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This article is about the epic poem by Homer. For other uses, see Iliad (disambiguation).
Title page of the Rihel edition of ca. 1572
Title page of the Rihel edition of ca. 1572

The Iliad is, together with the Odyssey, one of two ancient Greek epic poems traditionally attributed to Homer. The Odyssey ( Greek: Ὀδύσσεια or Odússeia) is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca An epic is a lengthy Narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation Homer ( Ancient Greek:, Homēros) is a legendary ancient Greek epic Poet, traditionally said to be the author of the epic poems the The poem is commonly dated to the late 9th or to the 8th century BC[1], and many scholars believe it is the oldest extant work of literature in the ancient Greek language, making it the first work of European literature. The 9th century BC started the first day of 900 BC and ended the last day of 801 BC The 8th century BC started the first day of 800 BC and ended the last day of 701 BC. The existence of a single author for the poems is disputed as the poems themselves show evidence of a long oral tradition and hence, possible multiple authors.

The poem concerns events during the tenth and final year in the siege of the city of Ilion, or Troy, by the Greeks (See Trojan War). Troy ( Greek: grc Τροία Troia, also, Ilion; Latin: Trōia, Īlium, Hittite: Wilusa or Troy ( Greek: grc Τροία Troia, also, Ilion; Latin: Trōia, Īlium, Hittite: Wilusa or The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions In Greek mythology, the Trojan War was waged against the city of Troy by the Achaeans after Paris of Troy stole Helen from her The word Iliad means "pertaining to Ilion" (in Latin, Ilium), the city proper, as opposed to Troy (in Turkish "Troya", in Greek, Τροία, Troía; in Latin, Troia, Troiae, f. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Turkish ( tr Türkçe IPA) is a language spoken by over 63 million people worldwide making it the most commonly spoken of the Turkic languages. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. ), the state centered around Ilium, over which the names Ilium and Troy are often used interchangeably.

Contents

Date

For most of the twentieth century, scholars dated the Iliad and the Odyssey to the late 9th or to the 8th century BC. The 8th century BC started the first day of 800 BC and ended the last day of 701 BC. Most still argue for this period, notably Barry B. Powell (who has proposed a link between the writing of the Iliad and the invention of the Greek alphabet), G. Barry B Powell is the Halls-Bascom Professor of Classics Emeritus at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, author of the widely used textbook Classical Myth and many S. Kirk, and Richard Janko; while a few others (including Martin West and Richard Seaford) now prefer a date in the 7th or even the 6th century BC. Martin Litchfield West (born 23 September 1937, London, England) is an internationally recognised scholar in Classics, Classical Richard Seaford is a professor in the Department of Classics and Ancient History at the University of Exeter in England. The 7th century BC started the first day of 700 BC and ended the last day of 601 BC. The 6th century BC started the first day of 600 BC and ended the last day of 501 BC.

The story of the Iliad

The first verses of the Iliad
The first verses of the Iliad

The Iliad begins with these lines:

μῆνιν ἄειδε θεὰ Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος
οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρί' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε' ἔθηκεν,
Sing, goddess, the rage of Achilles the son of Peleus,
the destructive rage that sent countless ills on the Achaeans. . .

The first word of Homer's Iliad is the ancient Greek word μῆνις (mēnis), fury, rage, or wrath. This word announces the major theme of the Iliad: the wrath of Achilles. "Achilleus" redirects here For the emperor with this name see Achilleus (emperor. When Agamemnon, the commander of the Greek forces at Troy, dishonors Achilles by taking Briseis, a slave woman given to Achilles as a prize of war, Achilles becomes enraged and withdraws from the fighting until Book XIX. In Greek mythology, Agamemnon (very resolute / ( ancient Greek:) is a hero, the son of King Atreus of Mycenae In Greek mythology, Brisēís ( Greek Βρισηίς was a Trojan widow (from Lyrnessus) Without him and his powerful Myrmidon warriors, the Greeks suffer defeat by the Trojans, almost to the point of losing their will to fight. The Myrmidons (or Myrmidones; Greek: Μυρμιδόνες were an ancient nation of Greek mythology. Achilles re-enters the fighting when Patroclus is killed by the Trojan prince Hector. In Greek mythology, as recorded in the Iliad by Homer, Patroclus, or Patroklos (Gr In Greek mythology, Hectōr ( "holding fast" or Hektōr, is a Trojan prince and one of the greatest fighters in the Achilles slaughters many Trojans and kills Hector. In his rage, he then refuses to return Hector's body and instead defiles it. Priam, the father of Hector, ransoms his son's body, and the Iliad ends with the funeral of Hector. In Greek mythology, Priam ( Greek Πρίαμος Priamos) was the king of Troy during the Trojan War and youngest son

