known as the "Supergun affair" see Arms-to-Iraq. The Great Turkish Bombard, also known as the Basilic, the Dardanelles Gun, the Hungarian Cannon, Muhammed's Great Gun and The Royal The Fall of Constantinople refers to the capture of the Byzantine Empire's capital by the Ottoman Empire on Tuesday May 29, 1453 (Julian Calendar Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS It had a 762 mm bore, and fired 680 kg (1500 lb) stones. The chief architect for the supergun was a Hungarian named Urban. Though his religion is unknown, he lived and worked in the Islamic world.

Autocannon and multi-barrel gun

Fathullah Shirazi (c. 1582), a Persian-Indian polymath and mechanical engineer who worked for Akbar the Great in the Mughal Empire, invented the autocannon, the earliest multi-shot gun. layout and formatting it should ensure no clashes with the top of the infobox This article is about the history of South Asia prior to the Partition of British India in 1947 A polymath ( Greek polymathēs, πολυμαθής "having learned much" is a person whose knowledge is not restricted to one subject area Akbar redirects here For other uses see Akbar (disambiguation Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar ( Jalāl ud-Dīn Muhammad Akbar The Mughal Empire ( Persian and self-designation گورکانی; مغلیہ سلطنت) was an Islamic imperial power which ruled most An autocannon is a rapid fire projectile Weapon. Autocannon often have a larger Caliber (calibre than a Machine gun (i As opposed to the polybolos and repeating crossbows used earlier in ancient Greece and China, respectively, Shirazi's rapid-firing gun had multiple gun barrels that fired hand cannons loaded with gunpowder. The polybolos (from Ancient Greek πολυβόλος, from πολύς - polys "many much" + βάλλω - ballo "to A repeating crossbow ( Chinese: 連弩 or Chu-ko-nu) is a Crossbow where the separate actions of stringing the bow placing the bolt and shooting The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National For the fictional characters see Gunbarrel (Transformers. A gun barrel is the tube usually Metal, through which a controlled Explosion ^[124]

Iron rocket artillery

Tipu Sultan invented the first iron rocket artillery in Mysore, India. Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 Rocket artillery is a type of Artillery equipped with rocket launchers instead of conventional guns or mortars. Mysore (maɪˈsɔɚ in English; renamed to Mysuru|ಮೈಸೂರು) (ಮೈಸೂರು is the second largest city in the state of Karnataka, India India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country

The first iron rocket artillery were developed by Tipu Sultan, a Muslim ruler of the South Indian Kingdom of Mysore. Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 Rocket artillery is a type of Artillery equipped with rocket launchers instead of conventional guns or mortars. South India is the area encompassing India 's states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu as well as the union The Kingdom of Mysore/State of Mysore (ಮೈಸೂರು ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ was both a Kingdom (1399-1799 CE and a Princely state (1799-1947 He successfully used these iron rockets against the larger forces of the British East India Company during the Anglo-Mysore Wars. The Honourable East India Company ( HEIC) referred to most commonly as the East India Company, also historically and colloquially as John Company, or The Anglo-Mysore Wars were a series of wars fought in India over the last three decades of the eighteenth-century between the Kingdom of Mysore and the British The Mysore rockets of this period were much more advanced than what the British had seen, chiefly because of the use of iron tubes for holding the propellant; this enabled higher thrust and longer range for the missile (up to 2 km range). Mysore (maɪˈsɔɚ in English; renamed to Mysuru|ಮೈಸೂರು) (ಮೈಸೂರು is the second largest city in the state of Karnataka, India After Tipu's eventual defeat in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War and the capture of the Mysore iron rockets, they were influential in British rocket development and were soon put into use in the Napoleonic Wars. The Fourth Anglo-Mysore War ( 1798 &ndash 1799) was a war in South India between the Kingdom of Mysore and the British East India Company The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815 involved Napoleon's French Empire and a shifting set of European allies and opposing coalitions ^[125]

Navigational technology

Further information: Muslim Agricultural Revolution - Age of discovery

Baculus

The baculus, used for nautical astronomy, originates from Islamic Spain and was later used by Portuguese navigators for long-distance travel. The Islamic Golden Age from the 8th century to the 13th century witnessed a fundamental transformation in Agriculture known as the Arab Agricultural Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or ^[126]

Caravel

The origins of the caravel ship, used for long distance travel by the Spanish and Portuguese since the 15th century, date back to the qarib used by explorers from Islamic Spain in the 13th century. This article is about the Caravel boat type For the carvel type of boat building see Carvel (boat building. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or ^[127]

Cartographic instruments

• Cartographic grids in 10th century Baghdad. Grid references define locations on Maps using Cartesian coordinates. Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous ^[69]
• Cartographic Qibla instruments, which were brass instruments with Mecca-centred world maps and cartographic grids engraved on them in the 17th century. Qiblah ( ar قبلة, also transliterated as Kiblah) is an Arabic word for the direction that should be faced when a Muslim prays during Brass is any Alloy of Copper and Zinc; the proportions of zinc and copper can be varied to create a range of brasses with varying properties Mecca ˈmɛkə also spelled Makkah ˈmækə (in full Makkah Al-Mukarramah (Arabic mækːæ(t ælmʊkarˑamæ مكّة المكرمة, literally Honored If you are looking for an editable blank World political map go to A world map is a Map of the surface of the Earth, which may be Grid references define locations on Maps using Cartesian coordinates. ^[69]
• Cartographic Qibla instrument with a sundial and compass attached to it,^[128] by Muhammad Husayn in the 17th century. Qiblah ( ar قبلة, also transliterated as Kiblah) is an Arabic word for the direction that should be faced when a Muslim prays during A sundial is a device that measures time by the position of the Sun. A compass, magnetic compass or mariner's compass is a navigational instrument for determining direction relative to the earth's Magnetic poles It consists ^[129]

Compass rose

The Arabs invented the 32-point compass rose during the Middle Ages. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding For Compass Airlines an Airline in the US using the Callsign "Compass Rose" See Compass Airlines A compass rose is a figure displaying the orientation ^[130]

Other inventions

Fielding H. Garrison wrote in the History of Medicine:

"The Saracens themselves were the originators not only of algebra, chemistry, and geology, but of many of the so-called improvements or refinements of civilization, such as street lamps, window-panes, firework, stringed instruments, cultivated fruits, perfumes, spices, etc. Colonel Fielding Hudson Garrison, MD ( November 5, 1870 &ndash April 18, 1935) was an acclaimed medical historian, Saracen was a term used by Europeans in the Middle Ages for Fatimids at first then later for all who professed the religion of Islam. Algebra is a branch of Mathematics concerning the study of structure, relation, and Quantity. Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem meaning "earth") is the Science concerned with the composition structure and properties Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit A street light, lamppost, street lamp, light standard or lamp standard, is a raised source of Light on the edge of a Road GlassWindowjpg|thumb|right|190px|A stained glass panel depicting Biblical scenes at a historic church in Scotland]] A window is an opening A paned window is a Window that is divided into sections known as panes Originally the meaning pertained to sectioned glass Windows in walls A firework is classified as a low explosive pyrotechnic device used primarily for aesthetic and entertainment purposes A string instrument (or stringed instrument) is a Musical instrument that produces Sound by means of Vibrating strings In the Hornbostel-Sachs Tillage is the agricultural preparation of the Soil by Ploughing ripping or turning it The term fruit has different meanings dependent on context and the term is not synonymous in Food preparation and Biology. Perfume is a mixture of fragrant Essential oils and Aroma compounds Fixatives and Solvents used to give the human body animals objects and living A spice is a dried Seed, Fruit, Root, Bark or vegetative substance used in Nutritionally insignificant quantities as a Food additive . . "

