Western Philosophy 18th-century philosophy
Immanuel Kant
Name	Immanuel Kant
Birth	April 22, 1724 Königsberg, Kingdom of Prussia
Death	February 12, 1804 (aged 79) Königsberg, Kingdom of Prussia
School/tradition	Kantianism, enlightenment philosophy
Main interests	Epistemology, Metaphysics, Ethics
Notable ideas	Categorical imperative, Transcendental Idealism, Synthetic a priori, Noumenon, Sapere aude, Nebular hypothesis
Influenced by	Wolff, Tetens, Hutcheson, Empiricus, Montaigne, Hume, Descartes, Malebranche, Spinoza, Leibniz, Locke, Berkeley, Rousseau, Newton, Emanuel Swedenborg
Influenced	Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, Schopenhauer, Nietzsche, Peirce, Husserl, Heidegger, Wittgenstein, Sartre, Cassirer, Habermas, Rawls, Chomsky, Nozick, Karl Popper, Kierkegaard, Jung, Searle, Michel Foucault, Hannah Arendt, Karl Marx, Giovanni Gentile, Karl Jaspers, Hayek, Bergson, Ørsted, A.J. Ayer, Emerson, Weininger
Signature

Immanuel Kant IPA: [ɪmanuəl kant] (22 April 1724 – 12 February 1804) was an 18th-century German philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg (now Kaliningrad, Russia). Events 1500 - Portuguese Navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral becomes the first European to sight Brazil. Year 1724 ( MDCCXXIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Events 1429 - English Forces under Sir John Fastolf defend a supply convoy carrying rations to the army besieging Orleans from attack by the Year 1804 ( MDCCCIV) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a The 18th century lasted from 1701 to 1800 in the Gregorian calendar, in accordance with the Anno Domini / Common Era numbering system Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language The Kingdom of Prussia (Königreich Preußen was a German kingdom from 1701 to 1918 and from 1871 was the leading state of the German Empire, comprising Königsberg (Karaliaučius Low German: Königsbarg; Królewiec see also other names) was until 1946 the name of Kaliningrad. Kaliningrad (Калининград is a Seaport and the administrative center of Kaliningrad Oblast, the Russian Exclave between Poland Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending He is regarded as one of the most influential thinkers of modern Europe and of the late Enlightenment. The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century

Contents 1 Biography 1.1 The Young Scholar 1.2 The Silent Decade 1.3 Kant's later work 2 Kant's philosophy 2.1 Kant's theory of perception 2.2 Kant’s Categories of the Understanding 2.3 Kant’s Schema 2.4 Moral philosophy 2.4.1 The first formulation 2.4.2 The second formulation 2.4.3 The third formulation 2.4.4 Idea of God 2.4.5 Idea of freedom 2.5 Aesthetic philosophy 2.6 Political philosophy 3 Anthropology 4 Influence 5 Tomb & Statue in Kaliningrad 6 Bibliography 7 Footnotes 8 See also 9 References and further reading 9.1 General introductions to Kant's thought 9.2 Biography and historical context 9.3 Collections of essays 9.4 On Kant's theoretical philosophy 9.5 On Kant's practical philosophy 9.6 On Kant's aesthetics 9.7 Other work on Kant 9.8 Contemporary philosophy with a Kantian influence 10 External links

Biography

Immanuel Kant was born in 1724 in Königsberg, as the fourth of eleven children (five of them reached adulthood). Königsberg (Karaliaučius Low German: Königsbarg; Królewiec see also other names) was until 1946 the name of Kaliningrad. He was baptized as 'Emanuel' but later changed his name to 'Immanuel'^[1] after he learned Hebrew. He spent his entire life in and around his hometown, the capital of Prussia at that time, never traveling more than a hundred miles from Königsberg. Prussia ( Latin: Borussia, Prutenia; Prūsija Prūsija Prusy Old Prussian: Prūsa) was most recently a historic state ^[2] His father Johann Georg Kant (1682–1746) was a German craftsman from Memel, at the time Prussia's most northeastern city (now Klaipėda, Lithuania). Memel is a name mainly used by Germans and both for towns and rivers Prussia ( Latin: Borussia, Prutenia; Prūsija Prūsija Prusy Old Prussian: Prūsa) was most recently a historic state Klaipėda ( ˈklaɪpɛdə Memel is a City in Lithuania situated at the mouth of the Curonian Lagoon where it flows into the Baltic Sea Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the His mother Anna Regina Porter (1697–1737), born in Nuremberg, was the daughter of a Scottish saddle and harness maker. In his youth, Kant was a solid, albeit unspectacular, student. He was raised in a Pietist household that stressed intense religious devotion, personal humility, and a literal interpretation of the Bible. Pietism was a movement within Lutheranism, lasting from the late 17th century to the mid-18th century and later Etymology According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bible is from Latin biblia, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin Consequently, Kant received a stern education — strict, punitive, and disciplinary — that favored Latin and religious instruction over mathematics and science. ^[3]

The Young Scholar

Kant showed great application to study early in his life. He was first sent to Collegium Fredericianum and then enrolled in the University of Königsberg in 1740, at the age of 16. The University of Königsberg (Albertus-Universität Königsberg was the University of Königsberg, East Prussia. ^[4] He studied the philosophy of Leibniz and Wolff under Martin Knutsen, a rationalist who was also familiar with developments in British philosophy and science and who introduced Kant to the new mathematical physics of Newton. Christian Wolff (less correctly Wolf; also known as Wolfius) baron ( 24 January 1679 - 9 April 1754) was a German In Epistemology and in its broadest sense rationalism is "any view appealing to Reason as a source of knowledge or justification" (Lacey 286 Sir Isaac Newton, FRS (ˈnjuːtən 4 January 1643 31 March 1727) Biography Early years See also Isaac Newton's early life and achievements Knutsen dissuaded Kant from the theory of pre-established harmony, which he regarded as "the pillow for the lazy mind". He also dissuaded the young scholar from idealism, which was negatively regarded by the whole philosophy of the 18th century. Even after Kant developed the theory of transcendental idealism in the "Critique of Pure Reason", he nevertheless refuted traditional idealism, i. e. the idea that reality is mental, in the second part of that work. His father's stroke and subsequent death in 1746 interrupted his studies. Kant became a private tutor in the smaller towns surrounding Königsberg, but continued his scholarly research. 1749 saw the publication of his first philosophical work, Thoughts on the True Estimation of Living Forces. Thoughts on the True Estimation of Living Forces (Gedanken von der wahren Schätzung der lebendigen Kräfte is Immanuel Kant 's first published work Kant published several more works on scientific topics, becoming a university lecturer in 1755. The subject on which he lectured was "Metaphysics"; the course textbook was written by A. G. Baumgarten, the author of the term "aesthetics" in its modern meaning.

In the Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels (1755), Kant laid out the Nebular Hypothesis, in which he deduced that the Solar System formed from a large cloud of gas, a nebula. In Cosmogony, the nebular hypothesis is the most widely accepted model explaining the Formation and evolution of the Solar System. He thus attempted to explain the order of the solar system, seen previously by Newton as being imposed from the beginning by God. The newton (symbol N) is the SI derived unit of Force, named after Isaac Newton in recognition of his work on Classical Kant also correctly deduced that the Milky Way was a large disk of stars, which he theorized also formed from a (much larger) spinning cloud of gas. The Milky Way (a translation of the Latin Via Lactea, in turn derived from the Greek Γαλαξίας (Galaxias sometimes referred to simply He further suggested the possibility that other nebulae might also be similarly large and distant disks of stars. These postulations opened new horizons for astronomy: for the first time extending astronomy beyond the solar system to galactic and extragalactic realms.

From this point on, Kant turned increasingly to philosophical issues, although he continued to write on the sciences throughout his life. In the early 1760s, Kant produced a series of important works in philosophy. The False Subtlety of the Four Syllogistic Figures, a work in logic, was published in 1762. The False Subtlety of the Four Syllogistic Figures Proved ( Die falsche Spitzfindigkeit der vier syllogistischen Figuren erwiesen) was an essay published by Immanuel Kant Two more works appeared the following year: Attempt to Introduce the Concept of Negative Magnitudes into Philosophy and The Only Possible Argument in Support of a Demonstration of the Existence of God. The Only Possible Argument in Support of a Demonstration of the Existence of God is a book by Immanuel Kant, published in 1763. In 1764, Kant wrote Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime and then was second to Moses Mendelssohn in a Berlin Academy prize competition with his Inquiry Concerning the Distinctness of the Principles of Natural Theology and Morality (often referred to as "the Prize Essay"). Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime ( Beobachtungen über das Gefühl des Schönen und Erhabenen) is a 1764 book by Immanuel Moses Mendelssohn ( Dessau, 6 September 1729 4 January 1786 in Berlin) was a German Jewish Philosopher In 1770, at the age of 45, Kant was finally appointed Professor of Logic and Metaphysics at the University of Königsberg. Kant wrote his Inaugural Dissertation in defense of this appointment. This work saw the emergence of several central themes of his mature work, including the distinction between the faculties of intellectual thought and sensible receptivity. Not to observe this distinction would mean to commit the error of subreption, and, as he says in the last chapter of the dissertation, only in avoidance of this error metaphysics will flourish. Subreption is a concept in Roman law and in this tradition Canon law.

