Illegal immigration refers to immigration across national borders in a way that violates the immigration laws of the destination country. Immigration refers to the movement of people among countries While the movement of people has existed throughout human history at various levels modern immigration implies long-term A nation is a Human Cultural and Social Community. In as much as most members never meet each other yet feel a common bond it may be considered Borders define geographic boundaries of political entities or legal jurisdictions such as Governments States or subnational administrative Immigration law refers to national Government policies which control the phenomenon of Immigration to their country In Political geography and International politics, a country is a Political division of a geographical entity Under this definition, an illegal immigrant is a foreigner who either has illegally crossed an international political border, be it by land, water, or air, or a foreigner who has entered a country legally but then overstays his/her visa. A visa (short for the Latin carta visa, lit "a document that has been seen" is a document issued by a Country giving an individual In politics, the term may imply a larger set of social issues and time constraints with disputed consequences in areas such as economy, social welfare, education, health care, slavery, prostitution, crime, legal protections, voting rights, public services, and human rights. Politics Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions Social issues are matters which directly or indirectly affect many or all members of a Society and are considered to be problems controversies related to Moral values In Law, time constraints are placed on certain actions and filings in the interest of speedy justice and additionally to prevent the evasion of the ends An economy is the realized social system of production exchange distribution and consumption of goods and services of a country or other area "Social welfare" redirects here For other uses see Welfare A social welfare provision refers to any program which seeks to provide Education encompasses both the Teaching and Learning of Knowledge, proper conduct, and technical competency Health care is the prevention treatment and management of illness and the preservation of mental health through the services offered by the medical, Nursing As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another Prostitution is the act of performing Sexual activity in exchange for Money. In the sociological field, crime is the breach of a rule or Law for which some governing authority or force may ultimately prescribe a Punishment Suffrage (from the Latin suffragium, meaning "voting tablet" and figuratively "right to vote" probably from suffrago "hough" and originally Public services is a term usually used to mean services provided by Government to its Citizens, either directly (through the Public sector) or Human rights refers to the "basic Rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled Illegal emigration would be leaving a country in a manner that violates the laws of the country being exited. "Emigrant" redirects here For the Butterflies, see Catopsilia.

Terminology

Europe

• illegal immigrant (mostly in the UK)^[1]
• undocumented immigrant
• clandestine workers^[2]
• sans papiers/"sin papeles"^[3]

Tenerife / Los Cristianos June 7, 2006 - illegal immigrants from West Africa rest in a Red Cross tent after arriving at the Canary Islands. The cost of the journey is between $880 to $1,250. ^[4][5]

• Irregular immigration

United States

Main article: Illegal immigration to the United States#Terminology

Terms used in the United States include:

• illegal alien ^[6]
• illegal immigrant
• undocumented immigrant/migrant/alien/worker/resident
• unauthorized immigrant/migrant/alien/worker/resident
• paperless immigrant/migrant/alien/worker/resident
• immigrant "without immigration status"
• out of status
• unnaturalized immigrant
• irregular immigrant

Other

• boat people
• Anchor baby

Causes

War

One motive of illegal immigration is to escape civil war or repression in the country of origin. Illegal immigration to the United States refers to the act of foreign nationals voluntarily resettling in the United States in violation of U The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Boat people is a term that usually refers to Illegal immigrants or Asylum seekers who emigrate en masse in boats that are sometimes old and crudely made rendering Anchor baby is a derogatory term for a child born in the United States to immigrants or other non-citizens regardless of the immigration status of the parents War is an international relations Dispute, characterized by organized Violence between National Military units Political repression is the Persecution of an individual or group for political reasons particularly for the purpose of restricting or preventing their ability to take part For example, people in Germany that were considered minorities fled their country in fear that they would be oppressed and arrested. Non-economic push factors include persecution (religious and otherwise), frequent abuse, bullying, oppression, and genocide, and risks to civilians during war. Persecution is the systematic mistreatment of an individual/group by another group Abuse refers to the use or treatment of something (a person item substance concept or vocabulary that is harmful Bullying is the act of intentionally causing harm to others through verbal Harassment, physical Assault, or other more subtle methods of Coercion Oppression is the act of using power to empower and/or privilege a group at the expense of disempowering marginalizing silencing and subordinating another group Genocide is the deliberate and systematic destruction in whole or in part of an ethnic racial religious or national group This is a listing of lists of Wars, sorted by country date region and type of conflict Political motives traditionally motivate refugee flows - to escape dictatorship for instance. According to the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, a refugee is a person who owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race A dictatorship is usually defined as an autocratic Form of government in which the Government is ruled by a Dictator.

After decades of armed conflict, roughly one of every 10 Colombians now lives abroad. ^[7] For example, Colombians emigrating to Spain have "grown exponentially, from a little over 7,000 in 1993 to more than 80,000 in 2002 and 244,000 in 2003. " ^[8] This is equivalent to 124,000 Colombian immigrants in year 2003 into Spain alone. Also, figures from the U.S. Department of Homeland Security indicate that Colombia is the fourth-leading source country of unauthorized immigration to the United States. Colombia (kəˈlʌmbɪə officially the Republic of Colombia () is a country in northwestern South America. American immigration ( emigration to the United States of America) refers to the movement of non-residents to the United States. According to their estimates, the number of unauthorized Colombian residents in the United States almost tripled from 51,000 in 1990 to 141,000 in 2000. In countries using the Westminster system the Estimates are a series of legislative proposals to parliament outlining how the government will spend its money ^[9] According to the US Census Bureau, the number of authorized Colombian immigrants in the United States in 2000 was 801,363. ^[10] Census data are important because, as the Department of Homeland Security states, [U. S. ] "census data are more complete and reliable [than INS' data] because of the national scope of the data collection, the vastly larger data sample, and the extensive preparation and follow-up activities involved in conducting the decennial census. " ^[11]

El Salvador is another example where emigration resulted from civil war and repression. El Salvador ( República de El Salvador,) is a country in Central America. The largest per-capita source of immigrants to the United States comes from El Salvador, for which up to a third of the population lives outside the country, mostly in the United States. ^[12] According to the Santa Clara County, California, Office of Human Relations.