Other inventions from the Islamic world include:

• Frequency analysis, cryptanalysis, three-course meal, the Persian carpet, the modern cheque. In Cryptanalysis, frequency analysis is the study of the frequency of letters or groups of letters in a Ciphertext. Cryptanalysis (from the Greek kryptós, "hidden" and analýein, "to loosen" or "to untie" is the study of methods for For the coarsely ground flour see Flour. A meal is an instance of Eating, specifically one that takes place at a specific time and includes The Persian carpet ( Pahlavi bōb Persian farš فرش meaning "to spread" and qāli) is an essential part of A cheque (spelled check in American English) is a Negotiable instrument instructing a Financial institution to pay a specific amount of ^[30]
• An early system of air mail utilizing homing pigeons (by Fatimid Caliph Aziz), advances in the field of optics, musical theory, and certain irrigation techniques. The homing pigeon is a variety of domesticated Rock Pigeon ( Columba livia domestica) that has been selectively Al-Aziz (955&ndash996 (العزيز بالله was the fifth Caliph of the Fatimids (975&ndash996 Music theory is the field of study that deals with the Mechanics of music and how Music works Irrigation is an artificial application of water to the soil usually for assisting in growing crops ^{[72][73][131]}

Graph paper and orthogonal grids

The first known use of graph paper dates back to the medieval Islamic world, where weavers often carefully drew and encoded their patterns onto graph paper prior to weaving. Format and availability of graph paper Graph paper is available either as Loose leaf paper or bound in Notebooks It is becoming This article describes textile weaving For other senses of this word see Weaving (disambiguation. ^[132] Islamic quadrants used for various astronomical and timekeeping purposes from the 10th century also introduced markings and orthogonal or regular grids that are still identical to modern graph paper. A quadrant is an instrument that is used to measure angles up to 90° In Mathematics, two Vectors are orthogonal if they are Perpendicular, i A regular grid is a Tessellation of the Euclidean plane by congruent rectangles or a space-filling tessellation of rectilinear Parallelepipeds ^[133][134]

Institutions

A number of important scientific and economic institutions previously unknown in the ancient world have their origins in the medieval Islamic world, with the most notable examples being:^[135]

• The public hospital (which replaced healing temples and sleep temples)^[135] (see Bimaristan)
• The psychiatric hospital^[112] (see Bimaristan)
• The public library and lending library^[135]
• The academic degree-granting university^[135] (see Madrasah and Bimaristan)
• The astronomical observatory as a research institute^[135] (as opposed to a private observation post as was the case in ancient times)^[136] (see Islamic astronomy)
• The trust institution and charitable trust (see Waqf)^[137][138]
• The agency and aval (Hawala). Institutions are structures and mechanisms of Social order and Cooperation governing the Behavior of a Set of Individuals A public hospital is a Hospital which is owned by a Government and receives government funding Sleep temples (also known as dream temples or Egyptian sleep temples) are regarded by some as an early instance of Hypnosis over 4000 years ago Sleep temples (also known as dream temples or Egyptian sleep temples) are regarded by some as an early instance of Hypnosis over 4000 years ago Bimaristan is a Middle Persian and modern Persian ( بیمارستان bīmārestān) word meaning Hospital, with Bimar- A psychiatric hospital (previously called insane asylum, mental hospital; or derogatorily looney bin, nut house or Funny Farm) is Bimaristan is a Middle Persian and modern Persian ( بیمارستان bīmārestān) word meaning Hospital, with Bimar- A public library (also called circulating library) is a Library which is accessible by the Public and is generally funded from public sources (such A lending library is a Library from which books are lent out The earliest reference or use of the term 'lending library located in English correspondence dates back to at A degree is any of a wide range of status levels conferred by institutions of Higher education, such as universities, normally as the result of successfully completing A university is an institution of Higher education and Research, which grants Academic degrees in a variety of subjects "Madrasa" and "Medrese" redirect here For the village in Azerbaijan see Mədrəsə. Bimaristan is a Middle Persian and modern Persian ( بیمارستان bīmārestān) word meaning Hospital, with Bimar- An observatory is a location used for observing terrestrial and/or celestial events A research institute is an establishment endowed for doing Research. An observation post, temporary or fixed is a position from which soldiers can watch enemy movements to warn of approaching soldiers (such as in Trench warfare In Common law legal systems a trust is an arrangement whereby Property (including real tangible and intangible is managed by one person (or persons or organizations A charitable trust is a trust established for charitable purposes and is a more specific term than " charitable organisation " A waqf ( plural, awqāf; vakıf wæqəf is an inalienable religious endowment in Islam, typically devoting a building or plot of land for Muslim Agency is an area of Commercial law dealing with a Contractual or Quasi-contractual Tripartite set of relationships when an Agent Aval or Endorsement is a shared-in-common commitment of Payment of an obligation in favor of the creditor or Beneficiary, granted by a third Hawala (also known as hundi) is an Informal value transfer system based on performance and honor of a huge network of money brokers which are primarily located in ^[139]

Contested inventions

These are technologies which may or may not have been first invented in the Islamic world, with some scholars suggesting they were, and others suggesting they were invented in contemporary or earlier civilizations, such as China, Greece, India, Rome, or pre-Islamic Egypt, Mesopotamia or Persia. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca This article is about the history of South Asia prior to the Partition of British India in 1947 Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia

Some of the technologies which were invented in the Islamic world independantly of other civilizations are also listed here, as well as technologies developed by the Islamic world which some consider to be improvements or refinements rather than inventions.

Astrolabes

Main article: Islamic astronomy

Muslim astronomers made significant improvements to the astrolabe which originally appeared in the Hellenistic world, and they produced a variety of different variations. This article focuses on the cultural aspects of the Hellenistic age for the historical aspects see Hellenistic period. Some of these improvements and variations include:

• Mechanical geared astrolabe by Ibn Samh (c. Mechanical Engineering is an Engineering discipline that involves the application of principles of physics for analysis Design, Manufacturing This is the page for mechanical Gears For other uses see Gear (disambiguation For the gear-like device used to drive a roller chain see Sprocket 1020). ^[140]
• In the 10th century, al-Sufi first described over 1000 different uses of an astrolabe, including uses in astronomy, astrology, horoscopes, navigation, surveying, timekeeping, Qibla, Salah, etc. Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study This is a sub-article of History of science in the Islamic World and Astrology. The mariner's astrolabe, also called sea astrolabe, is not an Astrolabe proper but rather a graduated circle with an Alidade used to measure Surveying is the technique and science of accurately determining the terrestrial or three-dimensional space Position of points and the distances and angles between For other uses see Time (disambiguation Time is a component of a measuring system used to sequence events to compare the durations of Qiblah ( ar قبلة, also transliterated as Kiblah) is an Arabic word for the direction that should be faced when a Muslim prays during Ṣalāt ( Arabic: صلاة‎, pl ṣalawāt, Qur'anic Arabic: صلوة ṣalawah) (also munz in Pashto and ^[64]
• Navigational astrolabe was invented in the Islamic world. The mariner's astrolabe, also called sea astrolabe, is not an Astrolabe proper but rather a graduated circle with an Alidade used to measure It employed the use of a polar projection system. In Mathematics, the polar coordinate system is a two-dimensional Coordinate system in which each point on a plane is determined by A map projection is any method of representing the Surface of a sphere or other shape on a plane. ^[141]
• Saphaea, the first universal astrolabe developed for all latitudes, by Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī (Arzachel)
• Orthographical astrolabe by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī in the 11th century. The astrolabe is a historical Astronomical instrument used by classical astronomers, Navigators Latitude, usually denoted symbolically by the Greek letter phi ( Φ) gives the location of a place on Earth (or other planetary body north or south of the Orthographic projection is a Map projection of Cartography. Like the Stereographic projection and Gnomonic projection, Orthographic ^[142]
• Zuraqi, a heliocentric astrolabe where the Earth is in motion rather than the sky, by al-Sijzi in the 11th century. In Astronomy, heliocentrism is the theory that the Sun is at the center of the Solar System. Abu Sa'id Ahmed ibn Mohammed ibn Abd al-Jalil al-Sijzi (short for al-Sijistani was a Persian astronomer and mathematician. ^[143]
• Linear astrolabe ("staff of al-Tusi") by Sharaf al-Dīn al-Tūsī in the 12th century. The astrolabe is a historical Astronomical instrument used by classical astronomers, Navigators (1135 - 1213 was a Persian mathematician and astronomer of the Islamic Golden Age (during the Middle Ages) ^[144]