The Silent Decade

At the age of 46, Kant was an established scholar and an increasingly influential philosopher. Much was expected of him. In response to a letter from his student, Markus Herz, Kant came to recognize that in the Inaugural Dissertation, he had failed to account for the relation and connection between our sensible and intellectual faculties. Marcus (Markus Herz ( January 17, 1747, Berlin - January 19, 1803, Berlin was a Jewish German Physician He also credited David Hume with awakening him from "dogmatic slumber" (circa 1770). David Hume (26 April 1711 25 August 1776 Scottish Philosopher, Economist, and Historian is an important figure in Western philosophy Kant did not publish another work in philosophy for the next eleven years.

Kant spent his silent decade working on a solution to the problems posed. Though fond of company and conversation with others, Kant isolated himself, despite friends' attempts to bring him out of his isolation. In 1778, in response to one of these offers by a former pupil, Kant wrote "Any change makes me apprehensive, even if it offers the greatest promise of improving my condition, and I am persuaded by this natural instinct of mine that I must take heed if I wish that the threads which the Fates spin so thin and weak in my case to be spun to any length. My great thanks, to my well-wishers and friends, who think so kindly of me as to undertake my welfare, but at the same time a most humble request to protect me in my current condition from any disturbance. "^[5]

When Kant emerged from his silence in 1781, the result was the Critique of Pure Reason. The Critique of Pure Reason (Kritik der reinen Vernunft by Immanuel Kant, first published in 1781, second edition 1787, is one Although now uniformly recognized as one of the greatest works in the history of philosophy, this Critique was largely ignored upon its initial publication. The book was long, over 800 pages in the original German edition, and written in a dry, scholastic style. It received few reviews, and these granted no significance to the work. Its density made it, as Johann Gottfried Herder put it in a letter to Johann Georg Hamann, a "tough nut to crack," obscured by "…all this heavy gossamer. Johann Gottfried von Herder ( August 25, 1744 December 18, 1803) was a German philosopher, Poet, and Literary Johann Georg Hamann ( August 27, 1730, Königsberg - June 21, 1788, Münster) was an important philosopher of the German "^[6] This is in stark contrast, however, to the praise Kant received for earlier works such as the aforementioned "Prize Essay" and other shorter works that precede the first Critique. These well-received and readable tracts include one on the earthquake in Lisbon which was so popular that it was sold by the page. The 1755 Lisbon earthquake, also known as the Great Lisbon Earthquake, took place on November 1 1755 at around 940 in the morning ^[7] Prior to the critical turn, his books sold well, and by the time he published Observations On the Feeling of the Beautiful and the Sublime in 1764 he had become a popular author of some note. ^[8] Kant was disappointed with the first Critique's reception. Recognizing the need to clarify the original treatise, Kant wrote the Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics in 1783 as a summary of its main views. Prolegomenon (plural "prolegomena" refers to any critical introduction or essay at the start of a book He also encouraged his friend, Johann Schultz, to publish a brief commentary on the Critique of Pure Reason. Johann Heinrich Schulze or Schultz ( 12 May 1687 &ndash 10 October 1744) was a German professor and Polymath

Kant's reputation gradually rose through the 1780s, sparked by a series of important works: the 1784 essay, "Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment?"; 1785's Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (his first work on moral philosophy); and, from 1786, Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science. For the contemporary spiritual magazine see What Is Enlightenment?. Year 1785 ( MDCCLXXXV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals or Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten 1785) Immanuel Immanuel Kant 's (22 April 1724 – 12 February 1804 Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science (1786 (in German, Metaphysische Anfangsgründe But Kant's fame ultimately arrived from an unexpected source. In 1786, Karl Reinhold began to publish a series of public letters on the Kantian philosophy. Karl Leonhard Reinhold ( 26 October, 1757 - 10 April, 1823) was an Austrian philosopher. In these letters, Reinhold framed Kant's philosophy as a response to the central intellectual controversy of the era: the Pantheism Dispute. The pantheism controversy was an event in German cultural history which had an impact throughout Europe Friedrich Jacobi had accused the recently deceased G. E. Lessing (a distinguished dramatist and philosophical essayist) of Spinozism. Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi ( 25 January, 1743 - 10 March, 1819) was a German Philosopher notable for coining the term Gotthold Ephraim Lessing ( 22 January, 1729 15 February, 1781) was a German Writer, Philosopher, Dramatist Spinozism is the pantheistic philosophical system of Baruch Spinoza which defines " God " as a singular self-subsistent Substance Such a charge, tantamount to atheism, was vigorously denied by Lessing's friend Moses Mendelssohn, and a bitter public dispute arose between them. Moses Mendelssohn ( Dessau, 6 September 1729 4 January 1786 in Berlin) was a German Jewish Philosopher The controversy gradually escalated into a general debate over the values of the Enlightenment and of reason itself. Reinhold maintained in his letters that Kant's Critique of Pure Reason could settle this dispute by defending the authority and bounds of reason. The Critique of Pure Reason (Kritik der reinen Vernunft by Immanuel Kant, first published in 1781, second edition 1787, is one Reinhold's letters were widely read and made Kant the most famous philosopher of his era.

Kant's later work

Kant published a second edition of the Critique of Pure Reason (Kritik der reinen Vernunft) in 1787, heavily revising the first parts of the book. The Critique of Pure Reason (Kritik der reinen Vernunft by Immanuel Kant, first published in 1781, second edition 1787, is one Most of his subsequent work focused on other areas of philosophy. He continued to develop his moral philosophy, notably in 1788's Critique of Practical Reason (known as the second Critique) and 1797’s Metaphysics of Morals. The Critique of Practical Reason ( Kritik der praktischen Vernunft in the original German) is the second of Immanuel Kant 's three critiques first Year 1797 ( MDCCXCVII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The Metaphysics of Morals ( Die Metaphysik der Sitten, 1797 is a major work of moral and political philosophy by Immanuel Kant. The 1790 Critique of Judgment (the third Critique) applied the Kantian system to aesthetics and teleology. The Critique of Judgement ( Kritik der Urteilskraft, 1790 or in the new Cambridge translation Critique of the Power of Judgement, also known Teleology ( Greek: telos: end purpose is the philosophical study of design and Purpose. He also wrote a number of semi-popular essays on history, religion, politics and other topics. These works were well received by Kant's contemporaries and confirmed his preeminent status in eighteenth century philosophy. There were several journals devoted solely to defending and criticizing the Kantian philosophy. But despite his success, philosophical trends were moving in another direction. Many of Kant's most important disciples (including Reinhold, Beck and Fichte) transformed the Kantian position into increasingly radical forms of idealism. Karl Leonhard Reinhold ( 26 October, 1757 - 10 April, 1823) was an Austrian philosopher. Jakob Sigismund Beck (1761-1840 German philosopher was born at Danzig in 1761 Johann Gottlieb Fichte ( May 19, 1762 – January 27, 1814) was a German philosopher This marked the emergence of German Idealism. German idealism was a philosophical movement in Germany in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries Kant opposed these developments and publicly denounced Fichte in an open letter^[9] in 1799. It was one of his final philosophical acts. Kant's health, long poor, took a turn for the worse and he died at Konigsberg on 12 February 1804 uttering "Genug" [enough] before expiring. ^[10] His unfinished final work, the fragmentary Opus Postumum, was (as its title suggests) published posthumously.

A variety of popular beliefs have arisen concerning Kant's life. It is often held, for instance, that Kant was a late bloomer, that he only became an important philosopher in his mid-50s after rejecting his earlier views. While it is true that Kant wrote his greatest works relatively late in life, there is a tendency to underestimate the value of his earlier works. Recent Kant scholarship has devoted more attention to these "pre-critical" writings and has recognized a degree of continuity with his mature work.

Many of the common myths concerning Kant's personal mannerisms are enumerated, explained, and refuted in Goldwaite's translator's introduction to Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime. Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime ( Beobachtungen über das Gefühl des Schönen und Erhabenen) is a 1764 book by Immanuel ^[11] It is often held that Kant lived a very strict and predictable life, leading to the oft-repeated story that neighbors would set their clocks by his daily walks. ^[12] He never married. Only later in his life, under the influence of his friend, the English merchant Joseph Green, did Kant adopt a more regulated lifestyle. ^[13]

Kant's philosophy

Kant defined the Enlightenment in the essay "Answering the Question: What is Enlightenment?" as an age shaped by the Latin motto, Sapere aude ("Dare to Know"). For the contemporary spiritual magazine see What Is Enlightenment?. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Sapere aude is a Latin phrase meaning "dare to know" Originally used by Horace, it is a common motto for universities and other institutions after This involved thinking autonomously, free of the dictates of external authority. In Politics, authority ( Latin Auctoritas, used in Roman law as opposed to Potestas and Imperium Kant's work reconciled many of the differences between the Rationalist and Empiricist traditions of the 18th century. In Epistemology and in its broadest sense rationalism is "any view appealing to Reason as a source of knowledge or justification" (Lacey 286 In Philosophy, empiricism is a theory of Knowledge which asserts that knowledge arises from Experience. He had a decisive impact on the Romantic and German Idealist philosophies of the 19th century. Romanticism is a complex artistic literary and intellectual movement that originated in the second half of the 18th century in Western Europe, and gained strength during the German idealism was a philosophical movement in Germany in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries His work has also been a starting point for many 20th century philosophers.

