The Indian Congress occurred from August 4 to October 31, 1898 in Omaha, Nebraska, in conjunction with the Trans-Mississippi International Exposition. The Omaha tribe is a Native American tribe that currently resides in northeastern Nebraska and western Iowa, United States. The Trans-Mississippi and International Exposition was a World's fair held in Omaha Nebraska from June 1 to November 1 of 1898 Occurring within a decade of the end of the Indian Wars, the Indian Congress was the largest gathering of American Indian tribes of its kind to that date. Native Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples from the regions of North America now encompassed by the continental United States ^[1] Over 500 members of 35 different tribes attended, including the Apache chief Geronimo, who was being held at Fort Sill as a United States prisoner of war. Geronimo ( Chiricahua: Goyaałé, "one who yawns" often spelled Goyathlay or Goyahkla in English ( June 16 1829 Fort Sill is a United States Army post near Lawton, Oklahoma, about 85 miles southwest of Oklahoma City. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the ^[2]

Frank A. Rinehart's photographs of the Indian Congress participants are regarded as one of the best photographic documentations of American Indian leaders at the turn of the century. Frank Albert Rinehart ( February 12, 1861 &ndash December 17, 1928) was an American artist famous for his drawings paintings ^[3]

Contents 1 Background 2 About 2.1 Weather 2.2 Criticism 2.3 Frank A. Rinehart 3 Attending tribes 4 See also 5 Image gallery 6 References 7 Additional reading 8 External links

Background

After steady lobbying by the organizing committee of the Trans-Mississippi International Exposition, in December 1897 a bill was introduced in the United States Congress that provided an appropriation of $100,000 to carry out an Indian Congress at the same time as the Expo. Lobbying includes all attempts to influence Legislators and officials whether by other legislators constituents or organized groups The Trans-Mississippi and International Exposition was a World's fair held in Omaha Nebraska from June 1 to November 1 of 1898 The United States Congress is the bicameral Legislature of the federal government of the United States of America, consisting of two houses After passing the Senate, preparations for the Spanish-American War monopolized the United States House of Representatives. The United States Senate is the Upper house of the bicameral United States Congress, the Lower house being the House of Representatives The United States House of Representatives is one of the two chambers of the United States Congress; the other is the Senate. In July 1898, $40,000 was made available for the event in the Indian Appropriations Act by President William McKinley. The Indian Appropriations Act is the name of several acts passed by the United States Congress. William McKinley Jr ( January 29, 1843 September 14, 1901) was the twenty-fifth President of the United States, and the last That was a month after the rest of the Expo opened. ^[4] Funding was also made available by the Bureau of American Ethnology, a part of the Smithsonian Institution. The Bureau of American Ethnology (originally Bureau of Ethnology was established in 1879 by an act of Congress for the purpose of transferring archives records and materials The Smithsonian Institution (smɪθsoʊnɪən is an educational and research institute and associated Museum complex administered and funded by the Government of ^[5]

In 1898 W. A. Jones, the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, sent a letter to each Indian Agency to appeal for attendees. The purpose of the Indian Congress, as he stated, was:

It is the purpose of the promoters of the proposed encampment or congress to make an extensive exhibit illustrative of the mode of life, native industries, and ethnic traits of as many of the aboriginal American tribes as possible. To that end it is pro posed to bring together selected families or groups from all the principal tribes and camp them in tepees, wigwams, hogans etc. , on the exposition grounds, and permit them to conduct their domestic affairs as they do at home, and make and sell their wares for their own profit. ^[6]