Homer devotes long passages to frank, blow-by-blow descriptions of combat. Homer ( Ancient Greek:, Homēros) is a legendary ancient Greek epic Poet, traditionally said to be the author of the epic poems the He gives the names of the fighters, recounts their taunts and battle-cries, and gruesomely details the ways in which they kill and wound one another. Often, the death of a hero only escalates the violence, as the two sides battle for his armor and corpse, or his close companions launch a punitive attack on his killer. The lucky ones are sometimes whisked away by friendly charioteers or the intervention of a god, but Homeric warfare is still some of the most bloody and brutal in literature.

The Iliad has a very strong religious and supernatural element. Both sides in the war are extremely pious, and both have heroes descended from divine beings. They sacrifice to the gods and consult priests and prophets to decide their actions. For their own part, the gods frequently join in battles, both by advising and protecting their favorites and even by participating in combat against humans and other gods.

The Iliad's huge cast of characters connects the Trojan War to many ancient myths, such as Jason and the Argonauts, the Seven Against Thebes, and the Labors of Hercules. The Seven against Thebes (Επτά επί Θήβας Epta epi Thēbas) is a mythic narrative whose classic statement is found in the play by Aeschylus (467 BCE The Twelve Labours of Hercules (Greek Δωδεκαθλος, dodekathlos) age a series of archaic episodes connected by a later continuous narrative concerning Many ancient Greek myths exist in multiple versions, so Homer had some freedom to choose among them to suit his story. See Greek mythology for more detail. Greek mythology is the body of stories belonging to the ancient Greeks concerning their gods and Heroes the nature of the world and the origins and significance

The action of the Iliad covers only a few weeks of the tenth and final year of the Trojan War. In Greek mythology, the Trojan War was waged against the city of Troy by the Achaeans after Paris of Troy stole Helen from her It does not cover the background and early years of the war (Paris' abduction of Helen from King Menelaus) nor its end (the death of Achilles and the fall of Troy). See List of King Priam's children Paris ( Greek:; also known as Alexander or Alexandros, c This article is about the mythological figure Helen of Troy For other uses see Helen (disambiguation and Helen of Troy (disambiguation. In Greek mythology, Menelaus ( Ancient Greek:) was a king of Ancient Sparta, the husband of Helen, and a central figure in the "Achilleus" redirects here For the emperor with this name see Achilleus (emperor. Other epic poems, collectively known as the Epic Cycle or cyclic epics, narrated many of these events; these poems only survive in fragments and later descriptions. The Epic Cycle (Επικός Κύκλος was a collection of Ancient Greek Epic poems that related the story of the Trojan War, which includes the See Trojan War for a summary of the events of the war. In Greek mythology, the Trojan War was waged against the city of Troy by the Achaeans after Paris of Troy stole Helen from her

Synopsis

As the poem begins, the Greeks have captured Chryséis, the daughter of Apollo's priest Chryses, and given her as a prize to Agamemnon. In Greek mythology, Chryses ( English: /'krai siz/ Greek: Χρύσης Khrýsēs) was a priest of Apollo at Chryse near the In Greek mythology, Agamemnon (very resolute / ( ancient Greek:) is a hero, the son of King Atreus of Mycenae In response, Apollo has sent a plague against the Greeks, who compel Agamemnon to restore Chryséis to her father to stop the sickness. In her place, Agamemnon takes Briséis, whom the Achaeans had given to Achilles as a spoil of war. In Greek mythology, Brisēís ( Greek Βρισηίς was a Trojan widow (from Lyrnessus) "Achilleus" redirects here For the emperor with this name see Achilleus (emperor. Achilles, the greatest warrior of the age, follows the advice of his goddess mother, Thetis, and withdraws from battle in revenge. This article is about the Greek sea nymph Thetis should not be confused with Themis, the embodiment of the laws of nature but see the sea-goddess Tethys.