Kant asserted that, because of the limitations of reason, no one could really know if there is a God and an afterlife, and conversely that no one could really know that there was not a God and an afterlife. For the sake of society and morality, Kant asserted, people are reasonably justified in believing in them, even though they could never know for sure whether they are real or not. Kant explained:

All the preparations of reason, therefore, in what may be called pure philosophy, are in reality directed to those three problems only [God, the soul, and freedom]. However, these three elements in themselves still hold independent, proportional, objective weight individually. Moreover, in a collective relational context; namely, to know what ought to be done: if the will is free, if there is a God, and if there is a future world. In philosophy the World is everything that makes up Reality. While clarifying the Concept of world has arguably always been among the basic tasks of Western As this concerns our actions with reference to the highest aims of life, we see that the ultimate intention of nature in her wise provision was really, in the constitution of our reason, directed to moral interests only. ^[14]

The sense of an enlightened approach and the critical method required that "If one cannot prove that a thing is, he may try to prove that it is not. Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena And if he succeeds in doing neither (as often occurs), he may still ask whether it is in his interest to accept one or the other of the alternatives hypothetically, from the theoretical or the practical point of view. …Hence the question no longer is as to whether perpetual peace is a real thing or not a real thing, or as to whether we may not be deceiving ourselves when we adopt the former alternative, but we must act on the supposition of its being real. Perpetual peace refers to a state of affairs where peace is permanently established over a certain area (ideally the whole world - see World peace) "^[15] The presupposition of God, soul, and freedom was then a practical concern, for "Morality, by itself, constitutes a system, but happiness does not, unless it is distributed in exact proportion to morality. This, however, is possible in an intelligible world only under a wise author and ruler. Reason compels us to admit such a ruler, together with life in such a world, which we must consider as future life, or else all moral laws are to be considered as idle dreams… . "^[16]

The two interconnected foundations of what Kant called his "critical philosophy" of the "Copernican revolution" which he claimed to have wrought in philosophy were his epistemology of Transcendental Idealism and his moral philosophy of the autonomy of practical reason. Attributed to Immanuel Kant, the critical philosophy movement sees the primary task of Philosophy as Criticism rather than justification of knowledge criticism The Copernican Revolution refers to the Paradigm shift away from the Ptolemaic model of the heavens which placed Earth at the center of the Universe Epistemology (from Greek επιστήμη - episteme, "knowledge" + λόγος, " Logos " or theory of knowledge Transcendental idealism is a doctrine founded by German philosopher Immanuel Kant in the eighteenth century. Ethics is a major branch of Philosophy, encompassing right conduct and good life These placed the active, rational human subject at the center of the cognitive and moral worlds. Not to be confused with the subiectum or Hypokeimenon in Aristotelianism With regard to knowledge, Kant argued that the rational order of the world as known by science could never be accounted for merely by the fortuitous accumulation of sense perceptions. It was instead the product of the rule-based activity of "synthesis. " This consisted of conceptual unification and integration carried out by the mind through concepts or the "categories of the understanding" operating on the perceptual manifold within space and time, which are not concepts,^[17] but forms of sensibility that are a priori necessary conditions for any possible experience. The term "concept" is traced back to 1554–60 ( l conceptum - something conceived but what is today termed "the classical theory of concepts" is the theory of Aristotle SpaceTime is a patent-pending three dimensional graphical user interface that allows end users to search their content such as Google Google Images Yahoo! YouTube eBay Amazon and RSS "A priori" redirects here For other uses see A priori. Thus the objective order of nature and the causal necessity that operates within it are dependent upon the mind. There is wide disagreement among Kant scholars on the correct interpretation of this train of thought. The 'two-world' interpretation regards Kant's position as a statement of epistemological limitation, that we are never able to transcend the bounds of our own mind, meaning that we cannot access the "thing-in-itself". "Noumena" redirects here For the band see Noumena (band. Kant however also speaks of the thing in itself or transcendental object as a product of the (human) understanding as it attempts to conceive of objects in abstraction from the conditions of sensibility. Following this thought, some interpreters have argued that the thing in itself does not represent a separate ontological domain but simply a way of considering objects by means of the understanding alone — this is known as the two-aspect view. With regard to morality, Kant argued that the source of the good lies not in anything outside the human subject, either in nature or given by God, but rather only the good will itself. Morality (from the Latin la moralitas "manner character proper behavior" has three principal meanings Value theory encompasses a range of approaches to understanding how why and to what degree humans should or do value things whether the thing is a person idea object or anything else Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus Nature, in the broadest sense is equivalent to the natural world, physical universe, material world or material universe. God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. A good will is one that acts from duty in accordance with the universal moral law that the autonomous human being freely gives itself. This law obliges one to treat humanity—understood as rational agency, and represented through oneself as well as others—as an end in itself rather than (merely) as means. Intrinsic value is an ethical and philosophic property. It is the ethical or Philosophic value that an object has "in itself" or "for its Instrumental value (or Extrinsic value, contributory value) is the value of objects both Physical objects and Abstract

These ideas have largely framed or influenced all subsequent philosophical discussion and analysis. The specifics of Kant's account generated immediate and lasting controversy. Nevertheless, his theses—that the mind itself necessarily makes a constitutive contribution to its knowledge, that this contribution is transcendental rather than psychological, that philosophy involves self-critical activity, that morality is rooted in human freedom, and that to act autonomously is to act according to rational moral principles—have all had a lasting effect on subsequent philosophy. MIND ( Moving In New Directions) (est 1975 is an alternative education high school in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Knowledge is defined ( Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (i expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education the theoretical or practical understanding

Kant's theory of perception

Main articles: The Critique of Pure Reason and Transcendental Doctrine of Elements

Kant defines his theory of perception in his influential 1781 work The Critique of Pure Reason, which has often been cited as the most significant volume of metaphysics and epistemology in modern philosophy. The Critique of Pure Reason (Kritik der reinen Vernunft by Immanuel Kant, first published in 1781, second edition 1787, is one The Critique of Pure Reason (Kritik der reinen Vernunft by Immanuel Kant, first published in 1781, second edition 1787, is one Kant maintains that our understanding of the external world has its foundations not merely in experience, but in both experience and a priori concepts, thus offering a non-empiricist critique of rationalist philosophy, which is what he and others referred to as his "Copernican revolution. "A priori" redirects here For other uses see A priori. The term "concept" is traced back to 1554–60 ( l conceptum - something conceived but what is today termed "the classical theory of concepts" is the theory of Aristotle "^[18]

Before discussing his theory, it is necessary to explain Kant's distinction between analytic and synthetic propositions.

1. Analytic proposition: a proposition whose predicate concept is contained in its subject concept; e. g. , "All bachelors are unmarried," or, "All bodies take up space. "
2. Synthetic proposition: a proposition whose predicate concept is not contained in its subject concept ; e. g. , "All bachelors are happy," or, "All bodies have mass. "

Analytic propositions are true by nature of the meaning of the words involved in the sentence—we require no further knowledge than a grasp of the language to understand this proposition. On the other hand, synthetic statements are those that tell us something about the world. The truth or falsehood of synthetic statements derives from something outside of their linguistic content. In this instance, mass is not a necessary predicate of the body; until we are told the heaviness of the body we do not know that it has mass. In traditional Grammar, a predicate is one of the two main parts of a sentence (the other being the subject, which the predicate modifies In this case, experience of the body is required before its heaviness becomes clear. Before Kant's first Critique, empiricists (cf. Hume) and rationalists (cf. Leibniz) assumed that all synthetic statements required experience in order to be known.

For more details on this topic, see Analytic-synthetic distinction. The analytic-synthetic distinction is a conceptual distinction used primarily in Philosophy to distinguish propositions into two types analytic propositions and

Kant, however, contests this: he claims that elementary mathematics, like arithmetic, is synthetic a priori, in that its statements provide new knowledge, but knowledge that is not derived from experience. This becomes part of his over-all argument for transcendental idealism. Transcendental idealism is a doctrine founded by German philosopher Immanuel Kant in the eighteenth century. That is, he argues that the possibility of experience depends on certain necessary conditions—which he calls a priori forms—and that these conditions structure and hold true of the world of experience. In so doing, his main claims in the " Transcendental Aesthetic" are that mathematic judgments are synthetic a priori and in addition, that Space and Time are not derived from experience but rather are its preconditions

For more details on this topic, see A priori and a posteriori (philosophy). The Critique of Pure Reason (Kritik der reinen Vernunft by Immanuel Kant, first published in 1781, second edition 1787, is one Space is the extent within which Matter is physically extended and objects and Events have positions relative to one another For other uses see Time (disambiguation Time is a component of a measuring system used to sequence events to compare the durations of "A priori" redirects here For other uses see A priori.

This is quite naturally confusing, yet Kant's idea is that since his first claim—about mathematic judgments—is true, then it will follow that his claims about space and time are true as well. The next paragraph deals with the notion of mathematic judgments being synthetic a priori, skip to the paragraph afterward to read more about perception and Kant.

Once we have grasped the concepts of addition, subtraction or the functions of basic arithmetic, we do not need any empirical experience to know that 100 + 100 = 200, and in this way it would appear that arithmetic is in fact analytic. However, that it is analytic can be disproved thus: if the numbers five and seven in the calculation 5 + 7 = 12 are examined, there is nothing to be found in them by which the number 12 can be inferred. Such it is that "5 + 7" and "the cube root of 1,728" or "12" are not analytic because their reference is the same but their sense is not—that the mathematic judgment "5 + 7 = 12" tells us something new about the world. It is self-evident, and undeniably a priori, but at the same time it is synthetic. And so Kant proves a proposition can be synthetic and known a priori.