Despite the fact that the U. S. government’s role in the Salvadoran conflict was unique in sustaining the prolongation of the civil conflict, the government and the U. S. Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) extended little sympathy to the people affected by the war. In the 1980s, the INS granted only 2% of political asylum applications, claiming that democracy existed in El Salvador and that reports of U. S. and government-sponsored “death squads” were overblown. As a response to the U. S. government’s failure to address the situation of Salvadoran refugees in the U. S. , American activists established a loose network to aid refugees. Operating in clear violation of U. S. immigration laws, these activists took refugees into their houses, aided their travel, hid them and helped them find work. This became known as the “sanctuary movement”. ^[13]

Family Reunification

Some illegal immigrants seek to live with loved ones, such as a spouse or other family members. ^{[14] [15] [16]} This is particularly true for the families of binational same sex couples. ^[17] The Lesbian and Gay Immigration Rights Task Force (LGIRTF) warns binational same sex couples in the United States that marriage may actually increase the likelihood of becoming undocumented, rather than decreasing it. [4] [5] Other individuals seek to distance themselves from their spouses.

Poverty

One cause of illegal immigration can be poverty. Poverty (also called penury) is deprivation of common necessities that determine the quality of life including food clothing shelter and safe Drinking water, and This is the case in the United States, where illegal immigrants traditionally have entered the country in search of wages higher than those achievable in their home countries.
The case of U. S. Marine Lance Corporal Jose Gutierrez is atypical, but it serves to demonstrate how poor immigrants enter the United States illegally in search for a better tomorrow. According to CBS 60 Minutes, U. CBS Broadcasting Inc ( CBS) is an American radio and Television network. Not to be confused with the BBC news magazine program Sixty Minutes (TV series. S. Marine Lance Corporal Jose Gutierrez, one of the first U. S. servicemen to die in combat in Iraq, was a former street child in Guatemala having been orphaned at age 8. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Street children is a term used to refer to children who live on the streets Guatemala (República de Guatemala) is a country in Central America bordered by Mexico to the north and west the Pacific Ocean to the southwest Gutierrez, 60 Minutes reports, first entered the United States as an illegal immigrant in 1997 to escape poverty, and dreamed of becoming an architect. ^[18]

The chief cause of illegal immigration is considered to be economic. Illegal immigrants in the United States traditionally have been portrayed as seeking jobs and wages better than those available in their home countries. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the For example, the 1994 economic crisis in Mexico was associated with widespread poverty and a lower valuation for the peso relative to the dollar . The 1994 economic crisis in Mexico, widely known as the Mexican peso crisis, was triggered by the sudden Devaluation of the Mexican peso in the early The United States Department of Labor calculates that the Zone A (most industrialized) minimum wage in Mexico in 1999 was 34. 45 pesos, or about US$3. The word peso (meaning weight in Spanish was the name of a coin that originated in Spain and became of immense importance internationally 50 per day . The Zone C (rural/agricultural) minimum wage was 29. 70 Pesos a day, or roughly US$3. 02 a day . By contrast, the U. S. minimum is set at $5. 85 per hour under US federal law, and many States required rates higher than the federally mandated minimum. ^[19] Natural disasters and overpopulation can amplify poverty-driven migration flows. A natural disaster is the consequence of a Natural hazard (eg Overpopulation refers to a condition where an Organism 's numbers exceed the Carrying capacity of its Habitat. Poverty (also called penury) is deprivation of common necessities that determine the quality of life including food clothing shelter and safe Drinking water, and ^[20]

Population growth

Population growth which exceeds the carrying capacity of an area or environment results in overpopulation. Population growth is the change in Population over time and can be quantified as the change in the number of individuals in a population using "per unit time" for The supportable Population of an Organism, given the food habitat, water and other necessities available within an environment is known as the environment's Overpopulation refers to a condition where an Organism 's numbers exceed the Carrying capacity of its Habitat. ^[21] Spikes in human population can cause problems such as pollution, water crisis^[22][23] and poverty. Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability disorder harm or discomfort to the physical systems or living organisms they are in Water Crisis is a term that refers to the status of the world’s Water resources relative to human demand Poverty (also called penury) is deprivation of common necessities that determine the quality of life including food clothing shelter and safe Drinking water, and ^[24][25] World population has grown from 1. The world population is the total number of living Humans on Earth at a given time 6 billion in 1900 to an estimated 6. 6 billion today. In Mexico alone, population has grown from 13. The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. 6 million in 1900 to 107 million in 2007. ^[26]

In 2000, the United Nations estimated that the world's population was growing at the rate of 1. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security 14% (or about 75 million people) per year. According to data from the CIA's 2005–2006 World Factbooks, the world human population currently increases by 203,800 every day. The World Factbook ( ISSN; also known as the CIA World Factbook) is an annual publication of the Central Intelligence Agency of the ^[27] The United States Census Bureau issued a revised forecast for world population that increased its projection for the year 2050 to above 9. The United States Census Bureau (officially Bureau of the Census as defined in Title) is the government agency that is responsible for the United States Census 4 billion people, up from 9. 1 billion people. We are adding a billion more every 12 years. Almost all growth will take place in the less developed regions. ^[28]

Dangers

As with any illicit activity, illegal immigrants expose themselves to dangers while engaged in illegal entry to another country. Aside from the possibility that they may be intercepted and deported, some considerably more dangerous outcomes have been known to result from their activity. As an example, illegal immigrants may been trafficked for exploitation. Human trafficking is the recruitment transportation harbouring or receipt of people for the purposes of slavery forced labor (including bonded labor or debt bondage and servitude