About

The entire Indian Congress was managed by ethnologist James Mooney and Army Captain William Mercer of the 8th U. James Mooney (1861-1921 was an American Anthropologist who lived for several years among the Cherokee. William Thomas Mercer ( Chinese 孖沙 (1821 - 1879 was a British Colonial Secretary in Hong Kong from 1859 to 1868 S. Infantry, under the direction of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs acting on behalf of Cornelius Newton Bliss, the United States Secretary of the Interior. Cornelius Newton Bliss ( January 26, 1833 &ndash October 9, 1911) was an American Merchant and Politician The United States Secretary of the Interior is the head of the United States Department of the Interior. ^[7] The original intention of the organizing committee was to illustrate the daily life, industry and traits of as many tribes as possible. However, once the congress was open authorities realized that the average person attending the Exposition wanted to see dances, games, races, ceremonials and sham battles. Soon the main activities of the Indian Congress were re-enactments and the Ghost Dance. Noted in historical accounts as the Ghost Dance of 1890 the Ghost Dance was a religious movement incorporated into numerous Native American belief systems ^[8]

Weather

According to Captain Mercer's report, the weather "has been trying in the extreme. . . Most of the time we have had extreme heat accompanied by dry, hot winds, which rendered camp life anything but pleasant, the conditions being rendered somewhat worse by our location. Following close upon the heated period we have just had a week of cold, heavy rains which made the camp and life in it more disagreeable even than it was during the hot spell. "^[9]

Criticism

Ethnologist Mooney sought for the Congress to display customs of the various tribes. Instead, promoters erected a 5,000 seat grandstand, and arranged the tribes in re-enactments of battles. ^[10] There were also concerns regarding the Indian Congress hosting a Ghost Dance, particularly after the U.S. Army attacked dancers during the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890. Noted in historical accounts as the Ghost Dance of 1890 the Ghost Dance was a religious movement incorporated into numerous Native American belief systems The United States Army is a military organization whose primary mission is to "provide necessary forces and capabilities. The Wounded Knee Massacre also known as The Battle at Wounded Knee Creek was the last major armed conflict between the Oglala Lakota and the United States However, the Ghost Dance was encouraged by the managers of the Exposition. A local newspaper reported the Ghost Dance became a popular attraction. The Ghost Dance shirt of Big Foot was displayed in another part of the Expo. Big Foot (other known as Jeremy Gouzd (1824? - December 29, 1890) also known as Spotted foot Elk, was the name of a chief of a sub-group ^[11]

Frank A. Rinehart

Mooney contracted with Frank A. Rinehart and Adolph Muhr to take photographs of the attendees. Frank Albert Rinehart ( February 12, 1861 &ndash December 17, 1928) was an American artist famous for his drawings paintings Rinehart made several hundred pictures, regarded as one of the most complete, non-exotifying collections of Native American portraits in existence. Exoticism (from 'exotic' is a trend in Art and Design, influenced by some ethnic groups or civilizations since the late 19th-century ^[12] Rinehart and Muhr took their photographs in a studio on Expo grounds. ^[13]

Speaking of his photos of the Indian Congress, Merry Foresta, director of the Smithsonian Photography Initiative at the Smithsonian Institution said, "Rinehart's portraits are really quite extraordinary and put him above the average workaday photographer who might have also made photographs for similar reasons. The Smithsonian Institution (smɪθsoʊnɪən is an educational and research institute and associated Museum complex administered and funded by the Government of There were other people working, but he seems to have really, because of the quality of his work, stood apart. "^[14]