Aviation technology

Hang glider

Abbas Ibn Firnas possibly built the first hang glider, though there are instances of earlier forms of manned gliders being used in ancient China. Abbas Ibn Firnas (810 &ndash 887 AD) was also known as Abbas Qasim Ibn Firnas and العباس بن فرناس ( Arabic language) History See also History of hang gliding Summary: Hang gliding existed in China perhaps by the 4th century AD according to the writing of the Terminology A "glider" is an unpowered Aircraft. The most common types of glider are today used for sporting purposes Knowledge of Firman and Firnas' flying machines spread to other parts of Europe from Arabic references. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language ^[21][22]

Artificial wings

Ibn Firnas' hang glider was the first to have artificial wings, though the flight was eventually unsuccessful. WING "ESPN 1410" is a commercial AM radio station in Dayton Ohio operating with 5000 watts at 1410 kHz with studios offices and transmitter located on David According to Evliya Çelebi in the 17th century, Hezarfen Ahmet Celebi was the first aviator to have made a successful flight with artificial wings between 1630-1632. Evliya Çelebi (اوليا چلبي the son of the imperial goldsmith Derviş Mehmed Zılli ( March 25 (? 1611 &ndash 1682 was the most famous Ottoman ^[28]

It has been claimed that artificial wings may have been known to the ancient Greeks, due to the myth of Icarus. Icarus ( Greek:, Latin: Íkaros, Etruscan: Vicare) is a character in Greek mythology.

Chemical technology

Main article: Alchemy and chemistry in Islam

Chemical processes

• Liquefaction, crystallization (al-tabalwur), purification, oxidisation and evaporation (tabkhir) by Geber. Crystallization is the (natural or artificial process of formation of solid Crystals precipitating from a homogeneous --> identical Solution Beta oxidation is the process by which Fatty acids in the form of Acyl-CoA molecules are broken down in Mitochondria and/or in Peroxisomes to Evaporation is the process by which Molecules in a Liquid state (e For the 12th century astronomer see Jabir ibn Aflah. For the anonymous 14th century Spanish alchemist see Pseudo-Geber. ^[30]
• Assation (or roasting), cocotion (or digestion), ceration, lavage, solution, mixture, and fixation. Precipitation is the formation of a Solid in a Solution during a Chemical reaction. Ceration is a chemical process, a common practice in Alchemy. In Chemistry, a solution is a Homogeneous Mixture composed of two or more substances In Chemistry, a mixture is a substance made by combining two or more different materials without a chemical reaction occurring (the objects do not bond together Fixation in Alchemy refers to a process by which a previously volatile substance is "transformed" into a form (often Solid) that is not affected ^[145]
• Calcination (al-tashwiya). Calcination (also referred to as calcining) is a thermal treatment process applied to ores and other solid materials in order to bring about a Thermal decomposition ^[33][3]

Chemical substances

• Dyestuff by Muslim chemists. A dye can generally be described as a Colored substance that has an affinity to the substrate to which it is being applied ^[59]
• Arsenic, alkali, alkali salt, rice vinegar, boraxes, potassium nitrate, sulfur and purified sal ammoniac by Geber. Arsenic (ˈɑrsənɪk is a Chemical element that has the symbol As and Atomic number of 33 In Chemistry, an alkali (from Arabic: Al-Qaly القلي القالي) is a basic, ionic salt of an Alkali metal Alkali salts or base (basic salts are salts which has basic ions such as Hydroxides or Carbonates. Rice vinegar is a Vinegar made from fermented Rice or Rice wine in China, Korea, and Japan. Borax (from Persian burah) also known as sodium borate, sodium tetraborate, or disodium tetraborate, is an important Boron Potassium nitrate is a Chemical compound with the Chemical formula K[[Nitrogen N]] O 3 Sulfur or sulphur (ˈsʌlfɚ see spelling below) is the Chemical element that has the Atomic number 16 Sal ammoniac is a rare mineral composed of Ammonium chloride, NH4Cl For the 12th century astronomer see Jabir ibn Aflah. For the anonymous 14th century Spanish alchemist see Pseudo-Geber. ^[3]
• Sal nitrum and vitriol by al-Razi. Nitrogen (ˈnaɪtɹəʤɪn is a Chemical element that has the symbol N and Atomic number 7 and Atomic weight 14 Sulfuric (or sulphuric acid, H 2 S[[oxygen O]]4 is a strong Mineral acid. ^[3]
• Ethanol, sulfuric acid, ammonia, mercury, camphor, pomades, and syrups. Sulfuric (or sulphuric acid, H 2 S[[oxygen O]]4 is a strong Mineral acid. Ammonia is a compound with the formula N[[hydrogen H3]] It is normally encountered as a Gas with a characteristic pungent Odor Mercury (ˈmɜrkjʊri also called quicksilver or hydrargyrum, is a Chemical element with the symbol Hg ( Latinized hydrargyrum } Camphor is a waxy white or transparent solid with a strong aromatic odor Pomade (also called pomatum) is a greasy or waxy substance that is used to style Hair. In Cooking, a syrup (from Arabic' ar شراب sharab, beverage via Latin siropus) is a thick Viscous Liquid ^[53]
• Lead carbonatic, arsenic, and antimony. Cerussite (also known as lead carbonate or White lead ore) is a Mineral consisting of Lead Carbonate (PbCO3 Arsenic (ˈɑrsənɪk is a Chemical element that has the symbol As and Atomic number of 33 Antimony (IPA (Received Pronunciation, /ˈæntɪmoʊni/ (US is a Chemical element with the symbol Sb (stibium meaning "mark" and ^[146]
• Nitric and sulfuric acids, alkali, the salts of mercury, antimony, and bismuth. Nitric acid ( H[[nitrate NO3]] also known as Aqua fortis and spirit of nitre, is a highly corrosive and Sulfuric (or sulphuric acid, H 2 S[[oxygen O]]4 is a strong Mineral acid. In Chemistry, an alkali (from Arabic: Al-Qaly القلي القالي) is a basic, ionic salt of an Alkali metal Salt is a Dietary mineral composed primarily of Sodium chloride that is essential for Animal life but toxic to most land plants Mercury (ˈmɜrkjʊri also called quicksilver or hydrargyrum, is a Chemical element with the symbol Hg ( Latinized hydrargyrum Antimony (IPA (Received Pronunciation, /ˈæntɪmoʊni/ (US is a Chemical element with the symbol Sb (stibium meaning "mark" and Bismuth (ˈbɪzməθ is a Chemical element that has the symbol Bi and Atomic number 83 ^[32]
• Aqua regia, alum, sal ammoniac, stones, sulfur, salts, and spirits of mercury. Aqua regia ( Latin for royal water) is a highly corrosive fuming yellow or red solution For the purely-slang term alum meaning "graduate" see Alumnus. Sal ammoniac is a rare mineral composed of Ammonium chloride, NH4Cl In Geology, rock is a naturally occurring aggregate of Minerals and/or Mineraloids The Earth's outer solid layer the ‘ Lithosphere Sulfur or sulphur (ˈsʌlfɚ see spelling below) is the Chemical element that has the Atomic number 16 Salt is a Dietary mineral composed primarily of Sodium chloride that is essential for Animal life but toxic to most land plants Mercury (ˈmɜrkjʊri also called quicksilver or hydrargyrum, is a Chemical element with the symbol Hg ( Latinized hydrargyrum ^[3]
• The classification of all seven classical metals: gold, silver, tin, lead, mercury, iron, and copper, by Geber. The classical metals are the seven metals which were discovered and put to use during antiquity and the Middle Ages. Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 Silver (ˈsɪlvɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol " Ag " (argentum from the Ancient Greek: ἀργήντος - argēntos gen Tin is a Chemical element with the symbol Sn (stannum and Atomic number 50 Characteristics Lead has a dull luster and is a dense, Ductile, very soft highly Mercury (ˈmɜrkjʊri also called quicksilver or hydrargyrum, is a Chemical element with the symbol Hg ( Latinized hydrargyrum Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 Copper (ˈkɒpɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol Cu (cuprum and Atomic number 29 For the 12th century astronomer see Jabir ibn Aflah. For the anonymous 14th century Spanish alchemist see Pseudo-Geber. ^[3]

