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The Inca Empire (or Inka Empire) was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The pre-Columbian era incorporates all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the Americas before the appearance of significant European influences [2] The administrative, political and military center of the empire was located in Cusco. ||} Cusco (also spelled Cuzco, and in the local Quechua language as Qusqu 'qos The Inca Empire arose from the highlands of Peru sometime in early 13th century. Peru (Perú Piruw Piruw officially the Republic of Peru ( reˈpuβlika del peˈɾu is a country in western South America. From 1438 to 1533, the Incas used a variety of methods, from conquest to peaceful assimilation, to incorporate a large portion of western South America, centered on the Andean mountain ranges, including large parts of modern Ecuador, Peru, western and south central Bolivia, northwest Argentina, north and north-central Chile, and southern Colombia. The Andes form the world's longest exposed Mountain range. They lie as a continuous chain of highland along the western coast of South America. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Ecuador topics. Peru (Perú Piruw Piruw officially the Republic of Peru ( reˈpuβlika del peˈɾu is a country in western South America. The Republic of Bolivia (República de Bolivia) named after Simón Bolívar, is a Landlocked country in central South America. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Argentina topics. Chile, officially the Republic of Chile ( Spanish:) is a country in South America occupying a long and narrow Coastal strip wedged between the Colombia (kəˈlʌmbɪə officially the Republic of Colombia () is a country in northwestern South America. The Incas identified their king as "child of the sun. "
The Quechua name for the empire was Tawantinsuyu[3] which can be translated as The Four Regions or The Four United Regions. Quechua ( Runa Simi) is a Native American language of South America. Before the Quechua spelling reform it was written in Spanish as Tahuantinsuyo. In recent years the spelling of place names in Peru and Bolivia has been revised among Quechua and Aymara speakers Tawantin is a group of four things (tawa "four" with the suffix -ntin which names a group); suyu means "region" or "province". The empire was divided into four Suyus, whose corners met at the capital, Cusco (Qosqo), in modern-day Peru. ||} Cusco (also spelled Cuzco, and in the local Quechua language as Qusqu 'qos Peru (Perú Piruw Piruw officially the Republic of Peru ( reˈpuβlika del peˈɾu is a country in western South America. The official language of the empire was Quechua, although scores if not hundreds of local languages were spoken. Quechua ( Runa Simi) is a Native American language of South America.
There were many local forms of worship, most of them concerning local sacred "Huacas", but the Inca leadership encouraged the worship of Inti — the sun god — and imposed its sovereignty above other cults such as that of Pachamama. In Quechua, a Native American language of South America, a huaca or wak'a is an object that represents something revered typically a monument According to the Inca mythology, Inti was the Sun god, as well a patron deity of Tahuantinsuyu. Pachamama is a goddess revered by the indigenous people of the Andes. [4]
Contents |
History
Origin myths
- See also: Inca mythology
The Incas had various creation myths. A creation myth is a supernatural mytho-[[religion religious]] story or explanation that describes the beginnings of humanity, Earth, life, and In one, Ticci Viracocha sent forth his four sons and four daughters (known as the Ayar brothers) from Pacaritambo to establish a village. In Inca mythology, Apu Qun Tiqsi Wiraqutra, commonly known today as Con-Tici Viracocha or simply Viracocha, was the creator of Civilization In Inca mythology, of the main Inca creation myths was that of the Ayar Brothers who emerged from a cave called Pacaritambo ("Hostel of Production" "Hostel of Along the way, Sinchi Roca was born to Manco and Ocllo, and Sinchi Roca led them to the valley of Cusco where they founded their new village. Sinchi Roca (aka Cinchi Roca Quechua Sinchi Roq'a Inka "valorous generous Inca" was the second Sapa Inca of the Kingdom of Cuzco This article refers to the first Sapa Inca, Manco Cápac For Manco Cápac II son of Inca Huayna Cápac see Manco Inca Yupanqui. In Inca mythology, Mama Ocllo was deified as a mother and Fertility goddess. There Manco became their leader and became known as Manco Capac. This article refers to the first Sapa Inca, Manco Cápac For Manco Cápac II son of Inca Huayna Cápac see Manco Inca Yupanqui. [5]
In another origin myth, the sun god Inti ordered Manco Capac and Mama Ocllo to emerge from the depths of Lake Titicaca. According to the Inca mythology, Inti was the Sun god, as well a patron deity of Tahuantinsuyu. In Inca mythology, Mama Ocllo was deified as a mother and Fertility goddess. Lake Titicaca is a lake located on the border of Bolivia and Peru. They were born in the lake and wandered north to establish the city of Cusco. They travelled by means of underground caves until they reached Cusco where they established Hurin Cusco, or the first dynasty of the Kingdom of Cusco. The God Emperor of the Inca Empire ( Quechua: Inka Qhapaq) of the Andes (the area including modern Peru, Ecuador, and
These myths were apparently transmitted via oral tradition until early Spanish colonists recorded them; however some scholars believe that they may have been recorded on quipus (Andean knotted string records). Quipu or khipu (sometimes called talking knots) were recording devices used in the Inca Empire and its predecessor societies in the Andean [6]
Kingdom of Cusco
The Inca people began as a tribe in the Cusco area around the 12th century. Inca empire|Cusco History Inca mythology|Inca historyThe Inca people began as a tribe in the Cuzco area around the 12th century AD Under the leadership of Manco Capac, they formed the small city-state of Cusco (Quechua Qusqu), shown in red on the map. This article refers to the first Sapa Inca, Manco Cápac For Manco Cápac II son of Inca Huayna Cápac see Manco Inca Yupanqui. Quechua ( Runa Simi) is a Native American language of South America. In 1438 they began a far-reaching expansion under the command of Sapa Inca (paramount leader) Pachacuti, whose name literally meant "earth-shaker". The God Emperor of the Inca Empire ( Quechua: Inka Qhapaq) of the Andes (the area including modern Peru, Ecuador, and Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui (or Pachacutec) was the ninth Sapa Inca (1438-1471/1472 of the Kingdom of Cusco, which he transformed into the empire During his reign, he and his son brought much of the Andes mountains (roughly modern Peru and Ecuador) under Inca control. The Andes form the world's longest exposed Mountain range. They lie as a continuous chain of highland along the western coast of South America.
