Topics in calculus Differentiation Integration Lists of integralsImproper integralsIntegration by:parts, disks, cylindricalshells, substitution,trigonometric substitution,partial fractions, changing order

In calculus, an improper integral is the limit of a definite integral as an endpoint of the interval of integration approaches either a specified real number or ∞ or −∞ or, in some cases, as both endpoints approach limits. Calculus ( Latin, calculus, a small stone used for counting is a branch of Mathematics that includes the study of limits, Derivatives The fundamental theorem of calculus specifies the relationship between the two central operations of Calculus, differentiation and integration. In Mathematics, the limit of a function is a fundamental concept in Calculus and analysis concerning the behavior of that function near a particular In Mathematics, a continuous function is a function for which intuitively small changes in the input result in small changes in the output Vector calculus (also called vector analysis) is a field of Mathematics concerned with multivariable Real analysis of vectors in an Inner In Mathematics, matrix calculus is a specialized notation for doing Multivariable calculus, especially over spaces of matrices, where it defines the In Calculus, the mean value theorem states roughly that given a section of a smooth curve there is at least one point on that section at which the Derivative In Calculus, a branch of mathematics the derivative is a measurement of how a function changes when the values of its inputs change In Calculus, the product rule also called Leibniz's law (see derivation) governs the differentiation of products of differentiable In Calculus, the quotient rule is a method of finding the Derivative of a function that is the Quotient of two other functions for which In Calculus, the chain rule is a Formula for the Derivative of the composite of two functions. In Mathematics, an implicit function is a generalization for the concept of a function in which the Dependent variable has not been given "explicitly" In Calculus, Taylor's theorem gives a sequence of approximations of a Differentiable function around a given point by Polynomials (the Taylor In Differential calculus, related rates problems involve finding a rate that a quantity changes by relating that quantity to other quantities whose rates of change The primary operation in Differential calculus is finding a Derivative. The European Space Agency 's INTErnational Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory ( INTEGRAL) is detecting some of the most energetic radiation that comes from space See the following pages for lists of Integrals: List of integrals of rational functions List of integrals of irrational functions In Calculus, and more generally in Mathematical analysis, integration by parts is a rule that transforms the Integral of products of functions into other Disk integration is a means of calculating the Volume of a Solid of revolution, when integrating along the axis of revolution Shell integration (the shell method in Integral calculus) is a means of calculating the Volume of a Solid of revolution, when integrating In Calculus, integration by substitution is a tool for finding Antiderivatives and Integrals Using the Fundamental theorem of calculus often requires In Mathematics, trigonometric substitution is the substitution of trigonometric functions for other expressions In Integral calculus, the use of Partial fractions is required to integrate the general Rational function. In Calculus, interchange of the order of integration is a methodology that transforms multiple integrations of functions into other hopefully simpler integrals by Calculus ( Latin, calculus, a small stone used for counting is a branch of Mathematics that includes the study of limits, Derivatives In Mathematics, the concept of a " limit " is used to describe the Behavior of a function as its argument either "gets close" The European Space Agency 's INTErnational Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory ( INTEGRAL) is detecting some of the most energetic radiation that comes from space In Mathematics, the real numbers may be described informally in several different ways

## Formulation

The Riemann integral is only be defined for a bounded function f (subject to certain other requirements) on a closed and bounded interval, [a,b], where a and b are real numbers. In Mathematics, a function f defined on some set X with real or complex values is called bounded, if the set In Mathematics, an interval is a set of Real numbers with the property that any number that lies between two numbers in the set is also included in the set The Riemann integral is computed by taking the limit of finite sums of rectangles which approximate the signed area under the graph of a function. Thus expressions of the form $\int_1^\infty \frac{1}{x^2}\,dx$ or $\int_0^1 \frac{1}{\sqrt{x}}\,dx$ do not make sense as Riemann integrals:

• In the first example, the interval $[1,\infty)$ is unbounded. In this case one cannot subdivide the interval into finitely many intervals of finite length: one must either use infinitely many rectangles (which yields an infinite sum), or use some rectangles which are infinitely large, hence having infinite area.
• In the second example, the function is unbounded: it tends to infinity at an endpoint of the domain: $\frac{1}{\sqrt{x}} \to +\infty$ as $x \to 0^+$. In this case one must approximate the function by an infinitely high rectangle, which has infinite area.

Thus instead one defines the improper integral as being, not itself an integral in the above sense (the limit of the sum of areas of finitely many rectangles of finite size), but as a limit of integrals. It is thus a double limit: each proper integral is a limit, and the improper integral is a limit of these limits.