Slavery

After the end of the legal international slave trade by the European nations and the United States in the early 19th century, the illegal importation of slaves has continued, albeit at much reduced levels. The history of slavery uncovers many different forms of human exploitation across many cultures throughout history The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another Although not as common as in Europe, Asia, Africa and Latin America, some women are undoubtedly smuggled into the United States and Canada. ^[29]

People been kidnapped or tricked into slavery to work as laborers, for example in factories. Those trafficked in this manner often face additional barriers to escaping slavery, since their status as illegal immigrants makes it difficult for them to gain access to help or services. For example Burmese women trafficked into Thailand and forced to work in factories or as prostitutes may not speak the language and may be vulnerable to abuse by police due to their illegal immigrant status. Burma, officially the Union of Myanmar ( pjìdàunzṵ mjàmmà nàinŋàndɔ̀ is the largest country by geographical area in mainland Southeast Asia. ^[30] In the Dominican Republic, Haitian migrant workers are sold into slavery on Dominican Sugar plantations, including children. The Dominican Republic ( Spanish: República Dominicana;) is a nation located in the Caribbean region and shares the island of Hispaniola with ^[31][32]

Prostitution

The so-called "white slave trade" referred to the smuggling of women, almost always under duress or fraud, for the purpose of forced prostitution. White slavery is a term that was used to refer to Sexual slavery. Now more generically called "sexual slavery" it continues to be a problem, particularly in Eastern Europe and the Middle East,^[33][34][35] though there has been an increase in the number of cases in the U. Sexual slavery refers to the organised coercion of persons into various different sexual practices forced Prostitution single-owner sexual slavery Eastern Europe is a general term that refers to the Geopolitical region encompassing the easternmost part of the European continent. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. S. [6] Some Haitian children have allegedly been forced to work as prostitutes in the Dominican sexual tourism industry. ^[36] Currently the Dominican sex trade ranks third in the world, only behind Thailand and the Philippines. ^[37]

Rape

The possibility of being raped has become a problem for some women illegally entering another country. Rape, also referred to as Sexual assault, is an Assault by a person involving Sexual intercourse with or Sexual penetration of another person “After the coyotes get the women across the [U. The coyote (kaɪˈoʊti ˈkaɪoʊt ( Canis latrans) also known as the prairie wolf, is a Mammal of the order Carnivora S. -Mexico] border, safely on U. S. soil, they gang rape them to show they have total control over them. They hang their panties in the trees as signs of the conquest. . . If the women are young and pretty, they are kept in houses of prostitution where they have to have their families buy them out or work their way out. Of course, none will testify to this because the coyotes know where they are from and can seek revenge on their families in Mexico. "

Death

Allegations have been made that thousands of illegal immigrants attempting to reach Europe have died since 1986.

In order to arrive to the sea, the dangerous passage of the Sahara is necessary. The Sahara (الصحراء الكبرى aṣ-ṣaḥrā´ al-kubra, "The Great Desert" is the world's largest hot Desert and the world's second largest People have crossed it on trucks and off-road vehicles along the tracks between Sudan, Chad, Niger and Mali one one side and Libya and Algeria on the other. Sudan (officially the Republic of Sudan) ( السودان al-Sūdān is a country in northeastern Africa. Chad (Tchad تشاد Tshād) officially known as the Republic of Chad, is a Landlocked country in Central Africa. Niger ( or /ˈnaɪdʒɚ/) officially the Republic of Niger, is a Landlocked country in Western Africa, named after the Niger River. Mali, officially the Republic of Mali (République du Mali is a Landlocked nation in Western Africa. On this passage at least 1,069 people have died since 1996. The Libyan, Algerian and Morocan Governments have been accused of abandoning hundreds of migrants in open desert border areas.

Abuse has been reported of migrants in Libya. There are not any official data, but in 2006 Human Rights Watch and AFVIC accused Tripoli of arbitrary arrests, beatings and tortures in the migrant detention centers, In September 2000 in Zawiyah, in northwest Libya, at least 560 foreigners were killed in racist attacks.

247 stowaways in trucks were found dead in Albania, France, Germany, Greece, Turkey, U. K. , Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain and Hungary.

There are still minefields along the Evros river between the Greece-Turkey border.

Additionally, 51 persons drowned crossing rivers delimiting the frontier between Croatia and Bosnia; Turkey and Greece; Slovakia and Austria; and Slovenia and Italy. Forty-one people froze to death travelling over the icy mountains at the border between Turkey, Greece and Slovakia; 20 people died under the trains in the Channel tunnel trying to reach England; 33 people were shot dead by Spanish and Moroccan police or injured along the border fence of Ceuta and Melilla Spanish enclaves in Morocco; 11 people burnt when a deportation center in the Netherlands caught fire; and 8 men were found dead hidden in the undercarriages of planes.