For more details on this topic, see Sense and Reference. The distinction between Sinn and Bedeutung (usually but not always translated sense and reference, respectively was an innovation of the German philosopher

Kant asserts that experience is based both upon the perception of external objects and a priori knowledge^[19]. The external world, he writes, provides those things which we sense. It is our mind, though, that processes this information about the world and gives it order, allowing us to comprehend it. Our mind supplies the conditions of space and time to experienced objects. According to the "transcendental unity of apperception", the concepts of the mind (Understanding) and the perceptions or intuitions that garner information from phenomena (Sensibility) are synthesized by comprehension. Without the concepts, intuitions are nondescript; without the intuitions, concepts are meaningless—thus the famous quotation, "Thoughts without content are empty, intuitions without concepts are blind. "^[20]

Kant’s Categories of the Understanding

See also: Category (Kant)

Immanuel Kant deemed it obvious that we have some objective knowledge of the world, such as, say, Newtonian physics. In Kant 's philosophy a category is a pure concept of the understanding But this knowledge relies on synthetic a priori laws of nature, like causality and substance. The problem, then, is how this is possible. Kant’s solution was to reason that the subject must supply laws that make experience of objects possible, and that these laws are the synthetic a priori laws of nature which we can know all objects are subject to prior to experiencing them. So to deduce all these laws, Kant examined experience in general, dissecting in it what is supplied by the mind from what is supplied by the given intuitions. This which has just been explicated is commonly called a transcendental reduction. ^[21]

To begin with, Kant’s distinction between the a posteriori being contingent and particular knowledge, and the a priori being universal and necessary knowledge, must be kept in mind. For if we merely connect two intuitions together in a perceiving subject, the knowledge will always be subjective because it is derived a posteriori, when what is desired is for the knowledge to be objective, that is, for the two intuitions to refer to the object and hold good of it necessarily universally for anyone at anytime, not just the perceiving subject in its current condition. Now what is equivalent to objective knowledge but the a priori, that is to say, universal and necessary knowledge? Nothing, and hence before knowledge can be objective, it must be incorporated under an a priori category of the understanding. ^[21][22]

For example, say a subject says “the sun shines on the stone, the stone grows warm”, which is all he perceives in perception. His judgment is contingent and holds no necessity. But if he says “the sunshine causes the stone to warm”, he subsumes the perception under the category of causality, which is not found in the perception, and necessarily synthesizes the concept sunshine with the concept heat, producing a necessarily universally true judgment. ^[21]

To explain the categories in more detail, they are the preconditions of the construction of objects in the mind. Indeed, to even think of the sun and stone presupposes the category of subsistence, that is, substance. For the categories synthesize the random data of the sensory manifold into intelligible objects. This means that the categories are also the most abstract things one can say of any object whatsoever, and hence one can have an a priori cognition of the totality of all objects of experience if one can list all of them. To do this, Kant formulates another transcendental reduction. ^[21]

Judgments are for Kant the preconditions of any thought. Man thinks via judgments, so all possible judgments must be listed and the perceptions connected within them put aside, so the moments the understanding is involved in constructing judgments can be examined. For the categories are equivalent to these moments, in that they are concepts of intuitions in general, so far as they are determined by these moments universally and necessarily. Thus by listing all the moments, one can deduce from them all of the categories. ^[21]

One may now ask: how many possible judgments are there? Kant believed that all the possible propositions within Aristotle’s syllogistic logic are equivalent to all possible judgments, and that all the logical operators within the propositions are equivalent to the moments of the understanding within judgments. Thus he listed Aristotle’s system in four groups of three: quantity (universal, particular, singular), quality (affirmative, negative, infinite), relation (categorical, hypothetical, disjunctive) and modality (problematic, assertoric, apodeictic). The parallelism with Kant’s categories is obvious: quantity (unity, plurality, totality), quality (reality, negation, limitation), relation (substance, cause, community) and modality (possibility, existence, necessity). ^[21]

The fundamental building blocks of experience, i. e. objective knowledge, are now in place. First there is the sensibility, which supplies the mind with intuitions, and then there is the understanding, which produces judgments of these intuitions and can subsume them under categories. These categories lift the intuitions up out of the subject’s current state of consciousness and place them within consciousness in general, producing universally necessary knowledge. For the categories are innate in any rational being, so any intuition thought within a category in one mind will necessarily be subsumed and understood identically in any mind. ^[21]

Kant’s Schema

See also: Schema (Kant)

Kant ran into a problem with his theory that the mind plays a part in producing objective knowledge. In Kantian philosophy a schema (plural schemata) is the procedural rule by which a category or pure, non-empirical Concept is associated Intuitions and categories are entirely disparate, so how can they interact? Kant’s solution is the schema: a priori principles by which the transcendental imagination connects concepts with intuitions through time. All the principles are temporally bound, for if a concept is purely a priori, as the categories are, then they must apply for all times. Hence there are principles such as substance is that which endures through time, and the cause must always be prior to the effect. ^[21][23]

Moral philosophy

Kant developed his moral philosophy in three works: Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals (1785),^[24] Critique of Practical Reason (1788), and Metaphysics of Morals (1797) . The Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals or Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten 1785) Immanuel The Critique of Practical Reason ( Kritik der praktischen Vernunft in the original German) is the second of Immanuel Kant 's three critiques first The Metaphysics of Morals ( Die Metaphysik der Sitten, 1797 is a major work of moral and political philosophy by Immanuel Kant.

In the Groundwork, Kant's method involves trying to convert our everyday, obvious, rational^[25] knowledge of morality into philosophical knowledge. The latter two works followed a method of using "practical reason", which is based only upon things about which reason can tell us, and not deriving any principles from experience, to reach conclusions which are able to be applied to the world of experience (in the second part of The Metaphysic of Morals).

Kant is known for his theory that there is a single moral obligation, which he called the "Categorical Imperative", and is derived from the concept of duty. The categorical imperative is the central philosophical concept of the Moral philosophy of Immanuel Kant, and of modern Deontological ethics Duty (from "due" that which is owing O Fr deu did past participle of devoir Lat Kant defines the demands of the moral law as "categorical imperatives. " Categorical imperatives are principles that are intrinsically valid; they are good in and of themselves; they must be obeyed in all situations and circumstances if our behavior is to observe the moral law. It is from the Categorical Imperative that all other moral obligations are generated, and by which all moral obligations can be tested. Kant also stated that the moral means and ends can be applied to the categorical imperative, that rational beings can pursue certain "ends" using the appropriate "means. " Ends that are based on physical needs or wants will always give for merely hypothetical imperatives. The categorical imperative, however, may be based only on something that is an "end in itself". That is, an end that is a means only to itself and not to some other need, desire, or purpose. ^[26] He believed that the moral law is a principle of reason itself, and is not based on contingent facts about the world, such as what would make us happy, but to act upon the moral law which has no other motive than "worthiness of being happy"^[27]. Reason involves the ability to think understand and draw Conclusions in an Abstract way as in Human thinking Accordingly, he believed that moral obligation applies to all and only rational agents. ^[28]

A categorical imperative is an unconditional obligation; that is, it has the force of an obligation regardless of our will or desires (Contrast this with hypothetical imperative)^[29] In Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals (1785) Kant enumerated three formulations of the categorical imperative which he believed to be roughly equivalent^[30]:

Kant believed that if an action is not done with the motive of duty, then it is without moral value. A hypothetical imperative, originally introduced in the Philosophical writings of Immanuel Kant, is a commandment of reason that applies only conditionally if He thought that every action should have pure intention behind it; otherwise it was meaningless. He didn't necessarily believe that the final result was the most important aspect of an action, but that how the person felt while carrying out the action was the time at which value was set to the result.

In Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals, Kant also posited the "counter-utilitarian idea that there is a difference between preferences and values and that considerations of individual rights temper calculations of aggregate utility", a concept that is an axiom in economics: ^[31]

Everything has either a price or a dignity. Utilitarianism is the idea that the moral worth of an action is solely determined by its contribution to overall Utility, that is its contribution to happiness Whatever has a price can be replaced by something else as its equivalent; on the other hand, whatever is above all price, and therefore admits of no equivalent, has a dignity. But that which constitutes the condition under which alone something can be an end in itself does not have mere relative worth, i. e. , price, but an intrinsic worth, i. e. , a dignity. (p. 53, italics in original).

The first formulation

The first formulation (Formula of Universal Law) of the moral imperative "requires that the maxims be chosen as though they should hold as universal laws of nature" (436). ^[30] This formulation in principle has as its supreme law "Always act according to that maxim whose universality as a law you can at the same time will", and is the "only condition under which a will can never come into conflict with itself…"^[32]

One interpretation of the first formulation is called the "universalizability test. "^[33] An agent's maxim, according to Kant, is his "subjective principle of human actions" — that is, what the agent believes is his reason to act. ^[34] The universalizability test has five steps:

1. Find the agent's maxim. The maxim is an action paired with its motivation. Example: "I will lie for personal benefit. " Lying is the action, the motivation is to get what you desire. Paired together they form the maxim.
2. Imagine a possible world in which everyone in a similar position to the real-world agent followed that maxim.
3. Decide whether any contradictions or irrationalities arise in the possible world as a result of following the maxim.
4. If a contradiction or irrationality arises, acting on that maxim is not allowed in the real world.
5. If there is no contradiction, then acting on that maxim is permissible, and in some instances required.