Reorganization and formation of the Empire
Pachacuti reorganized the kingdom of Cuzco into an empire, the Tahuantinsuyu, a federalist system which consisted of a central government with the Inca at its head and four provincial governments with strong leaders: Chinchasuyu (NW), Antisuyu (NE), Contisuyu (SW), and Collasuyu (SE). The Inca Empire (or Inka Empire) was the largest empire in Pre-Columbian America. A federation ( Latin: foedus, covenant is a union comprising a number of partially self-governing states or regions united by a central ("federal" Chinchasuyu was the northwestern provincial region of the Tawantin Suyu, or Inca Empire Anti Suyu is the eastern part of the Inca Empire which bordered with modern-day Upper Amazon region where the Anti inhabited Kunti Suyu or Contisuyu was the southwestern provincial region of the Inca Empire. Qulla Suyu (also Collasuyu) was the southeastern provincial region of the Inca Empire. [7] Pachacuti is also thought to have built Machu Picchu, either as a family home or as a summer retreat. Machu Picchu (Machu Pikchu "Old Peak" 'mɑtʃu 'piktʃu is a Pre-Columbian Inca site located 2400 meters (7875 ft above sea level
Pachacuti sent spies to regions he wanted in his empire; they brought reports on the political organization, military might and wealth. He would then send messages to the leaders of these lands extolling the benefits of joining his empire, offering them presents of luxury goods such as high quality textiles, and promising that they would be materially richer as subject rulers of the Inca. Most accepted the rule of the Inca as a fait accompli and acquiesced peacefully. Here are some examples of French words and phrases used by English speakers. The ruler's children would then be brought to Cuzco to be taught about Inca administration systems, then return to rule their native lands. This allowed the Inca to indoctrinate the former ruler's children into the Inca nobility, and, with luck, marry their daughters into families at various corners of the empire.
Expansion and consolidation of the Tawantinsuyu
It was traditional for the Inca's son to lead the army; Pachacuti's son Túpac Inca Yupanqui began conquests to the north in 1463, and continued them as Inca after Pachucuti's death in 1471. Túpac Inca Yupanqui (aka Topa Inca Tupaq Inka Yupanki (literally “noble Inca accountant” was the tenth Sapa Inca (1471-93 CE of the Inca Empire His most important conquest was the Kingdom of Chimor, the Inca's only serious rival for the coast of Peru. Chimor (also Kingdom of Chimor was the political grouping of the Chimú culture that ruled the northern coast of Peru beginning around 850 AD and ending around 1470 AD Túpac Inca's empire stretched north into modern day Ecuador and Colombia.
Túpac Inca's son Huayna Cápac added a small portion of land to the north in modern day Ecuador and in parts of Peru[8]. Huayna Capac (Quechua Wayna Qhapaq "splendid youth" was the eleventh Sapa Inca (1464 &ndash 1527 of the Inca Empire and sixth of the Hanan At its height, Tahuantinsuyu included Peru and Bolivia, most of what is now Ecuador, a large portion of what is today Chile north of Maule River, where they met massive resistance by the Mapuche tribes. Peru (Perú Piruw Piruw officially the Republic of Peru ( reˈpuβlika del peˈɾu is a country in western South America. The Republic of Bolivia (República de Bolivia) named after Simón Bolívar, is a Landlocked country in central South America. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Ecuador topics. Chile, officially the Republic of Chile ( Spanish:) is a country in South America occupying a long and narrow Coastal strip wedged between the The Maule river (in Mapudungun "rainy" is one of the most important rivers of Chile and is inextricably linked to this country's pre-Hispanic ( Inca The Mapuche are the indigenous inhabitants of Central and Southern Chile and Southern Argentina. The empire also extended into corners of Argentina and Colombia. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Argentina topics. Colombia (kəˈlʌmbɪə officially the Republic of Colombia () is a country in northwestern South America. However, most of the southern portion of the Inca empire, the portion denominated as Collasuyu, was desert wasteland. Qulla Suyu (also Collasuyu) was the southeastern provincial region of the Inca Empire.