Death by exposure is also known to occur in the deserts of Southwestern United States during the hot summer season. ^[38]

Methods

Border crossing

Border control at sea by the U.S. Customs and Border Protection

Immigrants from nations that do not have automatic visa agreements, or who would not otherwise qualify for a visa, often cross the borders illegally in some areas like the United States–Mexico border, the Mona Channel between the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico, the Strait of Gibraltar, Fuerteventura, and the Strait of Otranto. The United States Bureau of Customs and Border Protection (CBP known as U The Dominican Republic ( Spanish: República Dominicana;) is a nation located in the Caribbean region and shares the island of Hispaniola with Puerto Rico (ˌpwertoˈriko officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico ("Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico" {{lang-en|"Associated Free State of Puerto Rico"}} The Strait of Gibraltar ( Arabic: مضيق جبل طارق Spanish: Estrecho de Gibraltar) is the Strait that connects the Atlantic Fuerteventura, a Spanish Island, is one of the Canary Islands, in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Africa. The Strait of Otranto connects the Adriatic Sea with the Ionian Sea. Because these methods are illegal, they are often dangerous. Would-be immigrants have been known to suffocate in shipping containers,^[39] boxcars,^[40] and trucks [7], sink in shipwrecks caused by unseaworthy vessels [8], die of dehydration [9] or exposure during long walks without water. Containerization (or containerisation) is a system of Intermodal freight transport Cargo Transport using standard ISO containers A boxcar (the American term the British call this kind of car a " goods van " while in Australia they are usually referred to as " A shipwreck can refer to a wrecked ship or to the event that caused the wreck such as the striking of something that causes the ship to sink the stranding of the ship on rocks Dehydration ( hypohydration) is the removal of Water ( hydro in ancient Greek) from an object An official estimate puts the number of people who died in illegal crossings across the U. S. -Mexican border between 1998 and 2004 at 1,954 (see immigrant deaths along the U.S.-Mexico border).

Human smuggling is the practice of intermediaries aiding illegal immigrants in crossing over international borders in financial gain, often in large groups. People smuggling is a term which is used to describe transportation of people across international borders to a non-official entry point of a destination country for a variety of reasons Human smuggling differs from, but is sometimes associated with, human trafficking. Human trafficking is the recruitment transportation harbouring or receipt of people for the purposes of slavery forced labor (including bonded labor or debt bondage and servitude A human smuggler will facilitate illegal entry into a country for a fee, but on arrival at their destination, the smuggled person is usually free. Trafficking involves a process of using physical force, fraud, or deception to obtain and transport people. In the broadest sense a fraud is a Deception made for personal gain or to damage another individual Deception (also called beguilement or subterfuge) is the act of convincing another to believe Information that is not true or not the whole truth as in

Types of notorious human smugglers include Snakehead gangs present in mainland China (especially in Fujian) that smuggle laborers into Pacific Rim nations (making Chinatowns frequent centers of illegal immigration) [10] and "coyotes," who smuggle illegal immigrants to the Southwestern United States and have been known to abuse or even kill their passengers. Snakeheads ( are Chinese Gangs that smuggle people to other countries Gangsters redirects here For the computer game see Gangsters (video game. Mainland China, Continental China, the Chinese mainland or simply the mainland, is a geopolitical term synonymous with the area that is under the jurisdiction This article is about the People's Republic of China province The Pacific Rim refers to the countries and cities located around the edge of the Pacific Ocean. A Chinatown is a section of an urban area with a large number of Chinese outside the majority-Chinese countries of Greater China. The Southwestern area of the United States could be defined as the states west of the Mississippi River, with the qualification of a certain northern limit such as the 37 [11] Sometimes immigrants are abandoned by their human traffickers if there are difficulties, often dying in the process. Others may be victims of intentional killing. In many spots on the US-Mexico border, there are "rape trees" on which either condoms or the undergarments of women sexually abused by the "coyotes" are hung as trophies. [12][13][14]

Overstaying a visa

Some illegal immigrants enter a country legally and then overstay or violate their visa. A visa (short for the Latin carta visa, lit "a document that has been seen" is a document issued by a Country giving an individual [15] For example, most of the estimated 200,000 illegal immigrants in Canada (perhaps as high as 500,000), are refugee claimants whose refugee applications were rejected but who have not yet been ejected from the country. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page ^[41]

A related way of becoming an illegal immigrant is through bureaucratic means. For example, a person can be allowed to remain in a country - or be protected from expulsion - because he/she needs special pension for a medical condition, etc. , without being able to regularize his/her situation and obtain a work and/or residency permit, let alone naturalization. Naturalization is the acquisition of Citizenship or Nationality by somebody who was not a citizen or national of that country when he or she was born Hence, categories of people being neither illegal immigrants nor legal citizens are created, living in a judicial "no man's land". Another example is formed by children of foreigners born in countries observing jus soli ("right of territory"), such as France. Jus soli ( Latin for "right of the soil" or somewhat figuratively "right of the territory" or birthright citizenship, is a Right This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. In that country, one may obtain French nationality if one is born in France - but, due to recent legislative changes, it is only granted at the age of eighteen, and only upon request.

Fraudulent Marriage

A third way to enter a country is to engage in a sham marriage, registering as married with the government for the purpose of obtaining papers for one half of the partnership in exchange for monetary or other considerations. The first U. S. case involving one of these marriages arranged over the internet is currently being prosecuted. [16]

Legal and political status

See also: Illegal immigration to the United States, Immigration to the United States, Australian immigration, Immigration to the United Kingdom, Immigration to Canada, Illegal immigrants in Malaysia, Hazleton, Pennsylvania. Illegal immigration to the United States refers to the act of foreign nationals voluntarily resettling in the United States in violation of U American immigration ( emigration to the United States of America) refers to the movement of non-residents to the United States. Immigration to Australian continent is estimated to have begun around 50000 years ago when the ancestors of Australian Aborigines arrived on the continent via the islands of Since the formation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in 1922 there has been substantial Immigration from other parts of The world. Immigration to Canada is the process by which people migrate to Canada and become nationals of the country Illegal immigrants in Malaysia comprise a substantial portion of the Malaysian population numbering as many as two million by some estimates Hazleton is a city in Luzerne County, Pennsylvania, United States.