(For a modern parallel, see John Rawls' hypothetical situation, the original position. John Rawls ( February 21, 1921  &ndash November 24, 2002) was an American Philosopher, a Professor of The original position is a hypothetical situation developed by American Philosopher John Rawls as a Thought experiment to replace the imagery of a savage )

The second formulation

The second formulation (Formula of the End in Itself) says that "the rational being, as by its nature an end and thus as an end in itself, must serve in every maxim as the condition restricting all merely relative and arbitrary ends. "^[30] The principle is "Act with reference to every rational being (whether yourself or another) so that it is an end in itself in your maxim…", meaning the rational being is "the basis of all maxims of action" and "must be treated never as a mere means but as the supreme limiting condition in the use of all means, i. e. , as an end at the same time. "^[35]

The third formulation

The third formulation (Formula of Autonomy) is a synthesis of the first two and is the basis for the "complete determination of all maxims". It says "that all maxims which stem from autonomous legislation ought to harmonize with a possible realm of ends as with a realm of nature. "^[30] In principle, "So act as if your maxims should serve at the same time as the universal law (of all rational beings)", meaning that we should so act that we may think of ourselves as "a member in the universal realm of ends", legislating universal laws through our maxims, in a "possible realm of ends. A legislature is a type of representative Deliberative assembly with the power to create amend and change Laws The law created by a legislature is called Legislation "^[36] (See also Kingdom of Ends)

Idea of God

Kant stated the practical necessity for a belief in God in his Critique of Pure Reason. The Kingdom of Ends is a Thought experiment in the moral philosophy of Immanuel Kant. The Critique of Pure Reason (Kritik der reinen Vernunft by Immanuel Kant, first published in 1781, second edition 1787, is one As an idea of pure reason, "we do not have the slightest ground to assume in an absolute manner… the object of this idea…"^[37], but adds that the idea of God cannot be separated from the relation of happiness with morality as the "ideal of the supreme good. " The foundation of this connection is an intelligible moral world, and "is necessary from the practical point of view"^[38]. Later, in the Logic, § 3 (1800) he argued that the idea of God can only be proved through the moral law and only with practical intent, that is, "the intent so as to act as if there be a God" (trans. Hartmann and Schwartz). See Argument from morality for more details. The argument from morality is one of several Arguments for the existence of God.

Idea of freedom

In the Critique of Pure Reason^[39] Kant distinguishes between the transcendental idea of freedom, which as a psychological concept is "mainly empirical" and refers to "the question whether we must admit a power of spontaneously beginning a series of successive things or states" as a real ground of necessity in regard to causality^[40], and the practical concept of freedom as the independence of our will from the "coercion" or "necessitation through sensuous impulses. " Kant finds it a source of difficulty that the practical concept of freedom is founded on the transcendental idea of freedom^[41], but for the sake of practical interests uses the practical meaning, taking "no account of… its transcendental meaning", which he feels was properly "disposed of" in the Third Antinomy, and as an element in the question of the freedom of the will is for philosophy "a real stumbling-block" that has "embarrassed speculative reason"^[40].

Kant calls practical "everything that is possible through freedom", and the pure practical laws that are never given through sensuous conditions but are held analogously with the universal law of causality are moral laws. Reason can give us only the "pragmatic laws of free action through the senses", but pure practical laws given by reason a priori^[42] dictate "what ought to be done"^[43][44].

Aesthetic philosophy

Kant discusses the subjective nature of aesthetic qualities and experiences in Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime, (1764). Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime ( Beobachtungen über das Gefühl des Schönen und Erhabenen) is a 1764 book by Immanuel Kant's contribution to aesthetic theory is developed in the Critique of Judgment (1790) where he investigates the possibility and logical status of "judgments of taste. Aesthetics or esthetics ( also spelled æsthetics) is commonly known as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values sometimes called The Critique of Judgement ( Kritik der Urteilskraft, 1790 or in the new Cambridge translation Critique of the Power of Judgement, also known " In the "Critique of Aesthetic Judgment," the first major division of the Critique of Judgment, Kant used the term "aesthetic" in a manner that is, according to Kant scholar W. H. Walsh, its modern sense. ^[45] Prior to this, in the Critique of Pure Reason, Kant had, in order to note the essential differences between judgments of taste, moral judgments, and scientific judgments, abandoned the use of the term "aesthetic" as "designating the critique of taste," noting that judgments of taste could never be "directed" by "laws a priori"^[46]. After A. G. Baumgarten, who wrote Aesthetica (1750–58),^[47] Kant was one of the first philosophers to develop and integrate aesthetic theory into a unified and comprehensive philosophical system, utilizing ideas that played an integral role throughout his philosophy. Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten ( July 17, 1714 &ndash May 26, 1762) was a German Philosopher. ^[48]

In the chapter "Analytic of the Beautiful" of the Critique of Judgment, Kant states that beauty is not a property of an artwork or natural phenomenon, but is instead a consciousness of the pleasure which attends the 'free-play' of the imagination and the understanding. Even though it appears that we are using reason to decide that which is beautiful, the judgment is not a cognitive judgment,^[49] "and is consequently not logical, but aesthetical" (§ 1). A pure judgement of taste is in fact subjective insofar as it refers to the emotional response of the subject and is based upon nothing but esteem for an object itself: it is a disinterested pleasure, and we feel that pure judgements of taste, i. e. judgements of beauty, lay claim to universal validity (§§20–22). It is important to note that this universal validity is not derived from a determinate concept of beauty but from common sense. Kant also believed that a judgement of taste shares characteristics engaged in a moral judgement: both are disinterested, and we hold them to be universal. In the chapter "Analytic of the Sublime" Kant identifies the sublime as an aesthetic quality which, like beauty, is subjective, but unlike beauty refers to an indeterminate relationship between the faculties of the imagination and of reason, and shares the character of moral judgments in the use of reason. The feeling of the sublime, itself comprised of two distinct modes (the mathematical sublime and the dynamical sublime), describe two subjective moments both of which concern the relationship of the faculty of the imagination to reason. The mathematical sublime is situated in the failure of the imagination to comprehend natural objects which appear boundless and formless, or which appear "absolutely great" (§ 23–25). This imaginative failure is then recuperated through the pleasure taken in reason's assertion of the concept of infinity. In this move the faculty of reason proves itself superior to our fallible sensible self (§§ 25–26). In the dynamical sublime there is the sense of annihilation of the sensible self as the imagination tries to comprehend a vast might. This power of nature threatens us but through the resistance of reason to such sensible annihilation, the subject feels a pleasure and a sense of the human moral vocation. This appreciation of moral feeling through exposure to the sublime helps to develop moral character. In Aesthetics, the sublime (from the Latin sublimis ( up from under the lintel high lofty elevated exalted is the quality of greatness or vast

Kant had developed the distinction between an object of art as a material value subject to the conventions of society and the transcendental condition of the judgment of taste as a "refined" value in the propositions of his Idea of A Universal History (1784). In the Fourth and Fifth Theses of that work he identified all art as the "fruits of unsociableness" due to men's "antagonism in society",^[50] and in the Seventh Thesis asserted that while such material property is indicative of a civilized state, only the ideal of morality and the universalization of refined value through the improvement of the mind of man "belongs to culture". ^[51]

Political philosophy

Main article: Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant

In Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch (1795) Kant listed several conditions that he thought necessary for ending wars and creating a lasting peace. Immanuel Kant favoured a Classical liberal approach to Political philosophy. They included a world of constitutional republics. A constitutional Republic is a State where the Head of state and other officials are elected as representatives of the people and ^[52] This was the first version of the democratic peace theory. The democratic peace theory (or liberal peace theory or simply the democratic peace) holds that democracies &mdash usually liberal democracies

He opposed "democracy," which at his time meant direct democracy, believing that majority rule posed a threat to individual liberty. Direct Democracy is a movement within the British Conservative Party dedicated to localism and Constitutional reform as a means of reviving public He stated, "…democracy is, properly speaking, necessarily a despotism, because it establishes an executive power in which 'all' decide for or even against one who does not agree; that is, 'all,' who are not quite all, decide, and this is a contradiction of the general will with itself and with freedom. "^[53]

Anthropology

Kant lectured on anthropology for over 25 years. His Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View was published in 1798. (This was the subject of Michel Foucault's doctoral dissertation. Michel Foucault ( (15 October 1926 – 25 June 1984 was a French philosopher, Historian, Intellectual, Critic and Sociologist. ) Kant's Lectures on Anthropology was published for the first time in 1997 in German. They have not been translated into English.

Influence

The vastness of Kant's influence on Western thought is immeasurable. ^[54] During his own life, there was a considerable amount of attention paid to his thought, much of it critical, though he did have a positive influence on Reinhold, Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, and Novalis during the 1780s and 1790s. Karl Leonhard Reinhold ( 26 October, 1757 - 10 April, 1823) was an Austrian philosopher. Johann Gottlieb Fichte ( May 19, 1762 – January 27, 1814) was a German philosopher Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling ( January 27, 1775 – August 20, 1854) later von Schelling, was a German Philosopher Novalis (noˈvaːlɪs was the Pseudonym of Georg Philipp Friedrich Freiherr von Hardenberg ( May 2, 1772 - March 25, 1801 The philosophical movement known as German Idealism developed from Kant's theoretical and practical writings. German idealism was a philosophical movement in Germany in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries The German Idealists Fichte and Schelling, for example, attempted to bring traditionally "metaphysically" laden notions like "the Absolute," "God," or "Being" with the confines of Kant's critical philosophy. ^[55] In so doing, the German Idealists attempted to reverse Kant's establishment of the unknowableness of unexperiencable ideas.