In counterpoint to Achilles' pride and arrogance stands the Trojan prince Hector, son of King Priam, a husband and father who fights to defend his city and his family. In Greek mythology, Hectōr ( "holding fast" or Hektōr, is a Trojan prince and one of the greatest fighters in the In Greek mythology, Priam ( Greek Πρίαμος Priamos) was the king of Troy during the Trojan War and youngest son With Achilles on the sidelines, Hector leads successful counterattacks against the Greeks, who have built a fortified camp around their ships pulled up on the Trojan beach. The best remaining Greek fighters, including Odysseus and Diomedes, are wounded, and the gods favor the Trojans. grc-Latn Odysseus or la Ulysses ( Greek grc-Latn Odysseus; Latin: la Ulixes or more commonly Ulysses) oʊˈdɪsiəs Diomēdēs or Diomed ( Greek: Διομήδης English translation: "God-like cunning" or "advised by Zeus" is a Hero Patroclus, impersonating Achilles by wearing his armor, finally leads the Myrmidons back into battle to save the ships from being burned. In Greek mythology, as recorded in the Iliad by Homer, Patroclus, or Patroklos (Gr The death of Patroclus at the hands of Hector brings Achilles back to the war for revenge, and he slays Hector in single combat. Revenge (also vengeance, retribution, or vendetta amongst others consists primarily of retaliation against a person or group in response Hector's father, King Priam, later comes to Achilles alone (but aided by Hermes) to ransom his son's body, and Achilles is moved to pity; the funeral of Hector ends the poem. Hermes ( Greek,, ˈhɝmiːz in Greek mythology, is the Olympian god of boundaries and of the travelers who cross them of Shepherds and

Book summaries

Iliad, Book 8, lines 245-253, in a Greek manuscript of the late fifth or early sixth century AD
Iliad, Book 8, lines 245-253, in a Greek manuscript of the late fifth or early sixth century AD

Famous passages

After the Iliad

Although the Iliad scatters foreshadowings of certain events subsequent to the funeral of Hector, and there is a general sense that the Trojans are doomed, Homer does not set out a detailed account of the fall of Troy. The Catalogue of Ships (νεῶν κατάλογος neōn katalogos) is a passage in Book The Teichoscopia or teichoscopy meaning "viewing from the walls" is a famous passage in the Iliad that takes place in Book 3 lines 121-244 The section of the Iliad that ancient editors called the Dios apate (the " Deception of Zeus " stands apart from the remainder of Book This article is about the shield of Achilles For the poems by W For the story as developed in later Greek and Roman poetry and drama, see Trojan War. In Greek mythology, the Trojan War was waged against the city of Troy by the Achaeans after Paris of Troy stole Helen from her The other Homeric poem, the Odyssey, is the story of Odysseus' long journey home from Troy; the two poems between them incorporate many references forward and back and overlap very little, so that despite their narrow narrative focus they are a surprisingly complete exploration of the themes of the Troy story. The Odyssey ( Greek: Ὀδύσσεια or Odússeia) is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer.