Many countries have had or currently have laws restricting immigration for economic or nationalistic political reasons. The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation Whether a person is permitted to stay in a country legally may be decided by quotas or point systems or may be based on considerations such as family ties (marriage, elderly mother, etc. In the United States, the Emergency Quota Act (ch 8, also known as the Johnson Quota Act) of May 19, 1921 was an Immigration quota ). Exceptions relative to political refugees or to sick people are also common. Immigrants who do not participate in these legal proceedings or who are denied permission under them and still enter or stay in the country are illegal immigrants. [17]

Most countries have laws requiring workers to have proper documentation, often intended to prevent or minimize the employment of unauthorized immigrants. However the penalties against employers are often small and the acceptable identification requirements vague and ill-defined as well as being seldom checked or enforced, making it easy for employers to hire unauthorized labor. Unauthorized immigrants are especially popular with many employers because they can pay less than the legal minimum wage or have unsafe working conditions, secure in the knowledge that few unauthorized workers will report the abuse to the authorities. A minimum wage is the lowest hourly daily or monthly Wage that employers may legally pay to employees or workers Often the minimum wages in one country can be several times the prevailing wage in the unauthorized immigrant's country, making even these jobs attractive to the unauthorized worker.

In response to the outcry following popular knowledge of the Holocaust, the newly-established United Nations held an international conference on refugees, where it was decided that refugees (legally defined to be people who are persecuted in their original country and then enter another country seeking safety) should be exempted from immigration laws. The Holocaust (from the Greek el ''ὁλόκαυστον'' (el-Latn holókauston holos, "completely" and kaustos, "burnt" also known as The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security According to the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, a refugee is a person who owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race [18] It is, however, up to the countries involved to decide if a particular immigrant is a refugee or not, and hence whether they are subject to the immigration controls.

The right to freedom of movement of an individual within National borders is often contained within the constitution or in a country's human rights legislation but these rights are restricted to citizens and exclude all others. Freedom of movement, mobility rights or the right to travel is a Human rights concept which is respected in the Constitutions of numerous A constitution is a system for government often Codified as a written document that establishes the rules and principles of an autonomous political entity Human rights refers to the "basic Rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled Some argue that the freedom of movement both within and between countries is a basic human right and that nationalism and immigration policies of state governments violate this human right that those same governments recognize within their own borders. The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation According to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, fundamental human rights are violated when citizens are forbidden to leave their country. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights ( UDHR) is a declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly ( 10 December 1948 at Palais (Article 13). However, immigrants are not assured the right to enter a country, that right is given at the host country's discretion.

Since illegal immigrants without proper legal status have no valid identification documents such as identity cards, they may have reduced or no access to public health systems, proper housing, education and banks. An identity document, also called a piece of identification ( ID) is a document used to verify aspects of a person's Identity. Public health is "the science and art of preventing disease prolonging life and promoting health through the organised efforts and informed choices of society organisations Education encompasses both the Teaching and Learning of Knowledge, proper conduct, and technical competency A banker or bank is a Financial institution whose primary activity is to act as a payment agent for customers and to borrow and lend money This lack of access may result in the creation or expansion of illegal underground forgery to provide this documentation. [19].

When the authorities are overwhelmed in their efforts to stop illegal immigration, they have historically provided amnesty. Amnesty (from the Greek amnestia, oblivion is a legislative or executive act by which a state restores those who may have been guilty of an offense against it to Amnesties, which are becoming less tolerated by the citizenry, [20] waive the "subject to deportation" clause associated with illegal aliens.

By region

Angola

In 2007 around 44,000 Congolese were forced to leave Angola. Angola, officially the Republic of Angola (República de Angola Pronounced ʁɛˈpublikɐ dɨ ɐ̃ˈgɔlɐ Repubilika ya Ngola is a country in south-central ^[42] Since 2004, more than 400,000 illegal immigrants, almost all from the Democratic Republic of the Congo, have been expelled from Angola. The Democratic Republic of the Congo (République démocratique du Congo often referred to as DR Congo, DRC or RDC, and formerly known or referred to ^[43][44]

Argentina

Illegal immigration has been a relatively important factor in recent Argentine demographics. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Argentina topics. Most illegal immigrants come from Bolivia, and Paraguay, countries which border Argentina to the north. The Republic of Bolivia (República de Bolivia) named after Simón Bolívar, is a Landlocked country in central South America. Paraguay, officially the Republic of Paraguay ( Spanish: República del Paraguay; Guaraní: Tetã Paraguái) is one of the only For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Argentina topics. Smaller numbers arrive from Chile, Uruguay, Brazil, Ukraine, Peru, Ecuador, Romania, Dominican Republic, Cuba and the People's Republic of China. Chile, officially the Republic of Chile ( Spanish:) is a country in South America occupying a long and narrow Coastal strip wedged between the Uruguay.(official full name in República Oriental del Uruguay;, Oriental Republic of Uruguay) is a country located in the southeastern part of South America |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. Peru (Perú Piruw Piruw officially the Republic of Peru ( reˈpuβlika del peˈɾu is a country in western South America. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Ecuador topics. Romania ( dated: Rumania, Roumania The Dominican Republic ( Spanish: República Dominicana;) is a nation located in the Caribbean region and shares the island of Hispaniola with The Republic of Cuba (ˈkjuːbə or) consists of the island of Cuba (the largest and second-most populous island of the Greater Antilles) Isla de la China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The Argentine government estimates that 750,000 inhabitants lack official documents and has launched a program called Patria Grande ("Greater Homeland"), to encourage illegal immigrants to regularize their status; so far some 200,000 applications have been processed under the program.

Chile

Chile has recently become a new pole of attraction for illegal immigrants, mostly from the neighboring countries such as Peru and Bolivia. Chile, officially the Republic of Chile ( Spanish:) is a country in South America occupying a long and narrow Coastal strip wedged between the Peru (Perú Piruw Piruw officially the Republic of Peru ( reˈpuβlika del peˈɾu is a country in western South America. The Republic of Bolivia (República de Bolivia) named after Simón Bolívar, is a Landlocked country in central South America. According to the national census of 2002 the foreign populations have increased by 75% since 1992. [21]

China

People's Republic of China is building a security barrier along its border with North Korea to prevent the defectors or refugees from North Korea. Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES North Korea is the commonly used short form name for the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (or DPRK) a State located in East Asia, ^[45]

European Union

The European Union is developing a common system for immigration and asylum and a single external border control strategy.