Hegel was one of the first major critics of Kant's philosophy. Hegel thought Kant's moral philosophy was too formal, abstract and ahistorical. In response to Kant's abstract and formal account of morality, Hegel developed an ethics that considered the "ethical life" of the community. ^[56] But Hegel's notion of "ethical life" is meant to subsume, rather than replace, Kantian "morality. " And Hegel's philosophical work as a whole can be understood as attempting to defend Kant's conception of freedom as going beyond finite "inclinations," by means of reason. Thus, in contrast to later critics like Friedrich Nietzsche or Bertrand Russell, Hegel shares some of Kant's most basic concerns. Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (October 15 1844 August 25 1900 ( was a nineteenth-century German philosopher and classical philologist Bertrand Arthur William Russell 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970 was a British Philosopher, Historian ^[57]

Many British Roman Catholic writers, notably G. K. Chesterton and Hilaire Belloc, seized on Kant and promoted his work, with a view to restoring the philosophical legitimacy of a belief in God. Gilbert Keith Chesterton (29 May 1874 – 14 June 1936 was an influential English writer of the early 20th century Joseph Hilaire Pierre René Belloc (27 July 1870 &ndash 16 July 1953 was a French -born Writer who became a Naturalised British subject God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. Reaction against this, and an attack on Kant's use of language, is found in Ronald Englefield's article, "Kant as Defender of the Faith in Nineteenth-century England^[58], reprinted in Critique of Pure Verbiage, Essays on Abuses of Language in Literary, Religious, and Philosophical Writings. Frederick Ronald Hastings Englefield ( 1891 &ndash 1975) was an English poet and philosopher ^[59]

Arthur Schopenhauer was strongly influenced by Kant's transcendental idealism. Transcendental idealism is a doctrine founded by German philosopher Immanuel Kant in the eighteenth century. He, like G. E. Schulze, Jacobi and Fichte before him, was critical of Kant's theory of the thing in itself. Gottlob Ernst Schulze ( August 23 1761 &mdash January 14 1833) was born in Heldrungen, Thuringia, Germany. Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi ( 25 January, 1743 - 10 March, 1819) was a German Philosopher notable for coining the term Things in themselves, they argued, are neither the cause of our representations nor are they something completely beyond our access. ^[60] For Schopenhauer things in themselves do not exist independently of the non-rational will. The world, as Schopenhauer would have it, is the striving and largely unconscious will.

With the success and wide influence of Hegel's writings, Kant's influence began to wane, though there was in Germany a brief movement that hailed a return to Kant in the 1860s, beginning with the publication of Kant und die Epigonen in 1865 by Otto Liebmann, whose motto was "Back to Kant". Otto Liebmann, born February 2 1840, died January 14 1912, was a German Philosopher. During the turn of the 20th century there was an important revival of Kant's theoretical philosophy, known as Marburg Neo-Kantianism, represented in the work of Hermann Cohen, Paul Natorp, Ernst Cassirer,^[61] and anti-Neo-Kantian Nicolai Hartmann. Neo-Kantianism means a revived or modified type of Philosophy along the lines of that laid down by Immanuel Kant in the Eighteenth century or (sometimes Hermann Cohen ( July 4, 1842 &ndash April 4, 1918) was a German - Jewish philosopher, one of the founders of the Paul Gerhard Natorp ( 24 January 1854 - 17 August 1924) was a German Neo-Kantian philosopher and educationalist of the Marburg Ernst Cassirer ( July 28, 1874 &ndash April 13, 1945) was a German Jewish Philosopher. Nicolai Hartmann (Niklāvs Hartmanis February 20, 1882 in Riga, Latvia – October 9, 1950) was a German ^[62]

Jurgen Habermas and John Rawls are two significant political and moral philosophers whose work is strongly influenced by Kant's moral philosophy. Jürgen Habermas (ˈjʏʁgən ˈhaːbɐmaːs born June 18, 1929 is a German Philosopher and Sociologist in the tradition of John Rawls ( February 21, 1921  &ndash November 24, 2002) was an American Philosopher, a Professor of ^[63] They both, regardless of recent relativist trends in philosophy, have argued that universality is essential to any viable moral philosophy.

With his Perpetual Peace, Kant is considered to have foreshadowed many of the ideas that have come to form the democratic peace theory, one of the main controversies in political science. Perpetual peace refers to a state of affairs where peace is permanently established over a certain area (ideally the whole world - see World peace) The democratic peace theory (or liberal peace theory or simply the democratic peace) holds that democracies &mdash usually liberal democracies Political science is a branch of Social sciences that deals with the theory and practice of Politics and the description and analysis of Political systems

Kant's notion of "Critique" or criticism has been quite influential. The word critic comes from the Greek el κριτικός ( el-Latn kritikós) "able to discern" which in turn derives from the word The Early German Romantics, especially Friedrich Schlegel in his "Athenaeum Fragments", used Kant's self-reflexive conception of criticism in their Romantic theory of poetry. Karl Wilhelm Friedrich (later von) Schlegel ( March 10, 1772 - January 12, 1829) was a German Poet ^[64] Also in Aesthetics, Clement Greenberg, in his classic essay "Modernist Painting", uses Kantian criticism, what Greenberg refers to as "immanent criticism", to justify the aims of Abstract painting, a movement Greenberg saw as aware of the key limitiaton—flatness—that makes up the medium of painting. Aesthetics or esthetics ( also spelled æsthetics) is commonly known as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values sometimes called Clement Greenberg ( January 16, 1909 - May 7, 1994) was an influential American Abstract art uses a Visual language of form color and line to create a composition which exists independently of visual references to the world ^[65]

Kant believed that mathematical truths were forms of synthetic a priori knowledge, which means they are necessary and universal, yet known through intuition. The analytic-synthetic distinction is a conceptual distinction used primarily in Philosophy to distinguish propositions into two types analytic propositions and Kant’s often brief remarks about mathematics influenced the mathematical school known as intuitionism, a movement in philosophy of mathematics opposed to Hilbert’s formalism, and the logicism of Frege and Bertrand Russell. Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and In the Philosophy of mathematics, intuitionism, or neointuitionism (opposed to Preintuitionism) is an approach to Mathematics as the constructive The philosophy of mathematics is the branch of Philosophy that studies the philosophical assumptions foundations and implications of Mathematics. David Hilbert ( January 23, 1862 &ndash February 14, 1943) was a German Mathematician, recognized as one of the most Logicism is one of the schools of thought in the Philosophy of mathematics, putting forth the theory that Mathematics is an extension of Logic and therefore Friedrich Ludwig Gottlob Frege ( 8 November 1848, Wismar, Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin  &ndash 26 July 1925 Bertrand Arthur William Russell 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970 was a British Philosopher, Historian ^[66]

Post-Kantian philosophy has yet to return to the style of thinking and arguing that characterized much of philosophy and metaphysics before Kant, although many British and American philosophers have preferred to trace their intellectual origins to Hume,^[67] thus bypassing Kant. The British philosopher P. F. Strawson is a notable exception,^[68] as is the American philosopher Wilfrid Sellars. Sir Peter Frederick Strawson ( 23 November 1919  &ndash 13 February 2006) was an English philosopher Wilfrid Stalker Sellars ( May 20, 1912 - July 2, 1989) was an American philosopher ^[69]

Due in part to the influence of Strawson and Sellars, among others, there has been a renewed interest in Kant's view of the mind. Central to many debates in philosophy of psychology and cognitive science is Kant's conception of the unity of consciousness. Philosophy of psychology refers to issues at the theoretical foundations of modern Psychology. Cognitive science may be broadly defined as the multidisciplinary study of mind and behavior ^[70]

Tomb & Statue in Kaliningrad

Kant's tomb is today in a mausoleum adjoining the northeast corner of Königsberg Cathedral. For the New York prison see The Tombs. A Tomb is a repository for the remains of the dead. A mausoleum ( plural: mausolea is an external free-standing building constructed as a monument enclosing the interment space or burial chamber of a deceased person or persons Königsberg Cathedral (Königsberger Dom Кафедральный собор Кёнигсберга is a Brick Gothic style building in Kaliningrad (formerly The mausoleum was constructed by the architect Friedrich Lahrs and was finished in 1924 in time for the bicentenary of Kant's birth. Year 1924 ( MCMXXIV) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Originally, Kant was buried inside the cathedral, but in 1880 his remains were moved outside and placed in a neo-Gothic chapel adjoining the northeast corner of the cathedral. Year 1880 ( MDCCCLXXX) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year The Gothic Revival is an architectural movement which began Over the years, the chapel became dilapidated before it was demolished to make way for the mausoleum, which was built on the same spot, where it is today.

The tomb and its mausoleum are some of the few artefacts of German times preserved by the Soviets after they conquered and annexed the city. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Today, many newlyweds bring flowers to the mausoleum.

A replica of the statue of Kant that stood in German times in front of the main University of Königsberg building was donated by a German entity in the early 1990s and placed in the same grounds. The University of Königsberg (Albertus-Universität Königsberg was the University of Königsberg, East Prussia. The 1990s collectively refers to the years between and including 1990 and 1999

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• (1783) Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics [4] (Prolegomena zu einer jeden künftigen Metaphysik)
• (1784) "An Answer To The Question: What Is Enlightenment?" (Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung? [5])
• (1784) Idea For A Universal History With A Cosmopolitan Purpose (Idee zu einer allgemeinen Geschichte in weltbürgerlicher Absicht)
• (1785) Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten)
• (1786) Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science (Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Naturwissenschaft)
• (1787) Second edition of the Critique of Pure Reason [6] (Kritik der reinen Vernunft [7])
• (1788) Critique of Practical Reason [8] (Kritik der praktischen Vernunft [9])
• (1790) Critique of Judgement (Kritik der Urteilskraft [10])
• (1790) The Science of Right [11]
• (1793) Religion Within the Limits of Reason Alone (Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der bloßen Vernunft) [12]
• (1795) Perpetual Peace [13] (Zum ewigen Frieden [14])
• (1797) Metaphysics of Morals (Metaphysik der Sitten)
• (1798) Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View (Anthropologie in pragmatischer Hinsicht)
• (1798) The Contest of Faculties [15] (Der Streit der Fakultäten [16])
• (1800) Logic (Logik)
• (1803) On Pedagogy (Über Pädagogik [17])
• (1804) Opus Postumum
• (More German works at Wikisource)
• (More German works at Project Gutenberg)
• (More English works at The University of Adelaide Library)