Major characters

Main article: List of characters in the Iliad
See also: Category:Deities in the Iliad

The Iliad contains a sometimes confusingly great number of characters. This is a list of the main characters that appear in the Iliad by Homer. The latter half of the second book (often called the Catalogue of Ships) is devoted entirely to listing the various commanders. The Catalogue of Ships (νεῶν κατάλογος neōn katalogos) is a passage in Book Many of the battle scenes in the Iliad feature bit characters who are quickly slain. See Trojan War for a detailed list of participating armies and warriors. In Greek mythology, the Trojan War was waged against the city of Troy by the Achaeans after Paris of Troy stole Helen from her

The Olympian deities, principally Zeus, Hera, Apollo, Hades, Aphrodite, Ares, Athena, Hermes and Poseidon, as well as the lesser figures Eris, Thetis, and Proteus appear in the Iliad as advisers to and manipulators of the human characters. Zeus (zjuːs in Greek: nominative: Zeús /zdeús/ genitive: Diós; Modern Greek /'zefs/ in Greek mythology In the Olympian pantheon of classical Greek Mythology, Hera (ˈhɪərə or /ˈhɛrə/ Greek) or Here ( in Ionic and Homer Hades (from Greek, Hadēs, originally, Haidēs or, Aidēs, probably from Indo-European *n̥-wid- 'unseen' refers both to the ancient In Greek mythology, Ares ( Ancient Greek:, Μodern Greek Άρης) is the son of Zeus and Hera. ATHENA was an Antimatter research project that took place at the AD Ring at CERN. Hermes ( Greek,, ˈhɝmiːz in Greek mythology, is the Olympian god of boundaries and of the travelers who cross them of Shepherds and In Greek mythology, Poseidon ( Greek:; Latin: Neptūnus) was the god of the Sea and as "Earth-Shaker" Eris ( Greek Ἔρις, "Strife" is the Greek Goddess of strife her name being translated into Latin as Discordia This article is about the Greek sea nymph Thetis should not be confused with Themis, the embodiment of the laws of nature but see the sea-goddess Tethys. In Greek mythology, Proteus (Πρωτεύς is an early sea-god one of several deities whom Homer calls the "Old Man of the Sea" whose name suggests the All except Zeus become personally involved in the fighting at one point or another (See Theomachy). Theomachy is a reference to battles fought between Greek Olympians themselves

Technical features

The poem is written in dactylic hexameter. Dactylic Hexameter (also known as "heroic hexameter" is a form of meter in poetry or a rhythmic scheme The Iliad comprises 15,693 lines of verse. Later ancient Greeks divided it into twenty-four books, or scrolls, and this convention has lasted to the present day with little change.

Themes

Nostos

Nostos (Greek: νόστος) (pl. Nostos (νόστος (pl nostoi is the Greek word for homecoming. nostoi) is the ancient Greek word for homecoming. The word νόστος is used seven times in the Iliad (2. 155,251, 9. 413,434,622, 10. 509, 16. 82) and the theme is heavily explored throughout Greek literature, especially in the fortunes of the Atreidae returning from the Trojan War. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca In Greek mythology, the Trojan War was waged against the city of Troy by the Achaeans after Paris of Troy stole Helen from her The Odyssey, dealing with the return of Odysseus, is the most famous of these stories, but many surrounding other characters such as Agamemnon and Menelaus exist as well. The Odyssey ( Greek: Ὀδύσσεια or Odússeia) is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. grc-Latn Odysseus or la Ulysses ( Greek grc-Latn Odysseus; Latin: la Ulixes or more commonly Ulysses) oʊˈdɪsiəs In Greek mythology, Agamemnon (very resolute / ( ancient Greek:) is a hero, the son of King Atreus of Mycenae In Greek mythology, Menelaus ( Ancient Greek:) was a king of Ancient Sparta, the husband of Helen, and a central figure in the In the Iliad, nostos cannot be obtained without the sacking of Troy, which is the driving force behind Agamemnon's will to win at any cost. Nostos (νόστος (pl nostoi is the Greek word for homecoming. Troy ( Greek: grc Τροία Troia, also, Ilion; Latin: Trōia, Īlium, Hittite: Wilusa or In Greek mythology, Agamemnon (very resolute / ( ancient Greek:) is a hero, the son of King Atreus of Mycenae