Tahuantinsuyu was a patchwork of languages, cultures and peoples. The components of the empire were not all uniformly loyal, nor were the local cultures all fully integrated. The Inca empire as a whole had an economy based on exchange and taxation of luxury goods and labour (it is said that Inca tax collectors would take the head lice of the lame and old as a symbolic tribute).
Inca civil war and Spanish conquest
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Spanish conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro and his brothers explored south from Panama, reaching Inca territory by 1526. The Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire was a process through which a group of forty (40 Spaniards led by Francisco Pizarro succeeded in toppling the Inca Sacsayhuamán (also known as Saksaq Waman is an Inca walled complex near the old city of Cusco, at an altitude of 3701 m ||} Cusco (also spelled Cuzco, and in the local Quechua language as Qusqu 'qos This article is about the Spanish explorer soldiers of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuriesfor other uses see Conquistador (disambiguation A Conquistador Francisco Pizarro González 1st Marqués de los Atabillos (c 1471 or 1476 &ndash 26 June 1541 was a Spanish Conquistador, conqueror of the Incan Empire It was clear that they had reached a wealthy land with prospects of great treasure, and after one more expedition (1529), Pizarro traveled to Spain and received royal approval to conquer the region and be its viceroy.
At the time they returned to Peru, in 1532, a war of the two brothers between Huayna Capac's sons Huascar and Atahualpa and unrest among newly-conquered territories — and perhaps more importantly, smallpox, which had spread from Central America — had considerably weakened the empire. Inti Cusi Huallpa Huáscar ( Quechua: Waskhar, or "Sun of Joy" 1503 &ndash 1532) was Sapa Inca of the Inca empire Atahualpa, Atahuallpa, Atabalipa, or Atawallpa ( Quito – Cajamarca, August 29, 1533) was the last sovereign Smallpox is an Infectious disease unique to humans caused by either of two virus variants named Variola major and Variola minor. It was an unfortunate fact for the Inca that the Spaniards arrived at the height of a civil war, fueled almost certainly by the devastating diseases that preceded the European colonization.
Pizarro did not have a formidable force; with just 168 men, 1 cannon and only 27 horses, he often needed to talk his way out of potential confrontations that could have easily wiped out his party. Francisco Pizarro González 1st Marqués de los Atabillos (c 1471 or 1476 &ndash 26 June 1541 was a Spanish Conquistador, conqueror of the Incan Empire | NOTE Throughout this article "cannon" is used as BOTH the || singular and plural The horse ( Equus caballus) is a hoofed ( Ungulate) Mammal, one of eight living species of the family Equidae. The Spanish horseman, fully armored, had great technological superiority over the Inca forces. The traditional mode of battle in the Andes was a kind of siege warfare where large numbers of usually reluctant draftees were sent to overwhelm opponents. The Andes form the world's longest exposed Mountain range. They lie as a continuous chain of highland along the western coast of South America. Conscription (also known as the draft, the call-up or national service) is a general term for involuntary labor demanded by some established authority The Spaniards had developed one of the finest military machines in the premodern world, tactics learned in their centuries' long fight against Moorish kingdoms in Iberia. In a historical context Premodernity is the period in Western civilization that came after Ancient history and before Modernity, which is usually recognized to have The description Moors has referred to several historic and modern populations of Muslim (and earlier non-Muslim people of Berber and Arab descent The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe, and includes modern day Spain, Portugal, Andorra Along with this tactical and material superiority, the Spaniards also had acquired tens of thousands of native allies who sought to end the Inca control of their territories. This, combined with an audacious military attack by the Spaniards in Cajamarca, allowed them to capture the emperor and send the Inca elite into a huge and paralyzing political struggle. Cajamarca is located in the northern highlands of Peru and is the capital of the Cajamarca region. Atahualpa ordered the death of his opponent, Huascar, and the Spaniards skillfully manipulated the various factions within the Inca state. They also were able to continually increase their native allies and ultimately launched a successful attack on the capital city of Cuzco. ||} Cusco (also spelled Cuzco, and in the local Quechua language as Qusqu 'qos
Their first engagement was the Battle of Puná, near present-day Guayaquil, Ecuador on the Pacific Coast; Pizarro then founded the city of Piura in July 1532. The Battle of Puná, a peripheral engagement of Francisco Pizarro 's conquest of Peru, was fought in April 1531 on the island of Puná (in Guayaquil (waʝaˈkil officially Santiago de Guayaquil, is the largest and the most populous City in Ecuador, as well as that nation's main port For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Ecuador topics. Piura is a city in northwestern Peru. It is the capital of the Piura Region and the Piura Province. Hernando de Soto was sent inland to explore the interior, and returned with an invitation to meet the Inca, Atahualpa, who had defeated his brother in the civil war and was resting at Cajamarca with his army of 80,000 troops. Hernando de Soto ( Jerez de los Caballeros, Badajoz, Spain, c Cajamarca is located in the northern highlands of Peru and is the capital of the Cajamarca region.