In France, helping an illegal immigrant (providing shelter, for example) is prohibited by a law passed on December 27, 1994 under the cohabitation between socialist President François Mitterrand and right-wing Prime Minister Edouard Balladur [22]. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Cohabitation in government occurs in Semi-presidential systems such as France 's system when the President is from a different Political party François Maurice Adrien Marie Mitterrand ( 26 October 1916 8 January 1996 served as President of France from 1981 to 1995 elected as representative of the Socialist Édouard Balladur (born 2 May 1929 is a French right-wing Politician. The law was heavily criticized by non-governmental organizations (NGOs) such as the CIMADE and the GISTI, left-wing political parties such as the Greens and the French Communist Party, and trade-unions such as the magistrates' Syndicat de la magistrature. GISTI ( Groupe d'Information et de Soutien des Immigrés) is a French non-profit Human rights organization created in 1972 to Les Verts (or The Greens are an Ecologist Political party to the Centre-left of the Political spectrum in France. The French Communist Party ( French: Parti communiste français or PCF) is a political party in France which advocates the principles of A trade union or labour union is an organization of workers who have banded together to achieve common goals in key areas such as wages hours and working conditions forming The Syndicat de la Magistrature is the French second largest Magistrates Trade union - in terms of membership - after the more conservative Union

The Turkish newspaper Hürriyet published stories once in July 2004 and a second time in May 2006 that Hellenic Coast Guard ships were caught on film cruising as near as a few hundred meters off the Turkish coast and abandoning clandestine immigrants to the sea. "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. The Hellenic Coast Guard ( Greek Λιμενικό Σώμα - lit This practice allegedly resulted in the drowning of six people between Chios and Karaburun Peninsula on 26 September 2006 while three others disappeared and 31 were saved by Turkish gendarmes and fishermen. Chios (Χίος pronounced ˈçio̞s alternative transliterations Khíos and Híos) is the fifth largest of the Greek islands, situated Karaburun at Turkeyjpg|400px|thumb|Location of Karaburun peninsula at Turkey]] Karaburun_Peninsula is one of the biggest peninsula of Turkey. Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar dedicates a Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ^[46] However, there are numerous non-Turkish claims and testimonies that Turkish authorities and/or citizens lead immigrants through the sea, often resulting to the abandonment and sometimes drowning of said immigrants.

Greece

After the opening of the Albanian borders in 1991, a huge influx of Albanian economic migrants crossed illegally into Greece in order to find work. This article is about the country in southern Europe For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Albania topics. } Albanians (Shqiptarët are an Ethnic group and a Nation, in the sense of sharing a common Albanian culture speaking the Albanian language Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία They are currently estimated at about 600,000-800,000, but an accurate calculation is very difficult because of the large percentage of illegal immigrants. ^[47][48]

India

The Indo-Bangladeshi barrier is a 4,000-kilometer fence India is presently constructing to seal off the Indian-Bangladeshi international border of India from Bangladesh. The Indo-Bangladeshi barrier is a 4000-kilometer fence that India is presently constructing to seal off the Indian-Bangladeshi international border from what was formerly India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country ( Bengali: বাংলাদেশ inc-Latn Bangladesh) officially ^[49] This obstruction will virtually isolate Bangladesh from the rest of India. The barrier's plan is based on the designs of the Israeli West Bank barrier and will be 3. West bank walljpg|thumb|Aerial view looking east from the Israeli side 6m high. The stated aim of the fence is to stop infiltration of terrorists, prevent smuggling, and to bring a close to the illegal immigration from Bangladesh. ^[50][51]

Iran

Since late April 2007, the Iranian government has forcibly deported back to Afghanistan nearly 100,000 registered and unregistered Afghans living and working in Iran. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, The Demographics of Afghanistan are ethnically and linguistically mixed The forceful evictions of the refugees, who have lived in Iran and Pakistan for nearly three decades, are part of the two countries' larger plans to repatriate all Afghan refugees within a few years. Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and Iran says it will send 1,000,000 by next March, and Pakistan announced that all 2,400,000 Afghan refugees, most living in camps, must return home by 2009. Experts say it will be 'disastrous' for Afghanistan. ^[52][53][54]

Libya

Libya is home to a large illegal Sub-Saharan African population which numbers as much as 2,000,000. Libya ( ليبيا ar-Latn Lībiyā; Libyan vernacular: Lībya; Amazigh:) officially the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Sub-Saharan Africa is a geographical term used to describe the area of the African continent which lies south of the Sahara, or those African countries ^[55] The mass expulsion plan to summarily deport all undocumented foreigners was announced by Libyan leader Colonel Muammar al-Gaddafi in January 2008. Muammar Abu Minyar al-Gaddafi 1 (معمر القذافي) (born 7 June 1942) also known as Colonel Gaddafi "No resident without a legal visa will be excluded. "^{[56] [57]}

Malaysia

Main article: Illegal immigrants in Malaysia

An ethnic Indian Malaysian was recently sentenced to whipping and 10 months in prison for hiring six illegal immigrants at his restaurant. Illegal immigrants in Malaysia comprise a substantial portion of the Malaysian population numbering as many as two million by some estimates Malaysian Indians are a group of Malaysians largely descended from those who migrated from southern India during the British colonization "I think that after this, Malaysian employers will be afraid to take in foreign workers (without work permits). They will think twice," said immigration department prosecutor Azlan Abdul Latiff. “This is the first case where an employer is being sentenced to caning,” he told. Illegal immigrants also face caning before being deported. ^[58] There are an estimated 800,000 illegal immigrants in Malaysia. For the biogeographical region see Malesia Malaysia (məˈleɪʒə or /məˈleɪziə/ is a country that consists of thirteen states and ^[59]