Glass industry

• Stained glass, by Muslim architects in Southwest Asia. For the Blackford Oakes novel see Stained Glass (novel The term stained glass refers either to the material of coloured Glass or to the art Islamic architecture has encompassed a wide range of both secular and religious styles from the foundation of Islam to the present day influencing the design and construction Southwest Asia or Southwestern Asia (largely overlapping with the Middle East) is the southwestern portion of Asia.
• Clear, colourless, high-purity glass, by Muslims in the 9th century. Glass in the common sense refers to a Hard, Brittle, transparent Solid, such as that used for Windows many ^[147]
• Artificial gemstone produced from high-quality coloured glass, by Geber (d. A gemstone or gem, also called a precious or semi-precious stone, is a piece of attractive Mineral, which &mdash when cut and polished &mdash Glass in the common sense refers to a Hard, Brittle, transparent Solid, such as that used for Windows many For the 12th century astronomer see Jabir ibn Aflah. For the anonymous 14th century Spanish alchemist see Pseudo-Geber. 815). ^[147]

Hygiene industries

• Sodium Lye (Al-Soda Al-Kawia), perfumed and colored soaps, and liquid and solid soaps by Muslim chemists. Sodium hydroxide ( Na[[hydroxide OH]]) also known as Lye, caustic soda and (incorrectly according to IUPAC nomenclature Perfume is a mixture of fragrant Essential oils and Aroma compounds Fixatives and Solvents used to give the human body animals objects and living SOAP (see below for name and origins is a protocol for exchanging XML -based messages over Computer networks normally using Liquid is one of the principal States of matter. A liquid is a Fluid that has the particles loose and can freely form a distinct surface at the boundaries of ^[51]
• Recipes for soaps, such as ones made from sesame oil, potash, alkali, lime, and molds, leaving hard soap (soap bar). Sesame oil (also known as "gingelly oil" or "til oil" is an edible Vegetable oil derived from Sesame seeds Besides being used as a Cooking Potash (or carbonate of potash) is an impure form of Potassium carbonate ( K 2 CO3) In Chemistry, an alkali (from Arabic: Al-Qaly القلي القالي) is a basic, ionic salt of an Alkali metal Lime is a general term for various naturally occurring Minerals and materials derived from them in which Carbonates Oxides and Hydroxides of WikipediaManual_of_Style#National_varieties_of_English --> Molds (or ^[51]
• Shampoo by the Bengali Muslim Sake Dean Mahomet in 1759. Shampoo is a Hair care product used for the removal of oils, dirt skin particles Dandruff, environmental pollutants and other contaminant particles that The Bengali people are the ethnic community from Bengal (divided between Bangladesh and India) on the Indian subcontinent with a history dating Sake Dean Mahomet (also Sake Dean Mahomed or in Arabic, Shaykh Din Muhammad) (শেখ দীন মহাম্মদ (1759–1851 was Year 1759 ( MDCCLIX) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year ^[30]

Laboratory Apparatus

• Al-Razi (Rhazes), in his Secretum secretorum (Latinized title), first described the following tools for melting substances (li-tadhwib): hearth (kur), bellows (minfakh aw ziqq), crucible (bawtaqa), the but bar but (in Arabic) or botus barbatus (in Latin), tongs (masik aq kalbatan), scissors (miqta), hammer (mukassir), file (mibrad). Melting is a process that results in the phase change of a substance from a Solid to a Liquid. In common historic and modern usage a hearth (Har-th is a Brick - or stone -lined Fireplace or Oven used for Cooking and/or Heating A bellows is a device for delivering pressurized Air in a controlled quantity to a controlled location A crucible is a cup-shaped piece of laboratory object Laboratory equipment used to contain Chemical compounds when heating them to very high Temperatures Tongs are gripping and lifting Tools of which there are many forms adapted to their specific use Scissors are hand operated cutting instruments consisting of a pair of Metal Blades connected in such a way that the blades meet and cut materials placed A hammer is a tool meant to deliver an impact to an object The most common uses are for driving nails fitting parts and breaking up objects A file (or hand-file) is a Hand Tool used to shape Material by cutting ^[33]

Many of these tools are required, in some form or another, to melt metals and prepare alloys such as bronze and brass. Tongs, hammers, scissors, and files are similarly ancient.

Civil engineering

Cobwork

Cobwork (tabya) first appeared in the Maghreb and al-Andalus in the 11th century and was first described in detail by Ibn Khaldun in the 14th century, who regarded it as a characteristically Muslim practice. Cob is a Building material consisting of Clay, Sand, Straw, water and earth, similar to Adobe. The Maghreb (المغرب العربي al-Maġrib al-ʿArabī) also rendered Maghrib (or rarely Moghreb) meaning "place of Sunset Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or Ibn Khaldūn or Ibn Khaldoun (full name أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون,, ( May 27, 1332 AD/732 AH &ndash March 19 Cobwork later spread to other parts of Europe from the 12th century onwards. ^[148]