Footnotes

See also

References and further reading

Any suggestion of further reading on Kant has to take cognizance of the fact that his work has dominated philosophy like no other figure after him. "A priori" redirects here For other uses see A priori. The categorical imperative is the central philosophical concept of the Moral philosophy of Immanuel Kant, and of modern Deontological ethics In Kant 's philosophy a category is a pure concept of the understanding This is a partial list of individual contributions to liberal political theory on a worldwide scale In Philosophy, empiricism is a theory of Knowledge which asserts that knowledge arises from Experience. German idealism was a philosophical movement in Germany in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries Liberalism is a broad array of related ideas and theories of Government that consider individual Liberty to be the most important political goal See also Western philosophy, Eastern religions, Eastern philosophy The Neo-Kantianism means a revived or modified type of Philosophy along the lines of that laid down by Immanuel Kant in the Eighteenth century or (sometimes The Philosophy of Freedom, the fundamental philosophical work of the Philosopher and Esotericist Rudolf Steiner, focuses on the concept of In Epistemology and in its broadest sense rationalism is "any view appealing to Reason as a source of knowledge or justification" (Lacey 286 In Kantian philosophy a schema (plural schemata) is the procedural rule by which a category or pure, non-empirical Concept is associated Ayn Rand was a Russian American Novelist and Philosopher whose relationship with the History of philosophy is Schopenhauer appended a criticism to the first volume of his The World as Will and Representation. On the Basis of Morality (German Über die Grundlage der Moral) is one of Arthur Schopenhauer 's major works in Ethics, in which he argues that Schopenhauer's criticism of Kant's schemata is part of Schopenhauer's criticism of the Kantian philosophy which was published in 1819 David Hume (26 April 1711 25 August 1776 Scottish Philosopher, Economist, and Historian is an important figure in Western philosophy John Locke (29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704 was an English Philosopher. Karl Leonhard Reinhold ( 26 October, 1757 - 10 April, 1823) was an Austrian philosopher. Gottlob Ernst Schulze ( August 23 1761 &mdash January 14 1833) was born in Heldrungen, Thuringia, Germany. Aenesidemus was a book published anonymously by Professor Gottlob Ernst Schulze of Helmstedt in 1792 Immanuel Kant State University of Russia (Российский государственный университет имени Иммануэла Канта Rossiysky gosudarstvennyy Nevertheless, several guideposts can be made out. In Germany, the most important contemporary interpreter of Kant and the movement of German Idealism which he began is Dieter Henrich, who has some work available in English. German idealism was a philosophical movement in Germany in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries Dieter Henrich (born January 5, 1927 in Marburg, Germany) is a German Philosopher. P.F. Strawson's "The Bounds of Sense" (1969) played a significant role in determining the contemporary reception of Kant in England and America. Sir Peter Frederick Strawson ( 23 November 1919  &ndash 13 February 2006) was an English philosopher More recent interpreters of note in the English-speaking world include Lewis White Beck, Jonathan Bennett, Henry Allison, Paul Guyer, Christine Korsgaard, Robert B. Pippin, Rudolf Makkreel, and Béatrice Longuenesse. Lewis White Beck ( September 26, 1913 - June 7, 1997) was a scholar in German philosophy. Jonathan F Bennett (born 1930 Westport New Zealand) is a British Philosopher of language and Metaphysics, and a historian Paul Guyer, a Professor of Philosophy and FRC Murray Professor in the Humanities at the University of Pennsylvania, is one of the world's forememost scholars of Kant Christine M Korsgaard (born 1952 in Chicago, Illinois) is an American Philosopher whose main academic interests are in moral philosophy Robert B Pippin (born 1948) is an American philosopher He is the Evelyn Stefansson Nef Distinguished Service Professor in the Committee on Social Thought and Rudolf A Makkreel is Charles Howard Candler Professor of Philosophy at Emory University. Béatrice Longuenesse is a professor of philosophy at New York University.

General introductions to Kant's thought

• Broad C. D. Kant: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press, 1978. Cambridge University Press (known colloquially as CUP is a Publisher given a Royal Charter by Henry VIII in 1534 ISBN 0-521-21755-5, ISBN 0-521-29265-4
• Gardner, Sebastian Kant and the Critique of Pure Reason. Routledge, 1999. Routledge is a publisher of non-fiction academic books and journals ISBN 0-415-11909-X
• Seung, T. K. 2007. Kant: Guide for the Perplexed. London: Continuum. ISBN 0-8264-8580-4

Biography and historical context

• Beck, Lewis White. Early German Philosophy: Kant and his Predecessors. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1969.

a survey of Kant's intellectual background

• Beiser, Frederick C. The Fate of Reason: German Philosophy from Kant to Fichte. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987.
• Beiser, Frederick C. German Idealism: The Struggle against Subjectivism, 1781-1801. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002.
• Cassirer, Ernst. Kant's Life and Thought. Translation of Kants Leben und Lehre. Trans. , Jame S. Haden, intr. Stephan Körner. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1981. Yale University Press is a book Publisher founded in 1908. It became an official department of Yale University in 1961, but remained
• Gulyga, Arsenij. Immanuel Kant: His Life and Thought. Trans. , Marijan Despaltović. Boston: Birkhäuser, 1987.
• Kuehn, Manfred. Kant: A Biography. Cambridge University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-521-49704-3

this is now the standard biography of Kant in English

• Pinkard, Terry. German philosophy, 1760-1860: The Legacy of Idealism. Cambridge, 2002.
• Sassen, Brigitte. ed. Kant's Early Critics: The Empiricist Critique of the Theoretical Philosophy, 2000.
• Lehner, Ulrich L. , Kants Vorsehungskonzept auf dem Hintergrund der deutschen Schulphilosophie und -theologie (Leiden: 2007) (Kant's Concept of Providence and its background in German School Philosophy & Theology)
• Houston Stewart Chamberlain, Immanuel Kant — a study and a comparison with Goethe, Leonardo da Vinci, Bruno, Plato and Descartes, the authorised translation from the German by Lord Redesdale, with his 'Introduction', The Bodley Head, London, 1914, (2 volumes). Houston Stewart Chamberlain ( September 9, 1855 - January 9, 1927) was a British -born author of books on political philosophy natural ˈjoːhan ˈvɔlfgaŋ fɔn ˈgøːtə (in English generally ˈgɝːtə 28 August 1749 22 March 1832 was a German writer Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci ( April 15 1452 – May 2 1519 was an Italian Polymath, having been a scientist Mathematician, Engineer Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece Baron Redesdale, of Redesdale in the County of Northumberland is a title that has been created twice both times in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. Bodley Head is an English Publishing house founded in 1887 and existing as an independent entity until the 1970s

Collections of essays

• Guyer, Paul. ed. The Cambridge Companion to Kant. Cambridge University Press, 1992. Cambridge University Press (known colloquially as CUP is a Publisher given a Royal Charter by Henry VIII in 1534 ISBN 0-521-36587-2, ISBN 0-521-36768-9

an excellent collection of papers that covers most areas of Kant's thought

• Mohanty, J. N. and Robert W. Shahan. eds. Essays on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1982. The University of Oklahoma Press is the publishing arm of the University of Oklahoma. ISBN 0-8061-1782-6
• Proceedings of the International Kant Congresses. Several Congresses (numbered) edited by various publishers.
• Förster, Eckart ed. "Kant's Transcendental Deductions: The Three 'Critiques' and the 'Opus Postumum. '" Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1989. The Stanford University Press is the Publishing house of Stanford University.

includes an important essay by Dieter Henrich'

• Cohen, Ted and Paul Guyer eds. Essays in Kant's Aesthetics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982.

essays on Kant's Critique of Judgment

• Phillips, Dewi et al. Kant and Kierkegaard on Religion. Palgrave Macmillian, 2000, ISBN 0-312-23234-9

A collection of essays about Kantian religion and its influence on Kierkegaardian and contemporary philosophy of religion.

On Kant's theoretical philosophy

• Allison, Henry. Kant’s Transcendental Idealism. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1983, 2004. ISBN 0-300-03629-9, ISBN 0-300-03002-9

very influential defense of Kant's idealism, recently revised

• Ameriks, Karl. Kant's Theory of Mind: An Analysis of the Paralogisms of Pure Reason. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982.

one of the first detailed studies of the Dialectic in English

• Banham, Gary. Kant's Transcendental Imagination London and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006: "has an unrivalled ability to make Kant our contemporary and to show that the critical philosophy still contains untapped resources and even surprises".

• Deleuze, Gilles. Gilles Deleuze ( (January 18 1925 &ndash November 4 1995 was a French philosopher of the late 20th century Kant's Critical Philosophy. Trans. , Hugh Tomlinson and Barbara Habberjam. University of Minnesota Press, 1984. The University of Minnesota Press is a University press that is part of the University of Minnesota. ISBN 0-8166-1341-9, ISBN 0-8166-1436-9

• Gram, Moltke S. The Transcendental Turn: The Foundation of Kant's Idealism. Gainesville: University Presses of Florida, 1984. ISBN 0-8130-0787-9

Greenberg, Robert. Kant's Theory of A Priori Knowledge, Penn State Press, 2001 ISBN 0-271-02083-0

• Guyer, Paul. Kant and the Claims of Knowledge. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1987.

a modern defense of the view that Kant's theoretical philosophy is a "patchwork" of ill-fitting arguments

• Henrich, Dieter. The Unity of Reason: Essays on Kant’s Philosophy. Edited and with an introduction by Richard L. Velkley; translated by Jeffrey Edwards… [et al. ]. Harvard University Press, 1994. ISBN 0-674-92905-5

• Kemp Smith, Norman. A Commentary to Kant's ‘Critique of Pure Reason. London: Macmillan, 1930.

a somewhat dated, but influential commentary on the first Critique, recently reprinted

• Kitcher, Patricia. Kant's Transcendental Psychology. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.