Pizarro and some of his men, most notably a friar by the name of Vincente de Valverde met with the Inca, who had brought only a small retinue. Vincente de Valverde was a Spanish Bishop. He was born in Segovia Spain about 1490 and most sources claim he died in Oropesa, Peru, in 1543 Through an interpreter Friar Vincente demanded that he and his empire accept the yoke of King Charles I of Spain and convert to Christianity. Charles V (24 February 1500 &ndash 21 September 1558 was Due to the language barrier and perhaps poor interpretation, Atahualpa became somewhat puzzled by the friar's description of Christian faith and was said to have not fully understood the envoy's intentions. After Atahualpa attempted further enquiry into the doctrines of the Christian faith under which Pizarro's envoy served, the Spanish became frustrated and impatient, attacking the Inca's retinue (see Battle of Cajamarca) and capturing Atahualpa as hostage. The Battle of (or Massacre at Cajamarca was a surprise attack on the Inca royal entourage orchestrated by Francisco Pizarro.
Atahualpa offered the Spaniards enough gold to fill the room he was imprisoned in, and twice that amount of silver. The Ransom Room ( El Cuarto del Rescate) is a small room located in Cajamarca, Peru. The Inca fulfilled this ransom, but Pizarro deceived them, refusing to release the Inca afterwards. During Atahualpa's imprisonment Huascar was assassinated elsewhere. AssassiNation is the sixth album by Krisiun, released in 2006 on Century Media. The Spaniards maintained that this was at Atahualpa's orders; this was used as one of the charges against Atahualpa when the Spaniards finally decided to put him to death, in August 1533.
The last Incas
The Spanish installed Atahualpa's brother Manco Inca Yupanqui in power; for some time Manco cooperated with the Spanish, while the Spanish fought to put down resistance in the north. Manco Inca Yupanqui (1516–1544 ( Manqu Inka Yupanki in Quechua) was one of the Incas of Vilcabamba. Meanwhile an associate of Pizarro's, Diego de Almagro, attempted to claim Cuzco for himself. Diego de Almagro ( Almagro, Spain, c 1475 &ndash Cuzco, Peru, July 8, 1538) also known as El Adelantado ||} Cusco (also spelled Cuzco, and in the local Quechua language as Qusqu 'qos Manco tried to use this intra-Spanish feud to his advantage, recapturing Cuzco (1536), but the Spanish retook the city afterwards. Manco Inca then retreated to the mountains of Vilcabamba, Peru, where he and his successors ruled for another 36 years, sometimes raiding the Spanish or inciting revolts against them. Vilcabamba was a city founded by Manco Inca in 1539 and was the last refuge of the Inca Empire until it fell to the Spaniards in 1572 signalling the end In 1572 the last Inca stronghold was conquered, and the last ruler, Túpac Amaru, Manco's son, was captured and executed. Túpac Amaru (Thupaq Amaru in modern Quechua) (d 1572 was the last indigenous leader of the Inca state in Peru. This ended resistance to the Spanish conquest under the political authority of the Inca state.
After the fall of Tahuantinsuyu, the new Spanish rulers brutally oppressed the people and suppressed their traditions. Many aspects of Inca culture were systematically destroyed, including their sophisticated farming system. The Spaniards used the Inca mita (mandatory public service) system to literally work the people to death. Mita ( Quechua: mit'a) was mandatory public service in the society of the Inca Empire. One member of each family was forced to work in the gold and silver mines, the foremost of which was the titanic silver mine at Potosí. Potosí is a city the capital of the department of Potosí in Bolivia. When a family member died, which would usually happen within a year or two, the family would be required to send a replacement.
The effects of smallpox on the Inca empire were even more devastating. Smallpox is an Infectious disease unique to humans caused by either of two virus variants named Variola major and Variola minor. Beginning in Colombia, smallpox spread rapidly before the Spanish invaders first arrived in the empire. Colombia (kəˈlʌmbɪə officially the Republic of Colombia () is a country in northwestern South America. The spread was probably aided by the efficient Inca road system. Among the many roads and trails constructed in pre-Columbian South America, the Inca road system, or Qhapaq Ñan was the most extensive Within months, the disease had killed the Sapa Inca Huayna Capac, his successor, and most of the other leaders. The God Emperor of the Inca Empire ( Quechua: Inka Qhapaq) of the Andes (the area including modern Peru, Ecuador, and Huayna Capac (Quechua Wayna Qhapaq "splendid youth" was the eleventh Sapa Inca (1464 &ndash 1527 of the Inca Empire and sixth of the Hanan Two of his surviving sons warred for power and, after a bloody and costly war of the two brothers, Atahualpa become the new Sapa Inca. Atahualpa, Atahuallpa, Atabalipa, or Atawallpa ( Quito – Cajamarca, August 29, 1533) was the last sovereign [1] As Atahualpa was returning to the capital Cuzco, Francisco Pizarro arrived and through a series of deceits captured the young leader and his best general. ||} Cusco (also spelled Cuzco, and in the local Quechua language as Qusqu 'qos Francisco Pizarro González 1st Marqués de los Atabillos (c 1471 or 1476 &ndash 26 June 1541 was a Spanish Conquistador, conqueror of the Incan Empire Within a few years smallpox claimed between 60% and 94% of the Inca population, with other waves of European disease weakening them further. Smallpox was only the first epidemic. Smallpox is an Infectious disease unique to humans caused by either of two virus variants named Variola major and Variola minor. [9]
Typhus (probably) in 1546, influenza and smallpox together in 1558, smallpox again in 1589, diphtheria in 1614, measles in 1618 - all ravaged the remains of Inca culture. Typhus is any of several similar diseases caused by Louse -borne bacteria Diphtheria ( Greek διφθερα ( diphthera)—“pair of leather scrolls" is an upper respiratory tract illness characterized by sore Measles (rubeola is a Disease caused by a virus specifically a Paramyxovirus of the genus Morbillivirus.