High-rise skyscrapers and vertical construction urban planning

The 16th-century city of Shibam in Yemen is regarded as the "oldest skyscraper-city in the world" and the "Manhattan of the desert. Shibam (شبام is a town in Hadramawt, Yemen with about 7000 inhabitants Yemen ( Arabic: اليَمَن al-Yaman officially the Republic of Yemen ( Arabic: الجمهورية اليمنية al-Jumhuuriyya A skyscraper is a tall continuously habitable Building. There is no official definition or a precise cutoff height above which a building may clearly be classified as a skyscraper Manhattan Island, in New York Harbor, is much the largest part of the Borough of Manhattan, one of the Five Boroughs which form the City of New York " This is the earliest example of urban planning based on the principle of vertical construction. Shibam was made up of over 500 tower houses,^[149] each one rising 5 to 11 storeys high,^[150] with each floor being an apartment occupied by a single family. A storey (spelled story in the USA only floor, deck or level is the level of a Building above (or below the Ground. ^[149] The city has the tallest mud buildings in the world, with some of them being over 100 feet high^[151] (over 30 meters), thus being the first high-rise buildings (which need to be at least 75 feet or 23 meters). A high-rise is a tall Building or structure Normally the function of the building is added for example high-rise Apartment building or

However, the "first skyscraper" is usually considered to be the Home Insurance Building, which was 138 feet (42 meters) tall and was built in 1885. The Home Insurance Building was built in 1885 in Chicago, Illinois and demolished in 1931 to make way for the Field Building (now the

In the 20th century, the Bangladeshi engineer Fazlur Khan, regarded as the "Einstein of structural engineering" and "the greatest architectural engineer of the second half of the 20th century" produced designs of structural systems that remain fundamental to all high-rise skyscrapers, which he employed in his constructions for the John Hancock Center and Sears Tower. ( Bengali: বাংলাদেশ inc-Latn Bangladesh) officially Fazlur Rahman Khan ( Bengali: ফজলুর রহমান খান Fozlur Rôhman Khan) ( April 3 Albert Einstein ( German: ˈalbɐt ˈaɪ̯nʃtaɪ̯n; English: ˈælbɝt ˈaɪnstaɪn (14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955 was a German -born theoretical Structural engineering is a field of Engineering dealing with the analysis and design of Structures that support or resist loads Structural engineering is Architectural engineering, also known as Building Engineering, is the application of Engineering principles and Technology to Building Design The twentieth century of the Common Era began on A skyscraper is a tall continuously habitable Building. There is no official definition or a precise cutoff height above which a building may clearly be classified as a skyscraper The John Hancock Center at 875 N Michigan Ave. in Chicago, Illinois, is a 100- story, 1127-foot (344 m tall Skyscraper The Sears Tower, a Skyscraper in Chicago, Illinois, has been the tallest building in North America since 1973 ^[152]

The Sears Tower remained the world's tallest building up until 2007, when the Burj Dubai, currently under construction in Dubai, surpassed its height as the world's tallest building. Burj Dubai ( برج دبي "Dubai Tower" is a Skyscraper under construction in the Business Bay district of Dubai, United Arab Dubai (in دبيّ,) is one of the seven emirates and most populous city of the United Arab Emirates (UAE ^[153] The world's tallest twin towers, the Petronas Twin Towers, was also built in Malaysia in 1998. The Petronas Twin Towers (also known as the Petronas Towers or Twin Towers) in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia were the world's tallest buildings For the biogeographical region see Malesia Malaysia (məˈleɪʒə or /məˈleɪziə/ is a country that consists of thirteen states and

In ancient Egypt, a pyramid was referred to as mer, which was also their word for the country of Egypt itself, showing how intrinsic the structures were to the culture. Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now A pyramid is a Building where the upper surfaces are triangular and converge on one point ^[154] The Great Pyramid of Giza is the largest in Egypt and one of the largest in the world. The Great Pyramid of Giza, also called Khufu's Pyramid or the Pyramid of Khufu, and Pyramid of Cheops, is the oldest and largest of the three The tallest Islamic minaret in medieval times was the Qutub Minar, which was 72 meters tall (237. For the mountain formation see Minarets (California. Minarets ( Arabic manara (lighthouse منارة but more usually مئذنة 8 ft). Until Lincoln Cathedral was built in 1300 AD, it was the tallest building in the world. Lincoln Cathedral (in full The Cathedral Church of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Lincoln, or sometimes St The base is over 52,600 square meters in area. M^2 redirects here For other uses see M². CM2 redirects here

The tallest medieval Islamic minaret was perhaps the Qutub Minar, which is 72 meters (237. For the mountain formation see Minarets (California. Minarets ( Arabic manara (lighthouse منارة but more usually مئذنة 8 ft) tall and was built in the 12th century. The tallest current minaret is the one at Hassan II Mosque, which is 210 metres (689 ft) tall and was built in 1986. The Hassan II Mosque (مسجد الحسن الثاني is a Mosque located in Casablanca, Morocco.

Prefabricated homes and movable structures

The first prefabricated homes and movable structures were invented in 16th century Mughal India by Akbar the Great. Prefabricated homes, often referred to as prefab homes, are dwellings manufactured off-site in advance usually in standard sections that can be easily shipped and assembled The Mughal Empire ( Persian and self-designation گورکانی; مغلیہ سلطنت) was an Islamic imperial power which ruled most Akbar redirects here For other uses see Akbar (disambiguation Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar ( Jalāl ud-Dīn Muhammad Akbar These structures were reported by Arif Qandahari in 1579. ^[155]

It has been claimed that movable homes may have been mentioned earlier by Aesop in the fable of Jupiter, Neptune, Minerva, and Momus. Aesop (also spelled Æsop, from the Greek Αἴσωπος — Aisōpos) (620-560 BC) known only for the genre of Fables

Industrial milling

Industrial mills

Further information: Muslim Agricultural Revolution - Industrial milling

A variety of industrial mills were possibly first invented in the Islamic world, including fulling mills, gristmills, hullers, paper mills, sawmills, stamp mills, steel mills, sugar mills, and windmills. The Islamic Golden Age from the 8th century to the 13th century witnessed a fundamental transformation in Agriculture known as the Arab Agricultural For other uses of this term see Industry (disambiguation An industry (from Latin industrius, "diligent industrious" A gristmill or grist mill is a building where Grain is ground into Flour, or the grinding mechanism itself A huller (or sometimes called a rice husker) is a kind of Agricultural machinery to hull Rice. A paper mill is a Factory devoted to making Paper from wood pulp and other ingredients using a Fourdrinier Machine or similar apparatus A sawmill is a facility where logs are cut into boards Sawmill process A sawmill's basic operation is much like those of 100 years ago a log enters A stamp mill (or stamp battery) is a type of mill that crushes material by pounding rather than grinding either for further processing or for extraction of metallic ores Steel Mill was one of Bruce Springsteen 's early bands and performed regularly on the Jersey Shore, in Virginia, and also in California from 1969 A Sugar Refinery or sugar Mill is a Factory which refines sugar from various organic sources like sugar cane or beets into a A windmill is a machine that is powered by the energy of the wind By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial mills in operation, from al-Andalus and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south ^[83]

Other innovations that were unique to the Islamic world include the situation of water mills in the underground irrigation tunnels of a qanat an on the main canals of valley-floor irrigation systems. Irrigation is an artificial application of water to the soil usually for assisting in growing crops A qanat (from قناة) or kareez (from كاريز) is a Water management system used to provide a reliable supply of water to human settlements Canals are artificial channels for water There are two types of canals water conveyance canals which are used for the conveyance and delivery of water and Waterways ^[79]

These advances made it possible for many industrial operations that were previously driven by manual labour in ancient times to be driven by machinery instead in the Islamic world. Manual labour (or manual labor) is physical work done with the hands especially in an unskilled job such as fruit and vegetable picking road building or any "Ancient" redirects here For other uses see Ancient_(disambiguation. A machine is any device that uses Energy to perform some activity The transfer of these technologies to medieval Europe later laid the foundations for the Industrial Revolution in 18th century Europe. The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the ^[156]