Kleos

Kleos (Greek: κλέος) is the ancient Greek concept of glory that is earned through battle. Kleos (Greek κλέος is the Greek word often translated to "renown" or "glory" The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca [1] For many characters, most notably Odysseus, their kleos comes with their victorious return home (Nostos). grc-Latn Odysseus or la Ulysses ( Greek grc-Latn Odysseus; Latin: la Ulixes or more commonly Ulysses) oʊˈdɪsiəs Kleos (Greek κλέος is the Greek word often translated to "renown" or "glory" Nostos (νόστος (pl nostoi is the Greek word for homecoming. [2] However, Achilles must choose between the two. "Achilleus" redirects here For the emperor with this name see Achilleus (emperor. In one of the most poignant scenes in the Iliad (9. 410-416), Achilles tells Odysseus, Phoenix, and Ajax about the two fates (διχθαδίας κήρας 9. "Achilleus" redirects here For the emperor with this name see Achilleus (emperor. grc-Latn Odysseus or la Ulysses ( Greek grc-Latn Odysseus; Latin: la Ulixes or more commonly Ulysses) oʊˈdɪsiəs In Homer's Iliad, Phoenix, son of Amyntor, is one of the Myrmidons led by Achilles who along with Odysseus and Ajax 411) he must choose between. [3]. The passage reads:

μήτηρ γάρ τέ μέ φησι θεὰ Θέτις ἀργυρόπεζα (410)
διχθαδίας κῆρας φερέμεν θανάτοιο τέλος δέ.
εἰ μέν κ’ αὖθι μένων Τρώων πόλιν ἀμφιμάχωμαι,
ὤλετο μέν μοι νόστος, ἀτὰρ κλέος ἄφθιτον ἔσται•
εἰ δέ κεν οἴκαδ’ ἵκωμι φίλην ἐς πατρίδα γαῖαν,
ὤλετό μοι κλέος ἐσθλόν, ἐπὶ δηρὸν δέ μοι αἰὼν (415)
ἔσσεται, οὐδέ κέ μ’ ὦκα τέλος θανάτοιο κιχείη. [2]

Richmond Lattimore, the renowned classical scholar, translates the passage as follows:

For my mother Thetis the goddess of silver feet tells me
I carry two sorts of destiny toward the day of my death. Richmond Alexander Lattimore ( May 6, 1906 - February 26, 1984) was an American Poet and Translator known for This article is about the Greek sea nymph Thetis should not be confused with Themis, the embodiment of the laws of nature but see the sea-goddess Tethys. Either,
if I stay here and fight beside the city of the Trojans,
my return home is gone, but my glory shall be everlasting;
but if I return home to the beloved land of my fathers,
the excellence of my glory is gone, but there will be a long life
left for me, and my end in death will not come to me quickly.
[3]

Here Achilles acknowledges that he must lose his nostos in order to obtain his kleos. "Achilleus" redirects here For the emperor with this name see Achilleus (emperor. Nostos (νόστος (pl nostoi is the Greek word for homecoming. Kleos (Greek κλέος is the Greek word often translated to "renown" or "glory" However, Achilles is not offered just kleos, but kleos aphthiton (Greek: κλέος ἄφθιτον), or "fame imperishable. "Achilleus" redirects here For the emperor with this name see Achilleus (emperor. Kleos (Greek κλέος is the Greek word often translated to "renown" or "glory" "[4] The word ἄφθιτον is used five other times throughout the Iliad (2. 46, 5. 724, 13. 22, 14. 238, 18. 370), each time describing an immortal object, specifically Agamemnon's sceptre, the wheel of Hebe's chariot, the house of Poseidon, Zeus's throne, and the house of Hephaistos, respectively. In Greek mythology, Agamemnon (very resolute / ( ancient Greek:) is a hero, the son of King Atreus of Mycenae In Greek mythology, Poseidon ( Greek:; Latin: Neptūnus) was the god of the Sea and as "Earth-Shaker" Zeus (zjuːs in Greek: nominative: Zeús /zdeús/ genitive: Diós; Modern Greek /'zefs/ in Greek mythology Hephaestus (hɨˈfiːstəs or /hɨˈfɛstəs/ Greek Hēphaistos) was a Greek god whose Roman equivalent was Vulcan. Lattimore translates the word to mean 'immortal forever' or 'imperishable forever. Richmond Alexander Lattimore ( May 6, 1906 - February 26, 1984) was an American Poet and Translator known for ' Achilles is the only mortal to ever be referred to in this way, which highlights the immense glory that awaits him if he stays and fights at Troy. "Achilleus" redirects here For the emperor with this name see Achilleus (emperor. Troy ( Greek: grc Τροία Troia, also, Ilion; Latin: Trōia, Īlium, Hittite: Wilusa or