Formally, an improper integral is defined as

$\int_a^b f(x)\,dx := \lim_{c\to b^-} \int_a^c f(x)\,dx\qquad\text{or}\qquad\int_a^b f(x)\,dx := \lim_{c\to a^+} \int_c^b f(x)\,dx,$

assuming that the proper definite integrals on the right hand side are defined, and that the limit of these integrals is itself defined.

One does this either if one of the endpoints is infinite, or if the function f "blows up" at one of the endpoints, meaning $f(x) \to \infty$ or $f(x) \to -\infty$.

### Cautions

Infinite value
Note that the value can be infinity, if the proper integrals are defined and diverge to infinity, for instance $\int_1^\infty \frac{1}{x}\,dx = \infty$.
Only one endpoint at a time
One can only take the limit as one varies a single endpoint. One can sometimes define improper integrals where both endpoints are infinite, such as the Gaussian integral $\int_{-\infty}^\infty e^{-x^2}\,dx = \sqrt{\pi}$, but one cannot even define $\int_{-\infty}^\infty x\,dx$ unambiguously, since the order in which you go to infinity matters:
\begin{align}&\lim_{a \to \infty} \int_{-a}^a x\,dx &&= \lim_{a \to \infty} 0 &&= 0\\&\lim_{a \to \infty} \int_{-a}^{a+1} x\,dx &&= \lim_{a \to \infty} a + \frac{1}{2} &&= +\infty\\&\lim_{a \to \infty} \int_{-a}^{a-1} x\,dx &&= \lim_{a \to \infty} -a + \frac{1}{2} &&= -\infty\end{align}

Further, if one takes the limit as first one endpoint goes to infinity, then the other, then one gets:

\begin{align}&\lim_{a\to -\infty} \lim_{b\to \infty} \int_a^b x\,dx &&= \lim_{a\to -\infty} \infty = \infty\\&\lim_{b\to \infty} \lim_{a\to -\infty} \int_a^b x\,dx &&= \lim_{b\to \infty} -\infty = -\infty\end{align}

In this case, one can however define an improper integral in the sense of Cauchy principal value. The Gaussian integral, or probability integral, is the Improper integral of the Gaussian function e^ over the entire real line In Mathematics, the Cauchy principal value of certain Improper integrals named after Augustin Louis Cauchy, is defined as either the finite

### Questions

The basic questions of the theory are therefore:

The second part can be addressed by calculus techniques, but also in some cases by contour integration, Fourier transforms and other more advanced methods. Analysis has its beginnings in the rigorous formulation of Calculus. This article specifically discusses Fourier transformation of functions on the Real line; for other kinds of Fourier transformation see Fourier analysis and

## Types of integrals

Improper integrals are more or less useful for various notions of integration.

• For the Darboux integral, improper integration is necessary both for unbounded intervals (since one cannot divide the interval into finitely many subintervals of finite length) and for unbounded functions with finite integral (since, supposing it is unbounded above, then the upper integral will be infinite, but the lower integral will be finite). If you are having difficulty understanding this article you might wish to learn more about Algebra, functions and mathematical limits.
• For the Riemann integral, improper integration is necessary for unbounded intervals (as for Darboux) but is not necessary for unbounded functions (since the tags ensure that the Riemann sums are always finite). In the branch of Mathematics known as Real analysis, the Riemann integral, created by Bernhard Riemann, was the first rigorous definition of the Integral
• The Lebesgue integral deals differently with unbounded domains and unbounded functions, so that often an integral which only exists as an improper Riemann integral will exist as a (proper) Lebesgue integral, such as $\int_1^\infty \frac{1}{x^2}\,dx$. In Mathematics, the Integral of a non-negative function can be regarded in the simplest case as the Area between the graph of On the other hand, there are also integrals that have an improper Riemann integral do not have a (proper) Lebesgue integral, such as $\int_0^\infty \frac{\sin x}{x}\,dx$. The Lebesgue theory does not see this as a deficiency: from the point of view of measure theory, $\int_0^\infty \frac{\sin x}{x}\,dx = \infty - \infty$ and cannot be defined satisfactorily. In Mathematics the concept of a measure generalizes notions such as "length" "area" and "volume" (but not all of its applications have to do with In some situations, however, it may be convenient to employ improper Lebesgue integrals as is the case, for instance, when defining the Cauchy principal value. In Mathematics, the Cauchy principal value of certain Improper integrals named after Augustin Louis Cauchy, is defined as either the finite
• For the Henstock-Kurzweil integral, improper integration is not necessary, and this is seen as a strength of the theory: it encompasses all Lebesgue integrable and improper Riemann integrable functions.