Shipmill

The shipmill was a unique type of water mill powered by water wheels mounted on the sides of ships moored in midstream. This article is about a type of structure For other locational uses see Milldam. A water wheel is a means of extracting power from the flow (or fall of water otherwise known as Hydropower. A ship /ʃɪp/ is a large vessel that floats on water Ships are generally distinguished from Boats based on size vessel is said to be moored when it is fastened to a fixed object such as a Pier, Quay or the seabed or to a floating object such as an anchor buoy The Petroleum industry is usually divided into three major components upstream, midstream and downstream. This was first employed along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in 10th century Iraq, where shipmills could produce 10 tons of flour from corn every day for the granary in Baghdad. The Tigris is the eastern member of the two great Rivers that define Mesopotamia, along with the Euphrates, which flows from the mountains of southeastern The Euphrates ( ( Arabic: ar نهر الفرات; Turkish: tr Fırat Syriac: syr ܦܪܬ; Hebrew: he פרת For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Units of mass There are three similar units of Mass called the ton: Long ton (simply ton in countries such as the United Flour is a powder made of Cereal grains It is the key ingredient of Bread, which is a staple food in many countries and therefore the availability Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica A granary is a storehouse for threshed grain or Animal feed. In ancient or primitive granaries Pottery is the most Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous ^[65]

Tide mill and tidal-powered machine

The earliest documented description of the tide mill, the first machine driven by tidal power, dates back to Muslim sources in 10th century Basra. A tide mill is a specialist type of water mill driven by tidal rise and fall Tidal power, sometimes called tidal energy, is a form of Hydropower that converts the energy of Tides into electricity or other useful forms of power Basra ( BGN: AlBasrah also called Basorah Abillah and Uruk or IRAQ The name that British colony has adopted for Basra ^[78] It was first described by al-Muqaddasi in 990. Muhammad ibn Ahmad Shams al-Din Al-Muqaddasi (محمد بن أحمد شمس الدين المقدسي also Transliterated as Al-Maqdisi and el-Mukaddasi ^[157] Similar tide mills later appear in medieval France. ^[77]

However, the earliest excavated tide mill, dating from 787, is the Nendrum Monastery mill on an island in Strangford Lough in Northern Ireland. The Nendrum Monastery mill was a Tide mill on an island in Strangford Lough in Northern Ireland. Strangford Lough ( describing the fast-flowing Narrows; and Loch Cuan in Irish meaning the calm Lough describing the gentle Waters Northern Ireland (Tuaisceart Éireann Ulster Scots: Norlin Airlann) is a Country within the United Kingdom, lying in the northeast of [1] Its millstones are 830mm in diameter and the horizontal wheel is estimated to have developed 7/8HP at its peak. According to Rob Spain, tide mills may have also possibly existed in the Roman Empire. ^[158]

Mechanical technology

Automatic gate

Al-Jazari invented automatic gates which were driven by hydropower. A gate operator is a mechanical device used to open and close a gate such as one at the end of a driveway Hydropower, hydraulic power or water power is power that is derived from the Force or Energy of moving water which may ^[159] He also created automatic doors as part of one of his elaborate water clocks. A door is a panel or barrier usually hinged or sliding that is used to cover an opening in a Wall or partition going into a building or space A water clock or clepsydra ( Greek kleptein to steal; hydro water) is any timekeeper operated by means of a regulated flow of liquid into (inflow ^[65] However, Hero of Alexandria is believed to have invented an earlier version of such a device to open temple doors. Hero (or Heron) of Alexandria ( Ήρων ο Αλεξανδρεύς) (c

Gears

Segmental and epicyclic gearing are claimed to have been invented by the 11th century Arab engineer Ibn Khalaf al-Muradi. Epicyclic gearing or planetary gearing is a Gear system that consists of one or more outer gears or planet gears revolving about a central or They have been found in the Antikythera Device and believed to have been used in Hero's many automata. The Antikythera mechanism (ˌæntɪkɪˈθɪərə an-ti-ki- theer -uh is an ancient mechanical Calculator (also described as the first known " mechanical

Hodometer

Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī invented a hodometer in the 11th century. ^[160] His invention was an early example of a fixed-wired knowledge processing machine. A wire is a single usually cylindrical, elongated string of drawn Metal. A machine is any device that uses Energy to perform some activity ^[5] It is uncertain, however, whether his hodometer was closer to the ancient odometer or the modern surveyor's wheel. An odometer (often known colloquially as a mileometer or milometer) is a device used for indicating Distance traveled by an Automobile or other A surveyor's wheel, also called a clickwheel, hodometer, waywiser or perambulator is a device for measuring distance

Archemedes's lost manuscript On Sphere-Making describes an odometer, as can be told from a commentary by Pappus of Alexandria. Archimedes of Syracuse ( Greek:) ( c. 287 BC – c 212 BC was a Greek mathematician, Physicist, Engineer On Sphere-Making is the title of a Lost work by Archimedes, mentioned by Pappus of Alexandria. An odometer (often known colloquially as a mileometer or milometer) is a device used for indicating Distance traveled by an Automobile or other Pappus of Alexandria ( Greek) (c 290 &ndash c 350 was one of the last great Greek mathematicians of antiquity known for his Synagoge or Collection This is believed to the be the earliest mention of the device. Later mentions have been made by Pliny the Elder, Strabo, and Vitruvius. Gaius or Caius Plinius Secundus, ( AD 23 – August 25, AD 79 better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient Author Strabo ( Greek: Στράβων 63/64 BC – ca AD 24 was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher. Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (born c 80–70 BC died after c 15 BC was a Roman Writer, Architect and Engineer (possibly praefectus fabrum The machine was in wide use throughout the Roman Empire as were surveyor's wheels.

Non-wooden block printing

Printing was known as tarsh in Arabic. Printing is a process for reproducing text and image typically with ink on Paper using a printing press After woodblock printing appeared in the Islamic world, either invented independently or adopted from China, a unique variety of non-wooden block printing were invented in Islamic Egypt during the 9th-10th centuries, including print blocks made from metal, tin, stone, glass, clay, lead, and cast iron. For the use of the technique in art see Woodcut on the technique and Old master print for the history in Europe and Woodblock printing in Japan. The M acro E xpansion T emplate A ttribute L anguage complements TAL, providing macros which allow the reuse of code across Tin is a Chemical element with the symbol Sn (stannum and Atomic number 50 In Geology, rock is a naturally occurring aggregate of Minerals and/or Mineraloids The Earth's outer solid layer the ‘ Lithosphere Glass in the common sense refers to a Hard, Brittle, transparent Solid, such as that used for Windows many Clay is a naturally occurring material composed primarily of fine-grained Minerals which show plasticity through a variable range of Water content, and Characteristics Lead has a dull luster and is a dense, Ductile, very soft highly Cast iron usually refers to grey cast iron, but identifies a large group of Ferrous Alloys which solidify with a Eutectic. The first printed amulets were also invented in the Islamic world, and were printed with Arabic calligraphy. An amulet ( the Elder|Pliny]] meaning "an object that protects a person from trouble" a close cousin of the talisman (from Arabic Islamic calligraphy, equally known as Arabic calligraphy, is the art of writing and by extension of bookmaking Non-wooden block printing was unknown in China or Europe at the time, though it is likely that woodblock printing was transmitted to Europe from the Islamic world. Block printing later went out of use in Islamic Central Asia after movable type printing was adopted from China. Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south Movable type is the system of Printing and Typography that uses movable components to reproduce the elements of a document (usually individual letters or punctuation ^[161]