Attending tribes

35 individual tribes were represented by more than 500 Indians. The tribes in attendance included the Apache, Arapaho, Assiniboines, Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Chippewa, Crow, Flathead, Fox, Iowa, Kiowa, Omaha, Oto, Ponca, Pottawatomie, Sauk and Fox, Lakota, Southern Arapaho, Tonkawa, Wichita, and the Winnebago, as well as the Santa Clara Pueblo. The Arapaho (in French: Gens de Vache) tribe of Native Americans historically living on the eastern plains of Colorado and Wyoming The Assiniboine, also known by the Ojibwe name Asiniibwaan "Stone Sioux" and the Cree as Asinîpwât are a Siouan The Blackfoot Confederacy or Niitsítapi (meaning "original people" c Cheyenne are a Native American nation of the Great Plains. The Cheyenne Nation is composed of two united tribes, the Só'taa'e (more commonly The Ojibwa or Chippewa (also Ojibwe, Ojibway, Chippeway) is the largest group of Native Americans - First Nations The true crows are large Passerine Birds that comprise the Genus Corvus in the family Corvidae. A fox is an Animal belonging to any one of about 27 Species (of which only 12 actually belong to the Vulpes genus or 'true foxes' of small The State of Iowa ( is a state in the Midwestern region of the United States of America. The Kiowa (ˈkaɪoʊwə are a nation of American Indians who migrated from what is now Canada to their present location in Southwestern Oklahoma. The Ponca ( Páⁿka iyé: Páⁿka or Ppáⁿkka ˈpːãŋkːa are a Native American Tribe. The Potawatomi (also spelled Pottawatomie and Pottawatomi, among many variations) are a Native American people of the upper Mississippi Sac and Fox Nation is the modern political entity encompassing the historical Sac and Fox nations of Native Americans. Lakota or Lakotah may refer to Lakota people, a Native American tribe Lakota language, the language of the Lakota The Tonkawa are a people native to central Texas, speaking the Tonkawa language. Santa Clara Pueblo ( Tewa: Ka'po) is a Census-designated place (CDP in Rio Arriba County, New Mexico, United States ^[15]

See also

• History of Omaha

Image gallery

The following pictures were all taken by Frank Rinehart and Adoph Muhrat the Indian Congress in Omaha. The history of Omaha Nebraska began before the settlement of the city with speculators from neighboring Council Bluffs Iowa staking land across the Missouri

Hattie Tom, Chiricahua Apache. Chiricahua (also Chiricahua Apaches, Chiricagui, Apaches de Chiricahui, Chiricahues, Chilicague, Chilecagez,	Sarah Whislter, Sauk and Fox woman. Sac and Fox Nation is the modern political entity encompassing the historical Sac and Fox nations of Native Americans.	Yellow Shirt, Hunkpapa Sioux chief.	White Buffalo, Cheyenne chief. is a Fighting game series created by Atlus started in 1993. The Power Instinct series (often abbreviated as PI or GI for Cheyenne are a Native American nation of the Great Plains. The Cheyenne Nation is composed of two united tribes, the Só'taa'e (more commonly
Wah-Ta-Waso, Iroquois woman. The Iroquois Confederacy (also known as the "League of Peace and Power" the "Five Nations" the "Six Nations" or the "People of the Longhouse	Kicking Horse, Flathead Salish chief.	Freckle Face, Arapahoe woman. The Arapaho (in French: Gens de Vache) tribe of Native Americans historically living on the eastern plains of Colorado and Wyoming	Bonie Tela, San Carlos Apache; and Hattie Tom, Chiricahua Apache. The San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation, in southeastern Arizona, United States, was established in 1871, and is home to a conglomeration of
Little Snake, Omaha Tribe interpreter. The Omaha tribe is a Native American tribe that currently resides in northeastern Nebraska and western Iowa, United States.	Moni Chaki, Ponca chief. The Ponca ( Páⁿka iyé: Páⁿka or Ppáⁿkka ˈpːãŋkːa are a Native American Tribe.	Naiche, Chiricahua Apache chief. Chief Naiche (c 1856-1919 was the second son of Cochise and was named after his grand father Dos-Teh-Seh the older one being Chief Taza.	Geronimo, Chiricahua Apache leader. Geronimo ( Chiricahua: Goyaałé, "one who yawns" often spelled Goyathlay or Goyahkla in English ( June 16 1829
Geronimo.	(standing) Joe Merrivale, Young Spotted Tail, Antoine Janis. Seated: Touch-the-Clouds, Little Big Man, Black Cool, unknown

References

Additional reading

• Rydell, R. (1981) "The Trans-Mississippi and International Exposition: "To Work Out the Problem of Universal Civilization", American Quarterly, 33(5). Special Issue: American Culture and the American Frontier. (Winter) pp. 587-607.

External links

• The Indian Congress of 1898 - Photos, stories and research from the Omaha Public Library
• The Indian Congress of 1898 Photo Gallery - Portraits be Frank Rinehart

Frank Albert Rinehart ( February 12, 1861 &ndash December 17, 1928) was an American artist famous for his drawings paintings

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