Timê

Related to kleos is the concept of timê (Greek: тιμή), usually translated as "respect" or "honor". One's timê is properly determined by one's station in life, or one's accomplishments (e. g. , on the battlefield). The Greeks' troubles begin when Agamemnon dishonors (Book 1. 11) the priest Chryses' attempt to ransom back his captive daughter; this insult prompts Chryses to call a plague down on the Achaeans. Later, Achilles' ruinous anger with Agamemnon stems from the disrespect (1. 171) he feels the Argive king has shown him despite Achilles' obvious value to the Greek army.

The Wrath of Achilles

The Wrath of Achilles by Michel Drolling, 1819.
The Wrath of Achilles by Michel Drolling, 1819.

As mentioned above, the first word of the Iliad is the Greek μῆνιν (mēnin), meaning rage or wrath. In this Homer is immediately announcing a main theme throughout the epic, the wrath of Achilles. Homer ( Ancient Greek:, Homēros) is a legendary ancient Greek epic Poet, traditionally said to be the author of the epic poems the "Achilleus" redirects here For the emperor with this name see Achilleus (emperor. Achilles' rage and vanity, which sometimes seem almost childlike, drive the plot, from the Greeks' faltering in battle and the death of Patroclus to the slaying of Hector and the eventual fall of Troy, which is not explicitly depicted in the Iliad but is alluded to numerous times. "Achilleus" redirects here For the emperor with this name see Achilleus (emperor. In Greek mythology, as recorded in the Iliad by Homer, Patroclus, or Patroklos (Gr In Greek mythology, Hectōr ( "holding fast" or Hektōr, is a Trojan prince and one of the greatest fighters in the Troy ( Greek: grc Τροία Troia, also, Ilion; Latin: Trōia, Īlium, Hittite: Wilusa or The wrath of Achilles is first displayed in Book I in a meeting between the Greek kings and the seer Kalchas. "Achilleus" redirects here For the emperor with this name see Achilleus (emperor. Kalchas is town and Union Council of Dera Bugti District in the Balochistan province of Pakistan. Agamemnon had dishonored Chryses, the Trojan priest of Apollo, by taking his daughter Chryseis and refusing to return her even when offered "gifts beyond count. In Greek mythology, Agamemnon (very resolute / ( ancient Greek:) is a hero, the son of King Atreus of Mycenae In Greek mythology, Chryses ( English: /'krai siz/ Greek: Χρύσης Khrýsēs) was a priest of Apollo at Chryse near the In Greek mythology, Chryseis ( Greek: Χρύσηίς Khrysēís) was a Trojan woman the daughter of Chryses. "[4] Chryses then prayed to Apollo for help, who rained arrows upon the Greeks for nine days. In Greek mythology, Chryses ( English: /'krai siz/ Greek: Χρύσης Khrýsēs) was a priest of Apollo at Chryse near the The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions At the meeting Achilles accuses Agamemnon of being "greediest for gain of all men. "Achilleus" redirects here For the emperor with this name see Achilleus (emperor. In Greek mythology, Agamemnon (very resolute / ( ancient Greek:) is a hero, the son of King Atreus of Mycenae "[5] At this Agamemnon replies:

"But here is my threat to you.
Even as Phoibos Apollo is taking away my Chryseis.
I shall convey her back in my own ship, with my own
followers; but I shall take the fair-cheeked Briseis,
your prize, I myself going to your shelter, that you may learn well
how much greater I am than you, and another man may shrink back
from likening himself to me and contending against me. "[6]