## Notation

It is common to use notation that is reminiscent of a typical integral, however, each symbol of these symbols stand for an improper integral.

$\int_a^\infty f(x)\,dx\, := \lim_{t\to \infty}\int_a^t f(x)\,dx\,$
$\int_{-\infty} ^ {b} f(x)\,dx\,:= \lim_{t\to -\infty}\int_t^b f(x)\,dx\,$
$\int_{-\infty}^{\infty} f(x)\,dx\, := \lim_{t\to -\infty}\int_t^a f(x)\,dx\,+\lim_{t\to \infty} \int_a^t f(x)\,dx\,$
$\int_a^b f(x)\,dx\, := \lim_{t\to b^-}\int_a^t f(x)\,dx, \,\mbox{where} \,\, \lim_{x\to b^-} |f(x)| = \infty$
$\int_a^b f(x)\,dx\, := \lim_{t\to a^+}\int_t^b f(x)\,dx, \,\mbox{where} \,\, \lim_{x\to a^+} |f(x)| = \infty$
$\int_a^b f(x)\,dx\,:=\lim_{t\to c^-} \int_a^t f(x)\,dx\, + \lim_{t\to c^+ } \int_t^b f(x)\,dx, \,\mbox{where} \,\, \lim_{x\to c} |f(x)| = \infty$

## Issues of definition

Figure 1.
Figure 2

In some cases, the integral

$\int_a^c f(x)\,dx\,$

can be defined without reference to the limit

$\lim_{b\to c^-}\int_a^b f(x)\,dx\,$

but cannot otherwise be conveniently computed. This often happens when the function f being integrated from a to c has a vertical asymptote at c, or if c = ∞ (see Figures 1 and 2). An asymptote of a real-valued function y=f(x is a curve which describes the behavior of f as either x or y goes to infinity

In some cases, the integral from a to c is not even defined, because the integrals of the positive and negative parts of f(xdx from a to c are both infinite, but nonetheless the limit may exist. Such cases are "properly improper" integrals, i. e. their values cannot be defined except as such limits.

## Issues of interpretation

There is more than one theory of mathematical integration. The European Space Agency 's INTErnational Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory ( INTEGRAL) is detecting some of the most energetic radiation that comes from space From the point of view of calculus, the Riemann integral theory is usually assumed (as the default theory, in other words, in calculus discussions of what expressions with the integral sign means). In the branch of Mathematics known as Real analysis, the Riemann integral, created by Bernhard Riemann, was the first rigorous definition of the Integral In studying improper integrals, it can matter which integration theory is in play.

The integral

$\int_0^\infty\frac{dx}{1+x^2}$

can be interpreted as

$\lim_{b\to\infty}\int_0^b\frac{dx}{1+x^2}=\lim_{b\to\infty}\arctan{b}=\frac{\pi}{2},$

but from the point of view of mathematical analysis it is not necessary to interpret it that way, since it may be interpreted instead as a Lebesgue integral over the set (0, ∞). In Mathematics, the Integral of a non-negative function can be regarded in the simplest case as the Area between the graph of On the other hand, the use of the limit of definite integrals over finite ranges is clearly useful, if only as a way to calculate actual values.

In contrast,

$\int_0^\infty\frac{\sin(x)}{x}\,dx$

cannot be interpreted as a Lebesgue integral, since

$\int_0^\infty\left|\frac{\sin(x)}{x}\right|\,dx=\infty.$

This is therefore a "properly" improper integral, whose value is given by

$\int_0^\infty\frac{\sin(x)}{x}\,dx=\lim_{b\rightarrow\infty}\int_0^b\frac{\sin(x)}{x}\,dx=\frac{\pi}{2}.$

## Singularities

One can speak of the singularities of an improper integral, meaning those points of the extended real number line at which limits are used. In Mathematics, the affinely extended real number system is obtained from the Real number system R by adding two elements +∞ and &minus∞ (pronounced

Such an integral is often written symbolically just like a standard definite integral, perhaps with infinity as a limit of integration. But that conceals the limiting process. By using the more advanced Lebesgue integral, rather than the Riemann integral, one can in some cases bypass this requirement, but if one simply wants to evaluate the limit to a definite answer, that technical fix may not necessarily help. It is more or less essential in the theoretical treatment for the Fourier transform, with pervasive use of integrals over the whole real line.