• Longuenesse, Béatrice. Kant and the Capacity to Judge. Princeton University Press, 1998. The Princeton University Press is an independent publisher with close connections to Princeton University. ISBN 0-691-04348-5

argues that the notion of judgment provides the key to understanding the overall argument of the first Critique

• Melnick, Arthur. Kant's Analogies of Experience. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973. The University of Chicago Press is the largest University press in the United States

an important study of Kant's Analogies, including his defense of the principle of causality

• Paton, H. J. Kant’s Metaphysic of Experience: A Commentary on the First Half of the Kritik der reinen Vernunft. Two volumes. London: Macmillan, 1936.

an extensive study of Kant's theoretical philosophy

• Pippin, Robert B.. Robert B Pippin (born 1948) is an American philosopher He is the Evelyn Stefansson Nef Distinguished Service Professor in the Committee on Social Thought and Kant's Theory of Form: An Essay on the Critique of Pure Reason. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982.

an influential examination of the formal character of Kant's work

• Schopenhauer, Arthur. Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung. Erster Band. Anhang. Kritik der Kantischen Philosophie. F. A. Brockhaus, Leipzig 1859 (In English: Arthur Schopenhauer, New York: Dover Press, Volume I, Appendix, "Criticism of the Kantian Philosophy," ISBN 0-486-21761-2)
• Sala, Giovanni: Kant, Lonergan und der christliche Glaube (Nordhausen: Bautz, 2005), ed. Schopenhauer appended a criticism to the first volume of his The World as Will and Representation. by Ulrich L. Lehner and Ronald K. Tacelli [18]
• Strawson, P.F. Sir Peter Frederick Strawson ( 23 November 1919  &ndash 13 February 2006) was an English philosopher The Bounds of Sense: an essay on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. Routledge, 1989.

the work that revitalized the interest of contemporary analytic philosophers in Kant

• Wolff, Robert Paul. Kant's theory of mental activity: A commentary on the transcendental analytic of the Critique of Pure Reason. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1963.

a detailed and influential commentary on the first part of the Critique of Pure Reason

• Yovel, Yirmiyahu. Kant and the Philosophy of History. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989.
• Farias, Vanderlei de Oliveira. Kants Realismus und der Aussenweltskeptizismus. OLMS. Hildesheim, Zürich, New York. 2006.

On Kant's practical philosophy

• Allison, Henry, Kant's theory of freedom Cambridge University Press 1990.
• Banham, Gary. Kant's Practical Philosophy: From Critique to Doctrine Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
• Michalson, Gordon E. Fallen Freedom: Kant on Radical Evil and Moral Regeneration. Cambridge University Press, 1990.
• Michalson, Gordon E. Kant and the Problem of God. Blackwell Publishers, 1999.
• Paton, H. J. The Categorical Imperative; a study in Kant's moral philosophy University of Pennsylvania press 1971.
• Rawls, John. Lectures on the History of Moral Philosophy. Cambridge, 2000.
• Seung, T. K. Kant's Platonic Revolution in Moral and Political Philosophy. Johns Hopkins, 1994.
• Wolff, Robert Paul. The Autonomy of Reason: A Commentary on Kant's Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals. New York: HarperCollins, 1974. ISBN 0-06-131792-6.
• Wood, Allen. Kant's Ethical Thought New York: Cambridge University Press: 1999.

On Kant's aesthetics

• Allison, Henry. Kant's Theory of Taste: A Reading of the Critique of Aesthetic Judgment. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
• Banham, Gary "Kant and the Ends of Aesthetics" London and New York: Macmillan Press, 2000.
• Crawford, Donald. Kant's Aesthetic Theory. Wisconsin, 1974.
• Guyer, Paul. "Kant and the Claims of Taste. Cambridge, MA and London, 1979.
• Hammermeister, Kai. The German Aesthetic Tradition. Cambridge University Press, 2002.
• Immanuel Kant entry in Kelly, Michael (Editor in Chief) (1998) Encyclopedia of Aesthetics. Encyclopedia of Aesthetics, published in 1998 by Oxford University Press, is an Encyclopedia that covers philosophical historical sociological and biographical New York, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
• Makkreel, Rudolf, Imagination and Interpretation in Kant. Chicago, 1990.
• McCloskey, Mary. Kant's Aesthetic. SUNY, 1987.
• Schaper, Eva. Studies in Kant's Aesthetics. Edinburgh, 1979.
• Zammito, John Z. The Genesis of Kant's Critique of Judgment. Chicago and London: Chicago University Press, 1992.
• Zupancic, Alenka. Ethics of the Real: Kant and Lacan. Verso, 2000.

Other work on Kant

• Caygill, Howard. A Kant Dictionary. Oxford, UK; Cambridge, Mass. , USA: Blackwell Reference, 1995. ISBN 0-631-17534-2, ISBN 0-631-17535-0
• Derrida, Jacques. Mochlos; or, The Conflict of the Faculties. Columbia University, 1980.

Contemporary philosophy with a Kantian influence

• Herman, Barbara. The Practice of Moral Judgement. Harvard University Press, 1993.
• Korsgaard, Christine. Creating the Kingdom of Ends. Cambridge; New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press, 1996. ISBN 0-521-49644-6, ISBN 0-521-49962-3 (pbk. )

not a commentary, but a defense of a broadly Kantian approach to ethics

• McDowell, John. Mind and World. Harvard University Press, 1994. ISBN 0-674-57609-8

offers a Kantian solution to a dilemma in contemporary epistemology regarding the relation between mind and world

• Wood, Allen. Kant's Ethical Thought. Cambridge; New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-521-64836-X

a comprehensive, in depth study of Kant's ethics, with emphasis on formula of humanity as most accurate formulation of the categorical imperative (according to similar arguments as Korsgaard)

• Parfit, Derek. Derek Parfit (born December 11, 1942) is a British Philosopher who specializes in problems of personal identity, Rationality Climbing the Mountain.

External links

• Internet Encyclopaedia of Philosophy The Internet Encyclopaedia of Philosophy has several topics about Kant
• Immanuel Kant in Italia A Website on the presence and diffusion of the philosophy of Immanuel Kant in Italy
• Stephen Palmquist's Glossary of Kantian Terminology
• Kant's Categories as grammatical reifications
• Kant's Ethical Theory Kantian ethics explained, applied and evaluated
• Kant & Ethics Extensive links and discussions from Lawrence Hinman at University of San Diego
• Notes on Deontology A conveniently brief survey of Kant's deontology
• Kant's Ethics in Italy today Contemporary Italian writings about Kant's Ethics
• North American Kant Society (NAKS)
• Kant on the Web
• Kant Links
• Kant's Epistemology and Metaphysics according to the Friesian school
• Kant and the project of enlightenment
• Several Kant's works in clickable pdf
• Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (14 sections on Kant)
• Works by Immanuel Kant at Project Gutenberg
• International Kant Interview - 2004
• Readable versions of Prolegomena, Groundwork for the Metaphysic of Morals, and Critique of Pure Reason
• All works of Kant (German)
• Kant's moral philosophy and the question of pre-emptive war, Revue Sens Public
• Kant in the Classroom (background information for Kant's lectures)
• Immanuel Kant's works: text, concordances and frequency list
• Kant On Race and Development
• Michel Foucault's Dissertation on Kant's Anthropology
• Kant on property
• Part one of 'The Critique of Aesthetic Judgment'
• The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy has several entries on Kant:
  • Kant's Philosophy of Science
  • Kant's Critique of Metaphysics
  • Kant's View of the Mind and Consciousness of Self
  • Kant's Aesthetics and Teleology
  • Kant's Philosophy of Religion
  • Kant's Philosophical Development
  • Kant's Moral Philosophy
  • Kant and Leibniz
  • Kant's Theory of Judgment
• Kant's Fourth Critique Italian writings

Persondata
NAME	Kant, Immanuel
ALTERNATIVE NAMES	Kant, Emanuel
SHORT DESCRIPTION	German philosopher
DATE OF BIRTH	22 April 1724(1724-04-22)
PLACE OF BIRTH	Königsberg, Kingdom of Prussia
DATE OF DEATH	12 February 1804
PLACE OF DEATH	Königsberg, Kingdom of Prussia

Project Gutenberg, abbreviated as PG, is a volunteer effort to Digitize, archive and distribute Cultural works The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (SEP is a freely-accessible Online encyclopedia of Philosophy maintained by Stanford University. Events 1500 - Portuguese Navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral becomes the first European to sight Brazil. Year 1724 ( MDCCXXIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Königsberg (Karaliaučius Low German: Königsbarg; Królewiec see also other names) was until 1946 the name of Kaliningrad. The Kingdom of Prussia (Königreich Preußen was a German kingdom from 1701 to 1918 and from 1871 was the leading state of the German Empire, comprising Events 1429 - English Forces under Sir John Fastolf defend a supply convoy carrying rations to the army besieging Orleans from attack by the Year 1804 ( MDCCCIV) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Königsberg (Karaliaučius Low German: Königsbarg; Królewiec see also other names) was until 1946 the name of Kaliningrad. The Kingdom of Prussia (Königreich Preußen was a German kingdom from 1701 to 1918 and from 1871 was the leading state of the German Empire, comprising

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