Mexico

In the first six months of 2005 alone, more than 120,000 people from Central America have been deported to their countries of origin. This is a significantly higher rate than in 2002, when for the entire year, only 130,000 people were deported [23]. Another important group of people are those of Chinese origin, who pay about $5,500 to smugglers to be taken to Mexico from Hong Kong. Hong Kong ( officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, is a territory located on China 's south coast on the Pearl River Delta, and borders It is estimated that 2. 4% of rejections for work permits in Mexico correspond to Chinese citizens [24]. Many women from Eastern Europe, Asia, the United States, and Central and South America are also offered jobs at table dance establishments in large cities throughout the country causing the National Institute of Migration (INM) in Mexico to raid strip clubs and deport foreigners who work without the proper documentation [25]. Eastern Europe is a general term that refers to the Geopolitical region encompassing the easternmost part of the European continent. South America is a Continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a Table dance, or bartop dancing, is typically an Erotic dance performed at a patron's table as opposed to on a stage The National Institute of Migration ( Spanish: Instituto Nacional de Migración (INM is a unit of the government of Mexico dependent on the A strip club is a Nightclub or bar that offers Striptease (the erotic removal of a performer's clothing and possibly other related services such as In 2004, the INM deported 188,000 people at a cost of $10 million [26]. The United States dollar ( sign: $; code: USD) is the unit of Currency of the United States; it has also been Illegal immigration of Cubans through Cancún tripled from 2004 to 2006. Cancún (pronounced as kanˈkun is a coastal city in Mexico 's easternmost state Quintana Roo, on the Yucatán Peninsula. [27]

Russia

Russia experiences a constant flow of immigration. On average, 200,000 legal immigrants enter the country every year; about half are ethnic Russians from the other republics of the former Soviet Union. The Russian people (Русские— Russkie) are an East Slavic Ethnic group, primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries In addition, there are an estimated 10-12 million illegal immigrants in the country. ^[60] There is a significant inflow of ethnic Georgians, Armenians, Azerbaijanis, Tajiks, and Uzbeks into big Russian cities, something that is viewed very unfavorably by many citizens and even gives rise to nationalist sentiments. The Georgians (ქართველები kartvelebi) are a Nation and Ethnic group originating in the Caucasus, the oldest group of the The Armenians (Հայեր Hayer) are a Nation and Ethnic group originating in the Caucasus and in the Armenian Highlands A large The Azerbaijanis are an Ethnic group mainly in the Republic of Azerbaijan and northwestern Iran. Tajik ( - Tādjīk; UniPers: Tâjik; Cyrillic: Тоҷик is a term generally applied to Persian-speaking people of The Uzbeks (Self designation sg O‘zbek, pl O‘zbeklar) are a Turkic people of Central Asia. The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation ^[61][62][63] Many immigrant ethnic groups have much higher birth rates than native Russians, further shifting the balance. Some Chinese flee the overpopulation and birth control regulations of their home country and settle in the Far East and in southern Siberia. The term Chinese people may refer to any of the following A person who resides in and holds citizenship of the People's Republic of China (including Hong Russian Far East (Да́льний Восто́к Росси́и ˈdalʲnʲɪj vʌˈstok rʌˈsʲiɪ is a term that refers to the Russian part of the Far East, i Siberia (Сиби́рь Sibir) is the name given to the vast region constituting almost all of Northern Asia and for the most part currently serving Russia’s main Pacific port and naval base of Vladivostok, once closed to foreigners, today is bristling with Chinese markets, restaurants and trade houses. Vladivostok ( is Russia 's largest port city on the Pacific Ocean and the administrative center of Primorsky Krai. ^[64] Experts predict that the Chinese diaspora in Russia will increase to at least 10 million by 2010 and Chinese may become the dominant ethnic group in the Russian Far East region 20 to 30 years from now. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending ^[65][66][67]

Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia has begun construction of a separation barrier or fence between its territory and Yemen to prevent the unauthorized movement of people and goods into and out of the Kingdom. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, KSA ( المملكة العربية السعودية, al-Mamlaka al-ʻArabiyya as-Suʻūdiyya) or Suudi Yemen ( Arabic: اليَمَن al-Yaman officially the Republic of Yemen ( Arabic: الجمهورية اليمنية al-Jumhuuriyya

• Saudi Yemen barrier

In 2006 Saudi Arabia proposed plans for the construction of a security fence along the entire length of its 560 mile (900km) desert border with Iraq in a multimillion-pound project to secure the Kingdom’s borders in order to improve internal security, control illegal immigration and bolster its defences against external threats. The Saudi-Yemen barrier is a physical barrier constructed by Saudi Arabia along part of its 1800 Kilometer (1100 Mile) border with Yemen Immigration refers to the movement of people among countries While the movement of people has existed throughout human history at various levels modern immigration implies long-term ^[68]

• Saudi Iraq barrier

South Africa

South Africa is home to an estimated 5 million illegal immigrants, including some 3 million Zimbabweans. Saudi-Iraq barrier - In April 2006 Saudi Arabia began to call for tenders to construct a Separation barrier in the form of a fence along its border with The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa See also Great Zimbabwe National Monument. For information about the March and June 2008 presidential elections see Zimbabwean presidential election ^[69][70][71] Attacks on foreign nationals increased markedly in late 2007 and it is believed that there have been at least a dozen attacks since the start of 2008. A series of anti-immigrant riots occurred in South Africa beginning on May 11, 2008. ^[72][73]