## Infinite bounds of integration

The most basic of improper integrals are integrals with an unbounded interval of integration such as:

$\int_0^\infty {dx \over x^2+1}.$

As stated above, this need not be defined as an improper integral, since it can be construed as a Lebesgue integral instead. Nonetheless, for purposes of actually computing this integral, it is more convenient to treat it as an improper integral, i. e. , to evaluate it when the upper bound of integration is finite and then take the limit as that bound approaches ∞. The antiderivative of the function being integrated is arctan x. In Calculus, an antiderivative, primitive or indefinite integral of a function f is a function F whose Derivative The integral is

$\lim_{b\rightarrow\infty}\int_0^b\frac{dx}{1+x^2}=\lim_{b\rightarrow\infty}\arctan b-\arctan 0=\pi/2-0=\pi/2.$

The improper integral converges if and only if the limit converges. Here is an example of an integral which does not converge:

$\int_1^\infty {dx \over x} = \lim_{b\rightarrow\infty}\int_1^b\frac{dx}{x}=\lim_{b\rightarrow\infty}\ln b=\infty$

Sometimes both bounds will be infinite. In such a case it can be broken up into the sum of two improper integrals, one on each half:

$\int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} f(x) \,dx = \int_{-\infty}^a f(x) \,dx + \int_a^{+\infty} f(x) \,dx$

where a is an arbitrary finite number.

In this case the improper integral converges if and only if both integrals converge. If one integral diverges to positive infinity, and the other diverges to negative infinity, then the integral is indeterminate, and you can get different answers depending on how the two limits for the two integrals are related. The Cauchy principal value addresses this issue.

## Vertical asymptotes at bounds of integration

Some improper integral involve a function with a vertical asymptote, such as the following with an asymptote at x = 0

$\int_0^1 \frac{dx}{x^{2/3}}.$

One can evaluate this integral by evaluating from b (a number greater than 0) to 1, and then take the limit as b approaches 0 from the right (since the interval we are integrating over is to the right of 0). An asymptote of a real-valued function y=f(x is a curve which describes the behavior of f as either x or y goes to infinity One should note that the antiderivative of the above function is 3x1 / 3, so the integral can be evaluated as

$\lim_{b\rightarrow 0^+}\int_b^1\frac{dx}{x^{2/3}}=3 \cdot 1^{1/3}-\lim_{b\rightarrow 0^+}3 b^{1/3}=3-0=3.$

The improper integral converges if and only if the limit converges. Here is an example of an integral which does not converge:

$\int_0^1 {dx \over x} = \lim_{b\rightarrow 0^+}\int_b^1\frac{dx}{x}=0-\lim_{b\rightarrow 0^+}\ln b=\infty$

Sometimes you integrate over an interval that crosses a vertical asymptote. In such a case, you can break the integral up into the sum of two improper integrals, one on each side:

$\int_a^c f(x) \,dx = \int_a^b f(x) \,dx + \int_b^c f(x) \,dx$

where b is the location of a vertical asymptote.

In this case the improper integral converges if and only if both integrals converge. If one integral diverges to positive infinity, and the other diverges to negative infinity, then the integral is indeterminate, and you can get different answers depending on how the two limits for the two integrals are related. The Cauchy principal value addresses this issue.

## Cauchy principal value

Consider the difference in values of two limits:

$\lim_{a\rightarrow 0+}\left(\int_{-1}^{-a}\frac{dx}{x}+\int_a^1\frac{dx}{x}\right)=0,$
$\lim_{a\rightarrow 0+}\left(\int_{-1}^{-a}\frac{dx}{x}+\int_{2a}^1\frac{dx}{x}\right)=-\ln 2.$

The former is the Cauchy principal value of the otherwise ill-defined expression

$\int_{-1}^1\frac{dx}{x}{\ }\left(\mbox{which}\ \mbox{gives}\ -\infty+\infty\right).$

Similarly, we have

$\lim_{a\rightarrow\infty}\int_{-a}^a\frac{2x\,dx}{x^2+1}=0,$

but

$\lim_{a\rightarrow\infty}\int_{-2a}^a\frac{2x\,dx}{x^2+1}=-\ln 4.$

The former is the principal value of the otherwise ill-defined expression

$\int_{-\infty}^\infty\frac{2x\,dx}{x^2+1}{\ }\left(\mbox{which}\ \mbox{gives}\ -\infty+\infty\right).$

All of the above limits are cases of the indeterminate form ∞ − ∞. In Mathematics, the Cauchy principal value of certain Improper integrals named after Augustin Louis Cauchy, is defined as either the finite In Calculus and other branches of Mathematical analysis, an indeterminate form is an Algebraic expression obtained in the context of Limits

These pathologies do not affect "Lebesgue-integrable" functions, that is, functions the integrals of whose absolute values are finite. In Mathematics, a pathological phenomenon is one whose properties are considered atypically bad or counterintuitive In Mathematics, the absolute value (or modulus) of a Real number is its numerical value without regard to its sign.