Society
Organization of the Empire
The most powerful figure in the empire was the Sapa Inca ('the unique Inca'). The God Emperor of the Inca Empire ( Quechua: Inka Qhapaq) of the Andes (the area including modern Peru, Ecuador, and Only descendants of the original Inca tribe ever ascended to the level of Inca. Most young members of the Inca's family attended Yachay Wasis (houses of knowledge) to obtain their education. Inca education during the time of the Inca Empire was divided into two principal spheres education for the upper classes and education for the general population
The Tawantinsuyu was a federalist system which consisted of a central government with the Inca at its head and four provinces: Chinchay Suyu (NW), Anti Suyu (NE), Kunti Suyu (SW), and Qulla Suyu (SE). A federation ( Latin: foedus, covenant is a union comprising a number of partially self-governing states or regions united by a central ("federal" Chinchasuyu was the northwestern provincial region of the Tawantin Suyu, or Inca Empire Anti Suyu is the eastern part of the Inca Empire which bordered with modern-day Upper Amazon region where the Anti inhabited Kunti Suyu or Contisuyu was the southwestern provincial region of the Inca Empire. Qulla Suyu (also Collasuyu) was the southeastern provincial region of the Inca Empire. The four corners of these provinces met at the center, Cusco. Each province had a governor who oversaw local officials, who in turn supervised agriculturally-productive river valleys, cities and mines. There were separate chains of command for both the military and religious institutions, which created a system of partial checks and balances on power. The local officials were responsible for settling disputes and keeping track of each family's contribution to the mita (mandatory public service). Mita ( Quechua: mit'a) was mandatory public service in the society of the Inca Empire.
Language
For more information look at Quechua
Since the Inca Empire lacked a written language, the empire's main form of communication and recording came from quipus and Quechua, the language the Incas imposed upon the peoples within the empire. Quechua ( Runa Simi) is a Native American language of South America. Quipu or khipu (sometimes called talking knots) were recording devices used in the Inca Empire and its predecessor societies in the Andean Quechua ( Runa Simi) is a Native American language of South America. The plethora of civilizations in the Andean region provided for a general disunity that the Incas needed to subdue in order to maintain control, peace, and order within all of the empire. Hence, by establishing a uniform language, the Incas would be able to better achieve such a goal. Nonetheless, it should be noted that Quechua had been spoken in the Andean region, like central Peru, for several years prior to the expansion of the Inca civilization. The Inca Empire (or Inka Empire) was the largest empire in Pre-Columbian America. Moreover, the type of Quechua the Incas imposed was an adaptation from the Kingdom of Cusco (an early form of "Southern Quechua") of what some historians define as "Proto-Quechua" (The original Quechua dialect). Inca empire|Cusco History Inca mythology|Inca historyThe Inca people began as a tribe in the Cuzco area around the 12th century AD [10] [11]
As in many societies of the world, the language imposed by the Incas further diverted from its original phonetic tone as some societies formed their own regional varieties, or slang. Slang is the use of highly informal Words and expressions that are not considered standard in the speaker's Dialect or Language. Of course, the diversity of Quechua at that point and even today does not come as a direct result from the Incas, whom are just a part of the reason for Quechua's diversity. The civilizations within the empire that had previously spoken Quechua kept their own variety distinct to the Quechua the Incas spread. Although these many kinds of Quechua were in some form similar, they were not the exact same thing. Not only that, but even though most of the societies within the empire implemented Quechua into their lives, the Incas allowed several societies kept their old languages such as Aymara, which still remains a spoken language in various parts of South America. The Aymara are a native Ethnic group in the Andes and Altiplano regions of South America; about 1 The linguistic body of the Tawantinsuyu was thus still largely varied, but it still remains quite an achievement for the Incas that went even beyond their times as the Spanish continued to use the spread of Quechua as a method to impose their culture upon the peoples of South America (even though that further increased the diversity of the language). [12]
On the other hand, the actual "Inca," or ruling elite, their kind of Quechua tended to remain somewhat closer to the "early Southern Quechua" of the Kingdom of Cusco mainly due to the complex educational facilities the Tawantinsuyu offered them. This standardized governmental Quechua is what served as the backbone for the Tawantinsuyu, but it also differentiated the social status of the community. Moreover, some historians even discuss the possibility that the "secret language" of the ruling elite might have simply been another form of Quechua. [13]
Life, education and beliefs
The Inca diet consisted primarily of potatoes and grains, supplemented by fish, vegetables, nuts, and maize (corn). Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica Camelid (llama and alpaca) meat and cuyes (guinea pigs) were also eaten in large quantities. The Guinea pig (also commonly called the cavy after its scientific name Cavia porcellus) is a species of Rodent belonging to the family Caviidae . In addition, they hunted various wild animals for meat, skins and feathers. Maize was malted and used to make chicha, a fermented alcoholic beverage. Chicha is a term used in some regions of Latin America for several varieties of fermented beverages, particularly those derived from Maize, but which also A drink, or beverage, is a Liquid specifically prepared for Human consumption The Inca road system was key to farming success as it allowed distribution of foodstuffs over long distances. Among the many roads and trails constructed in pre-Columbian South America, the Inca road system, or Qhapaq Ñan was the most extensive The Inca also constructed vast storehouses, which allowed them to live through El Niño years while neighboring civilizations suffered. El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO; commonly referred to as simply El Niño) is a global coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon
The Inca believed in reincarnation. [14] Those who obeyed the Incan moral code — ama suwa, ama llulla, ama quella (do not steal, do not lie, do not be lazy) — "went to live in the Sun's warmth while others spent their eternal days in the cold earth". The Inca also practiced cranial deformation. [15] They achieved this by wrapping tight cloth straps around the heads of newborns in order to alter the shape of their still-soft skulls into a more conical form. Studies are needed to determine whether these deformations caused actual brain damage.