Syria

Refugees from Iraq have increased in number since the US-led invasion into Iraq in March 2003. Throughout the past 100 years there have been a growing number of Refugees fleeing Iraq and settling throughout the world peaking recently with the latest Iraq War The United Nations estimates that nearly 2,200,000 Iraqis have fled the country since 2003,^[74] with nearly 100,000 fleeing to Syria and Jordan each month. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية Jordan, officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (الأردنّ al-Urdunn) is an Arab country in Southwest Asia spanning the southern ^[75][76] Most ventured to Jordan and Syria, creating demographic shifts that have worried both governments. Refugees are mired in poverty as they are generally barred from working in their host countries. ^[77][78]

Syrian authorities worried that the new influx of refugees would limit the country's resources. Sources like oil, heat, water and electricity were said to be becoming more scarce as demand had gone up. ^[79] On October 1, 2007 news agencies reported that Syria re-imposed restrictions on Iraqi refugees, as stated by a spokesperson for the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR (established December 14, 1950) is a Under Syria's new rules, only Iraqi merchants, businessmen and university professors with visas acquired from Syrian embassies may enter Syria. A diplomatic mission is a group of people from one State or an international Inter-governmental organization (such as the United Nations) present in ^[80][81][82]

Turkey

Turkey receives many economic migrants from nearby countries such as Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan and Iran, but also from Afghanistan, Central Asia and Pakistan. Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Armenia (Հայաստան transliterated: Hayastan,) officially the Republic of Armenia (Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն Hayastani Georgia ( საქართველო, Sakartvelo) is a Transcontinental country in the Caucasus region situated at the dividing line between Azerbaijan ( English; Azərbaycan officially the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azərbaycan Respublikası is the largest and most populous country in the South For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and ^[83][84] In the meantime, the Iraq War seriously aggravated the illegal immigration problem in Turkey, with the global parties directly involved often extending a lesser helping hand than Turkey itself to resolve the precarious situation of immigrants stranded in passage. The Iraq War, also known as the Second Gulf War, the Occupation of Iraq, or the War in Iraq, is an ongoing Military campaign ^[85]

United States

Main article: Illegal immigration to the United States

Illegal immigration has been a longstanding issue in the United States, creating immense controversy. Illegal immigration to the United States refers to the act of foreign nationals voluntarily resettling in the United States in violation of U Harvard University economist George Borjas explains that the controversy centers around the "huge redistribution [of wealth] away from [unskilled American] workers to [American employers] who use immigrants. " ^[86] In 2007, President Bush called for Congress to endorse his guest worker proposal, stating that immigrants took jobs that Americans would not take. ^[87] The Pew Hispanic Center notes that while the number of legal immigrants (including LPRs, refugees, and asylees) arriving has not varied substantially since the 1980s, the number of illegal aliens has increased dramatically and, since the mid 1990s, has surpassed the number of legal immigrants. The Pew Research Center is a Think tank based in Washington D [28] Penalties for employers who hire illegal immigrants range from $2,000-$10,000 and up to six months imprisonment. ^[88]

See also

• Alien (law)
• Aliyah Bet
• Illegal emigration
• Separation barrier

References

Further reading

• Barkan, Elliott R. "Return of the Nativists? California Public Opinion and Immigration in the 1980s and 1990s. " Social Science History 2003 27(2): 229-283. in Project Muse
• Vanessa B. Beasley, ed. Who Belongs in America?: Presidents, Rhetoric, And Immigration (2006)
• Borjas, G. J. "The economics of immigration," Journal of Economic Literature, v 32 (1994), pp. 1667-717
• Cull, Nicholas J. and Carrasco, Davíd, ed. Alambrista and the US-Mexico Border: Film, Music, and Stories of Undocumented Immigrants U. of New Mexico Press, 2004. 225 pp.
• Thomas J. Espenshade; "Unauthorized Immigration to the United States" Annual Review of Sociology. Volume: 21. 1995. pp 195+.
• Flores, William V. "New Citizens, New Rights: Undocumented Immigrants and Latino Cultural Citizenship" Latin American Perspectives 2003 30(2): 87-100
• Griswold, Daniel T. ; "Willing Workers: Fixing the Problem of Illegal Mexican Migration to the United States," Trade Policy Analysis no. 19, October 15, 2002.
• Nicholas Laham; Ronald Reagan and the Politics of Immigration Reform Praeger Publishers. 2000.
• Lisa Magaña, Straddling the Border: Immigration Policy and the INS (2003)j63-a12036-m12i-3620+3e
• Mohl, Raymond A. "Latinization in the Heart of Dixie: Hispanics in Late-twentieth-century Alabama" Alabama Review 2002 55(4): 243-274. ISSN 0002-4341 9-4894945651
• Ngai, Mae M. Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America (2004), 90952-15665
• Ngai, Mae M. "The Strange Career of the Illegal Alien: Immigration Restriction and Deportation Policy in the United States, 1921-1965" Law and History Review 2003 21(1): 69-107. ISSN 0738-2480 Fulltext in History Cooperative
• Mireille Rosello; "Representing Illegal Immigrants in France: From Clandestins to L'affaire Des Sans-Papiers De Saint-Bernard" Journal of European Studies, Vol. 28, 1998 959525126
• Dowell Myers (2007), Immigrants and Boomers: Forging a New Social Contract for the Future of America, Russell Sage Foundation, ISBN 978-0-87154-636-4. Dowell Myers is a professor of urban planning and demography in the School of Policy Planning and Development at the University of Southern California (USC
• Tranaes, T. and Zimmermann, K. F. (eds), Migrants, Work, and the Welfare State, Odense, University Press of Southern Denmark, (2004)
• Venturini, A. Post-War Migration in Southern Europe. An Economic Approach Cambridge University Press (2004)
• Zimmermann, K. F. (ed. ), European Migration: What Do We Know? Oxford University Press, (2005)