It has been suggested that non-wooden block printing may have been known in 9th-10th century China or Korea, or in the Mongol Empire. The Mongol Empire ( Mongolyn Ezent Güren or mn Их Mонгол улс Ikh Mongol Uls; 1206–1368 was the largest contiguous Empire

Steam turbine

In 1551, the Egyptian engineer Taqi al-Din described the first practical steam turbine as a prime mover for rotating a spit. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf al-Shami al-Asadi ( Arabic: تقي الدين محمد بن معروف الشامي السعدي Turkish: Takiyuddin) (1526&ndash1585 A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts Thermal energy from pressurized Steam, and converts it into useful mechanical work In his book, Al-Turuq al-saniyya fi al-alat al-ruhaniyya (The Sublime Methods of Spiritual Machines), completed in 1551 AD (959 AH), Taqi al-Din wrote:^[162]

"Part Six: Making a spit which carries meat over fire so that it will rotate by itself without the power of an animal. This was made by people in several ways, and one of these is to have at the end of the spit a wheel with vanes, and opposite the wheel place a hollow pitcher made of copper with a closed head and full of water. Let the nozzle of the pitcher be opposite the vanes of the wheel. Kindle fire under the pitcher and steam will issue from its nozzle in a restricted form and it will turn the vane wheel. When the pitcher becomes empty of water bring close to it cold water in a basin and let the nozzle of the pitcher dip into the cold water. The heat will cause all the water in the basin to be attracted into the pitcher and the [the steam] will start rotating the vane wheel again. "

However, some consider Hero of Alexandria's Aeolipile to be a precursor to the steam turbine, though it was a toy rather than a practical machine. Hero (or Heron) of Alexandria ( Ήρων ο Αλεξανδρεύς) (c An aeolipile, a rocket -like Jet engine invented in the first century by Hero of Alexandria, is considered to be the first recorded Steam engine A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts Thermal energy from pressurized Steam, and converts it into useful mechanical work

Striking clock

According to a 1202 manuscript written by Ridhwan al-Sa’ati, Abu 'Abdullah Muhammad b. Naser b. Saghir b. Khalid al-Kaysarani contructed the first striking clock in 1154 as part of a clock tower, similar to the Big Ben, near the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, Syria. A striking clock is a Clock that sounds the Hours audibly on a bell or Gong. A clock tower is a Tower built with one or more (often four Clock faces. The Clock Tower is the world's largest four-faced chiming Clock. The Grand Mosque of Damascus, also known as the Ummayad Mosque' ( Arabic: جامع بني أمية الكبير transl Damascus ( دمشق,, also commonly known as الشام ash-Shām) is the capital and largest city of Syria. Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية ^[163]

Medical technology

Medical treatments

Main article: Islamic medicine

Muslim physicians pioneered a number of medical treatments, including:

• The first correct description of the tracheotomy operation for suffocating patients was described by Ibn Zuhr in the 12th century,^[164][165]
• The medical procedure of inoculation in the medieval Muslim world, later followed by the first smallpox vaccine in the form of cowpox, invented in Turkey in the early 18th century. Tracheotomy and tracheostomy are Surgical procedures on the neck to open a direct airway through an incision in the trachea (the windpipe Abū Merwān ’Abdal-Malik ibn Zuhr ( أبو مروان عبد الملك بن زهر) (also known as Ibn Zuhr, Avenzoar, Abumeron or Ibn-Zohr Inoculation is the placement of something to where it will grow or reproduce and is most commonly used in respect of the introduction of a serum Vaccine, or antigenic substance The smallpox vaccine was the first successful vaccine ever to be developed Cowpox is a Disease of the skin that is caused by a Virus known as the Cowpox virus. Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches ^[30]
• At least 2,000 medicinal substances. A chemical substance is a Material with a definite chemical composition. ^[31]

Other medical treatments believed to have been developed by Muslim physicians include:^[34]

• Medical and anesthetic use of Opium by Avicenna. Opium is a Narcotic formed from the Latex (ie sap released by lacerating (or "scoring" the immature seed pods of opium poppies ( TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born
• Application of purified alcohol to wounds as an antiseptic agent by Muslim physicians and surgeons in the 10th century. In Chemistry, an alcohol is any Organic compound in which a Hydroxyl group ( - O[[hydrogen H]]) is bound to a Carbon Antiseptics (from Greek αντί - anti, '"against" + σηπτικός - septikos, "putrefactive" are antimicrobial
• Utilization of special methods for maintaining antisepsis prior to and during surgery by surgeons in Islamic Spain.
• Specific protocols for maintaining hygiene during the post-operative period, in Córdoba, Spain. Hygiene refers to practices associated with ensuring good health and cleanliness ||-||-||} Córdoba ( Cordova in English is a City in Andalusia, southern Spain, and the capital of the province of Córdoba.
• Drug therapy and medicinal drugs for the treatment of specific symptoms and diseases, and the use of practical experience and careful observation, by Avicenna, al-Kindi, Ibn Rushd, Abu al-Qasim, Ibn Zuhr, Ibn Baytar, Ibn Al-Jazzar, Ibn Juljul, Ibn al-Quff, Ibn al-Nafis, Al-Biruni, Ibn Sahl. Pharmacology (from Greek grc φάρμακον pharmakon, "drug" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of how Drugs Medication, also referred to as medicine, can be loosely defined as any substance intended for use in the diagnosis cure mitigation treatment or prevention of disease A drug, broadly speaking is any chemical substance that when absorbed into the body TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف Abū Merwān ’Abdal-Malik ibn Zuhr ( أبو مروان عبد الملك بن زهر) (also known as Ibn Zuhr, Avenzoar, Abumeron or Ibn-Zohr Abu Ja'far Ahmad bin Abi Khalid Ibn al-Jazzar Al-Qayrawani (circa 898-980 ( أبو جعفر أحمد بن أبي خالد بن الجزار القيرواني) was a 10th century TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( This article is about the physicist For the physician see Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari.
• Chemotherapeutical drugs in the Muslim world. Chemotherapy, in its most general sense refers to treatment of disease by chemicals that kill cells specifically those of micro-organisms or Cancer. A drug, broadly speaking is any chemical substance that when absorbed into the body
• Specific substances to destroy microbes, and the application of sulfur topically specifically to kill the scabies mite. A microorganism (also spelled micro organism or micro-organism and also called a microbe) is an Organism that is Microscopic (usually Sulfur or sulphur (ˈsʌlfɚ see spelling below) is the Chemical element that has the Atomic number 16 Scabies is a transmissible ectoparasite Skin Infection characterized by superficial Burrows intense pruritus (itching and Secondary Mites, along with Ticks belong to the subclass Acarina (also known as Acari and the class Arachnida Mites are among the most diverse and successful
• Medicinal-grade alcohol through distillation, and the first distillation devices for use in chemistry manufactured on a large scale, in the 10th century. In Chemistry, an alcohol is any Organic compound in which a Hydroxyl group ( - O[[hydrogen H]]) is bound to a Carbon Distillation is a method of separating Mixtures based on differences in their volatilities in a boiling liquid mixture Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem meaning "earth") is the Science concerned with the composition structure and properties
• Alcohol as a solvent and antiseptic. In Chemistry, an alcohol is any Organic compound in which a Hydroxyl group ( - O[[hydrogen H]]) is bound to a Carbon A solvent is a liquid or gas that dissolves a solid liquid or gaseous Solute, resulting in a Solution. Antiseptics (from Greek αντί - anti, '"against" + σηπτικός - septikos, "putrefactive" are antimicrobial