Aqllawasi
The Aqllawasi (Acllahuasi) which means "house of the sun virgins" was developed under the Incans in Peru at about 1438–1532 CE. Its central purpose was in the manufacturing of garments for the Inca royalty and the worship of the sun god, Inti.
Arts and technology
Monumental architecture
Architecture was by far the most important of the Inca arts, with pottery and textiles reflecting motifs that were at their height in architecture. Not to be confused with Cocoa. Coca is a Plant in the family Erythroxylaceae, native to north-western South America The term architecture (from Greek αρχιτεκτονικήarchitektoniki) can be used to mean a process a profession or documentation The main example is the capital city of Cuzco itself. The breathtaking site of Machu Picchu was constructed by Inca engineers. Machu Picchu (Machu Pikchu "Old Peak" 'mɑtʃu 'piktʃu is a Pre-Columbian Inca site located 2400 meters (7875 ft above sea level The stone temples constructed by the Inca used a mortarless construction that fit together so well that you couldn't fit a knife through the stonework. This was a process first used on a large scale by the Pucara (ca. 300 BC–AD 300) peoples to the south in Lake Titicaca, and later in the great city of Tiwanaku (ca. Tiwanaku (Spanish spellings Tiahuanaco and Tiahuanacu) is an important Pre-Columbian archaeological site in western Bolivia. AD 400–1100) in present day Bolivia. The Inca imported the stoneworkers of the Tiwanaku region to Cuzco when they conquered the lands south of Lake Titicaca. The rocks used in construction were sculpted to fit together exactly by repeatedly lowering a rock onto another and carving away any sections on the lower rock where the dust was compressed. The tight fit and the concavity on the lower rocks made them extraordinarily stable.
Ceramics, precious metal work, and textiles
Almost all of the gold and silver work of the empire was melted down by the conquistadores. Ceramics were painted in numerous motifs including birds, waves, felines, and geometric patterns. The most distinctive Inca ceramic objects are the Cusco bottles or ¨aryballos¨. [16] Many of these pieces are on display in Lima in the Larco Archaeological Museum and the National Museum of Archaeology, Anthropology and History. The Larco Museum (Museo Larco is located in the Pueblo Libre District in Lima, Peru.
Mathematics and astronomy
A very important Inca technology was the Quipu, which were assemblages of knotted strings used to record information, the exact nature of which is no longer known. Quipu or khipu (sometimes called talking knots) were recording devices used in the Inca Empire and its predecessor societies in the Andean Originally it was thought that Quipu were used only as mnemonic devices or to record numerical data. Recent discoveries, however, have led to the theory that these devices were instead a form of writing in their own right.
The Inca made many discoveries in medicine. They performed successful skull surgery, which involved cutting holes in the skull to release pressure from head wounds. Trepanation (also known as trepanning, trephination, trephining or burr hole) is surgery in which a hole is Drilled or scraped into Coca leaves were used to lessen hunger and pain, as they still are in the Andes. Not to be confused with Cocoa. Coca is a Plant in the family Erythroxylaceae, native to north-western South America The Chasqui (messengers) chewed coca leaves for extra energy to carry on their tasks as runners delivering messages throughout the empire. The Chasquis (also Chaskis) were agile and highly-trained runners that delivered messages royal delicacies and other objects throughout
Weapons, armor, and warfare
The Incas used weapons and had wars with other civilizations in the area. The Inca army was the most powerful in the area at that time, because they could turn an ordinary villager or farmer into a soldier, ready for battle. This is because every male Inca had to take part in war at least once so as to be prepared for warfare again when needed. By the time the empire had reached its large size, every section of the empire contributed in setting up an army for war.
The Incas had no iron or steel, and their weapons were no better than those of their enemies. They went into battle with the beating of drums and the blowing of trumpets. The armor used by the Incas included:
- Helmets made of wood, copper, bronze, cane, or animal skin; some were adorned with feathers
- Round or square shields made from wood or hide
- Cloth tunics padded with cotton and small wooden planks to protect spine
The Inca weaponry included:
- Bronze or bone-tipped spears
- Two-handed wooden swords with serrated edges (notched with teeth, like a saw)
- Clubs with stone and spiked metal heads
- Woolen slings and stones
- Stone or copper headed battle-axes
- Stones fastened to lengths of cord (bola)
Roads allowed very quick movement for the Inca army, and shelters called quolla were built one day's distance in travelling from each other, so that an army on campaign could always be fed and rested. (The name for the Sapa Inca's storehouses was tambo. This can be seen in names of ruins such as Ollantay Tambo, or My Lord's Storehouse. These were set up so the Inca and his entourage would always have supplies (and possibly shelter) ready as he traveled. )
Inca flag
There are 16th and 17th century chronicles and references that support the idea of a banner, or flag, attributable to the Inca.
Francisco López de Jerez[17]wrote in 1534:
"all of them came distributed into squads, with their flags and captains commanding them, as well-ordered as Turks"
("todos venían repartidos en sus escuadras con sus banderas y capitanes que los mandan, con tanto concierto como turcos").
The chronicler, Bernabé Cobo, wrote:
"The royal standard or banner was a small square flag, ten or twelve spans around, made of cotton or wool linen, placed on the end of a long staff, stretched and stiff such that it did not wave in the air, and on it each king painted his arms and emblems, for each one chose different ones, though the sign of the Incas was the rainbow. Bernabé Cobo (born at Lopera in Spain 1582 died at Lima, Peru, 9 October[[ 657]] was a Spanish Jesuit missionary and writer "
(. . . el guión o estandarte real era una banderilla cuadrada y pequeña, de diez o doce palmos de ruedo, hecha de lienzo de algodón o de lana, iba puesta en el remate de una asta larga, tendida y tiesa, sin que ondease al aire, y en ella pintaba cada rey sus armas y divisas, porque cada uno las escogía diferentes, aunque las generales de los Incas eran el arco celeste. )
-Bernabé Cobo, Historia del Nuevo Mundo (1653)
Guaman Poma's 1615 book, El primer nueva corónica y buen gobierno, shows numerous line drawings of Inca flags. Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala (c 1550 &ndash after 1616 best known as Guaman Poma or Huaman Poma, was an indigenous Peruvian who became disillusioned [18]
In modern times the rainbow flag has been associated with the Tawantinsuyu and is displayed as a symbol of Inca heritage in Peru and Bolivia. A rainbow flag is a multi-colored flag consisting of stripes in the colors of the Rainbow. The city of Cusco flies the Rainbow Flag. Peruvian President Alejandro Toledo (2001–2006) flew the Rainbow Flag in Lima's presidential palace. Alejandro Celestino Toledo Manrique (born 28 March 1946 is a Peruvian Politician and Economist. Lima is the Capital and largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón, Rímac and Lurín rivers on a coast overlooking The Rainbow Flag was taken down by President Alan Garcia in July 2006. Alan Gabriel Ludwig García Pérez (born May 23 1949 in Lima) is the current President of Peru, having won the 2006 elections on June 4 2006 in a run-off
- See also: Wiphala and Rainbow flag#Andean peoples and social movements
Legacy
The major languages of the empire, Quechua and Aymara, were employed by the Roman Catholic Church to evangelize in the Andean region. The Wiphala is a square emblem commonly used as a Flag, representing the native peoples of the central Andes and Bolivian Amazon region A rainbow flag is a multi-colored flag consisting of stripes in the colors of the Rainbow. Quechua ( Runa Simi) is a Native American language of South America. Aymara ( Aymar aru) is an Aymaran language spoken by the Aymara people of the Andes. The Andes form the world's longest exposed Mountain range. They lie as a continuous chain of highland along the western coast of South America. In some cases, these languages were taught to peoples who had originally spoken other indigenous languages. Today, Quechua and Aymara remain the most widespread Amerindian languages. Indigenous languages of the Americas (or Amerindian Languages are spoken by indigenous peoples from the southern tip of South America to Alaska and those who spoke these two languages were regarded higher than the others and referred to as middle-class
References
- Popenoe, Hugh, Steven R. King, Jorge Leon, Luis Sumar Kalinowski, and Noel D. Vietmeyer. Lost Crops of the Incas. Washington DC: National Academy Press, 1989.
- De la Vega, Garcilaso . The Incas: The Royal Commentaries of the Inca. New York: The Orion Press, 1961.
- Mc Neill, William H. "How The Potato Changed The World's History. " Social Research 66. 1 (1999) 16 Sep 2006.
- John Hemming. The Conquest of the Incas Harvest Press 2003. ISBN 978-0156028264.
- Mann, Charles. C (2005). Charles C Mann (fl 2000s is an American journalist and author specializing in scientific topics 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus. Knopf, 64-96. Alfred A Knopf Inc is a New York publishing house founded by Alfred A
- MacQuarrie, Kim. The Last Days of the Incas. Simon & Schuster, 2007. ISBN 978-0743260497.