Surgical instruments

• Use of cotton (itself derived from the Arabic word qutn) as a dressing for controlling hemorrhage. Cotton is a soft staple Fibre that grows around the seeds of the cotton plant ( Gossypium sp Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language A dressing is an adjunct used by a person for application to a Wound in order to promote healing and/or prevent further harm Bleeding, technically known as hemorrhaging / haemorrhaging (see American and British spelling differences) is the loss of Blood from ^[115]
• Forceps by Abulcasis in the Al-Tasrif (1000), for extracting a dead fetus. Forceps are a handheld hinged instrument used for grasping and holding objects TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف The Kitab al-Tasrif ( Arabic, كتاب التفسير) ( The Method of Medicine) was an influential Arabic medical encyclopedia A fetus (or foetus or fœtus) is a developing Mammal or other Viviparous Vertebrate, after the Embryonic stage and ^[166]
• Scalpel, curette, retractor, surgical spoon, sound, surgical hook, surgical rod, and specula, by Abulcasis in his Al-Tasrif (1000). A scalpel is a small but extremely sharp knife used for Surgery, anatomical Dissection, and various Arts and crafts. A curette is a Spoon -shaped surgical instrument for cleaning a diseased surface A spoon is a Utensil consisting of a small shallow bowl at the end of a handle used primarily for serving and eating Liquid, or semi-liquid foods and solid foods In Medicine, sounds are instruments for probing and dilating passages within the body the best-known examples of which are urethral sounds and uterine speculum is a medical tool for investigating body cavities with a form dependent on the body cavity for which it is designed TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف The Kitab al-Tasrif ( Arabic, كتاب التفسير) ( The Method of Medicine) was an influential Arabic medical encyclopedia ^[167]
• Surgical needle by Abulcasis in his Al-Tasrif. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف The Kitab al-Tasrif ( Arabic, كتاب التفسير) ( The Method of Medicine) was an influential Arabic medical encyclopedia ^[165]

Military technology

Firearms

Reinuad and Fave argue the first firearms may have possibly been developed by Muslims before the Chinese. A firearm is a Tool that projects either single or multiple Projectiles at high velocity through a controlled explosion ^[34] A primitive gun that shoots bullets may have been developed in the 12th century and the Anatolian Turkish Beyliks were later using guns which fire audible bullets using springs. A gun is a particular Weapon that propels Projectiles The projectile is generally fired through a hollow tube known as the gun's barrel. A bullet is a solid Projectile propelled by a Firearm or Air gun and is normally made from metal (usually Lead) thumb|350px|Anatolian Turkish Beyliks map Anatolian Beyliks or Turkmen Beyliks ( Turkish: Anadolu Beylikleri, Ottoman Turkish: A spring is a flexible elastic object used to store mechanical Energy. ^[28]

Later, the Nesri Tarihi in the 15th century states that the Ottoman army were regularly using guns and cannons from at least 1421-1422. The military of the Ottoman Empire was divided in three organizational structures the Army Navy and Air Force ^[28] The famous Janissary corps of the Ottoman army were using matchlock muskets as early as the 1440s,^[168] though the Chinese were using them several decades earlier. The Janissaries (derived from Ottoman Turkish ينيچرى ( yeniçeri) meaning "new soldier" comprised Infantry units that formed The Matchlock was the first mechanism or "lock" invented to uncomplicate the firing of a hand-held firearm A musket is a muzzle -loaded Smoothbore Long gun, which is intended to be fired from the shoulder

Fireproof clothing and dissolved talc

Egyptian soldiers at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260 were the first to the first to smear dissolved talc (from Arabic talq) on their hands, as forms of fire protection from gunpowder. The Battle of Ain Jalut (or Ayn Jalut, in Arabic ar عين جالوت the "Eye of Goliath" or the "Spring of Goliath" took place on 3 September 1260 between Talc (derived from the Persian via Arabic talq) is a Mineral composed of Hydrated Magnesium Silicate with Fire protection is the study and practice of mitigating the unwanted effects of Fires ref>NFPA Fire Protection Handbook pg They also wore fireproof clothing, to which gunpowder cartridges were attached. "Fireproof" redirects here For the album see Fireproof (album. ^[120]

It has been claimed that the practice of using talc as fire protection may have been an ancient blacksmithing technique, and that Asbestos cloth may have been used as fireproof clothing by the ancient Chinese and Greeks. Asbestos is a group of Minerals with long thin fibrous Crystals The word "asbestos" (῾ἀσβεστος is derived from a Greek adjective

Navigational technology

Kamal

Muslim navigators are believed to have invented a rudimentary sextant known as a kamal, used for celestial navigation and for measuring the altitudes and latitudes of the stars. This article is about the sextant as used for Navigation. For the astronomer's sextant, see Sextant (astronomical. For the Indian actor, see Kamal Hassan. A kamal is a Celestial navigation device that determines Latitude. Celestial navigation, also known as astronavigation, is a Position fixing technique that was devised to help sailors cross the featureless oceans without having to Altitude is the Elevation of a point or object from a known level or datum (plural data Latitude, usually denoted symbolically by the Greek letter phi ( Φ) gives the location of a place on Earth (or other planetary body north or south of the A star is a massive luminous ball of plasma. The nearest star to Earth is the Sun, which is the source of most of the Energy on Earth However, some believe an early version of the kamal was known in ancient India.

Lateen

Muslim sailors were responsible for introducing the lateen sails to the Mediterranean Sea, and though it was invented the Middle East, it is uncertain whether it was invented before or after the Muslim conquests. A lateen (from a la trina, meaning triangular or latin-rig is a triangular Sail set on a long yard mounted at an angle on the mast A sail is any type of surface intended to generate Thrust by being placed in a Wind &mdashin essence a vertically-oriented Wing. The initial Arab Muslim conquests (632–732 (فتح Fatah, literally opening, also referred to as the Islamic conquests or Arab

Three-masted merchant vessel

According to John M. Hobson, Muslim sailors introduced the large three-masted merchant vessels around the Mediterranean Sea, though they may have borrowed the three-mast system from Chinese ships. The mast of a sailing ship is a tall vertical or near vertical Spar, or arrangement of Spars which supports the Sails Large ships have several masts A merchant vessel is a Ship that transports Cargo and Passengers during peace time ^[127] However, Howard I. Chapelle argues that some ancient Roman ships may have also been three-masted cargo ships,^[169] though Kevin Greene writes that three-masted ships were not developed until the 15th century. ^[170]

See also

• Muslim Agricultural Revolution
• Islamic Golden Age
• Islamic science
• Timeline of science and technology in the Islamic world
• Timeline of invention

Notes

References

• Gaudiosi, Monica M. (April 1988), "The Influence of the Islamic Law of Waqf on the Development of the Trust in England: The Case of Merton College", University of Pennsylvania Law Review 136 (4): 1231-1261
• Hudson, A. The University of Pennsylvania Law Review is a scholarly journal focusing on legal issues published by an organization of second and third year J (2003), Equity and Trusts (3rd ed. ), Cavendish Publishing, ISBN 1-85941-729-9
• Rashed, Roshdi & Régis Morelon (1996), Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, Routledge, ISBN 0415124107