Notes
- ^ The Inca Empire. Created by Katrina Namnama & Kathleen DeGuzman
- ^ Terence D'Altroy, The Incas, pp. 2–3.
- ^ Tawantin suyu derives from the Quechua "tawa" (four), to which the suffix "-ntin" (together or united) is added, followed by "suyu" (region or province), which roughly renders as "The four lands together". The four suyos were: Chinchay Suyo (North), Anti Suyo (East. The Amazon jungle), Colla Suyo (South) and Conti Suyo (West).
- ^ The Inca - All Empires
- ^ Gary Urton, The History of a Myth: Pacariqtambo and the Origin of the Inkas (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990).
- ^ Gary Urton, Signs of the Inka Khipu: Binary Coding in the Andean Knotted-String Records (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2003).
- ^ The three laws of Tawantinsuyu are still referred to in Bolivia these days as the three laws of the Kollasuyo.
- ^ The Incas and their Ancestors
- ^ Millersville University Silent Killers of the New World
- ^ Quechua*
- ^ Origins And Diversity of Quechua
- ^ Origins And Diversity of Quechua
- ^ Origins And Diversity of Quechua
- ^ http://www.netside.net/~manomed/inca.htm
- ^ Burger, R. L. and L. C. Salazar. 2004. Machu Picchu: Unveiling the Mystery of the Incas. Yale University Press, p. 45. ISBN 0-300-09763-8.
- ^ Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum. The Larco Museum (Museo Larco is located in the Pueblo Libre District in Lima, Peru. The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from the Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera. New York:Thames and Hudson,
- ^ Francisco López de Jerez,Verdadera relacion de la conquista del Peru y provincia de Cuzco, llamada la Nueva Castilla, 1534.
- ^ Guaman Poma, El primer nueva corónica y buen gobierno, (1615/1616), pp. 256, 286, 344, 346, 400, 434, 1077, this pagination corresponds to the Det Kongelige Bibliotek search engine pagination of the book. Additionally Poma shows both well drafted European flags and coats of arms on pp. 373, 515, 558, 1077, 0. On pages 83, 167-171 Poma uses a european heraldic graphic convention, a shield, to place certain totems related to Inca leaders.
See also
- Peruvian Ancient Cultures
- Cultural periods of Peru
- History of Peru
- War of the two brothers
- Inca Garcilaso de la Vega
- Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala
- Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire
- Smallpox Epidemics in the New World
- Population history of Amerindians
- Spanish Empire
- Inca cuisine
- Tumi
- Tambo (Incan structure)
- Amazonas before the Inca Empire
External links
- "Guaman Poma - El Primer Nueva Corónica Y Buen Gobierno" – A high-quality digital version of the Corónica, scanned from the original manuscript. Peruvian territory has been inhabited for about 14000 years by Hunters and gatherers. This The history of Peru spans several millennia Peruvian territory was home to the Norte Chico civilization, one of the oldest in the world and to the Inca Empire Garcilaso de la Vega, (b Gómez Suárez de Figueroa, April 12, 1539 in Cuzco, Peru, d Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala (c 1550 &ndash after 1616 best known as Guaman Poma or Huaman Poma, was an indigenous Peruvian who became disillusioned The Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire was a process through which a group of forty (40 Spaniards led by Francisco Pizarro succeeded in toppling the Inca Smallpox is an Infectious disease unique to humans caused by either of two virus variants named Variola major and Variola minor. It is thought that up to 100 million indigenous people may have lived in The Americas when the 1492 voyage of Christopher Columbus began a historical period of large-scale The Spanish Empire (Imperio Español was one of the largest Empires in history and one of the first Global empires In the 15th and 16th centuries Andean cuisine originated in pre-Columbian times with the first Horticulturists from the valley of Lauricocha; Archaeologists have suggested that they domesticated The Tumi is a sacrificial ceremonial Knife distinctly characterised by a semi-circular blade made of either bronze copper gold-alloy or silver alloy used by some A Tambo ( Quechua: tampu, "inn" was an Incan structure built for administrative and military purposes The department of Amazonas has a millennial history There are some testimonies exhibited on rocky walls dated from the most remote times
- Conquest of Peru, Prescott, 1847 Full text, free to read and search.
- Inca Land by Hiram Bingham (published 1912–1922 CE). Hiram Bingham, formally Hiram Bingham III, ( November 19, 1875 June 6, 1956) was an American academic explorer and politician
- Inca Artifacts, Peru, and Machu Picchu 360 degree movies of inca artifacts and Peruvian landscapes.
- Inca civilization and other ancient civilizations by Genry Joil.
- Inca stone cutting techniques: theory on how the Inca walls fit so perfectly.
- Ancient Civilizations - Inca Great research site for kids.
- "Ice Treasures of the Inca" National Geographic site.
- Incan Ice Mummies NOVA site based on their series about the 1996 expedition that discovered Incan ice mummies.
- Incan Religion
- History of the Inca Empire Inca history, society and religion.
- Engineering in the Andes Mountains MIT asst. professor gives 40 minute lecture on Incan suspension bridges.
- A Map and Timeline of events mentioned in this article
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