After this remark Achilles' anger can only be stayed by Athena and he vows to never take orders from Agamemnon again. "Achilleus" redirects here For the emperor with this name see Achilleus (emperor. ATHENA was an Antimatter research project that took place at the AD Ring at CERN. In Greek mythology, Agamemnon (very resolute / ( ancient Greek:) is a hero, the son of King Atreus of Mycenae Later, Achilles cries to his mother Thetis, who convinces Zeus on Olympus to favor the Trojans until Agamemnon restores Achilles' rights. "Achilleus" redirects here For the emperor with this name see Achilleus (emperor. This article is about the Greek sea nymph Thetis should not be confused with Themis, the embodiment of the laws of nature but see the sea-goddess Tethys. Zeus (zjuːs in Greek: nominative: Zeús /zdeús/ genitive: Diós; Modern Greek /'zefs/ in Greek mythology In Greek mythology, Agamemnon (very resolute / ( ancient Greek:) is a hero, the son of King Atreus of Mycenae "Achilleus" redirects here For the emperor with this name see Achilleus (emperor. This dooms the possibility of Greek victory in the near future, and the Trojans under Hector almost push the Greeks back into the sea in Book XII, causing Agamemnon to contemplate a defeated return to Greece. The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions In Greek mythology, Hectōr ( "holding fast" or Hektōr, is a Trojan prince and one of the greatest fighters in the In Greek mythology, Agamemnon (very resolute / ( ancient Greek:) is a hero, the son of King Atreus of Mycenae Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία

"The Wrath of Achilles" turns the tide of the war again when his closest friend and possible lover Patroclus is killed in battle by Hector while wearing Achilles' armor. In Greek mythology, as recorded in the Iliad by Homer, Patroclus, or Patroklos (Gr In Greek mythology, Hectōr ( "holding fast" or Hektōr, is a Trojan prince and one of the greatest fighters in the "Achilleus" redirects here For the emperor with this name see Achilleus (emperor. When Nestor informs him, Achilles mourns grievously, tearing out his hair and dirtying his face. "Achilleus" redirects here For the emperor with this name see Achilleus (emperor. During his mourning, his mother Thetis again comes to comfort him. This article is about the Greek sea nymph Thetis should not be confused with Themis, the embodiment of the laws of nature but see the sea-goddess Tethys. Achilles tells her:

So it was here that the lord of men Agamemnon angered me. "Achilleus" redirects here For the emperor with this name see Achilleus (emperor.
Still, we will let all this be a thing of the past, and for all our
sorrow beat down by force the anger deeply within us.
Now I shall go, to overtake that killer of a dear life,
Hektor; then I will accept my own death, at whatever
time Zeus wishes to bring it about, and the other immortals. [7]

In his desire for vengeance Achilles is even willing to accept the prospect of his own death as a reasonable price to avenge his lost friend. "Achilleus" redirects here For the emperor with this name see Achilleus (emperor. The rage of Achilles over the death of Patroclus persuaded him to enter battle again, dooming both Hector and Troy. "Achilleus" redirects here For the emperor with this name see Achilleus (emperor. In Greek mythology, as recorded in the Iliad by Homer, Patroclus, or Patroklos (Gr In Greek mythology, Hectōr ( "holding fast" or Hektōr, is a Trojan prince and one of the greatest fighters in the Troy ( Greek: grc Τροία Troia, also, Ilion; Latin: Trōia, Īlium, Hittite: Wilusa or After killing and wounding numerous Trojans, Achilles finds Hector on the battlefield in Book XXII and chases him around the walls of Troy three times before slaying him. "Achilleus" redirects here For the emperor with this name see Achilleus (emperor. In Greek mythology, Hectōr ( "holding fast" or Hektōr, is a Trojan prince and one of the greatest fighters in the Troy ( Greek: grc Τροία Troia, also, Ilion; Latin: Trōia, Īlium, Hittite: Wilusa or Achilles, in his final show of rage, then drags the body on the back of his chariot back to the Greek camp where he mourns for Patroclus. "Achilleus" redirects here For the emperor with this name see Achilleus (emperor. The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions In Greek mythology, as recorded in the Iliad by Homer, Patroclus, or Patroklos (Gr Achilles later returns the body of Hector to the Trojan king Priam when he secretly infiltrates the Greek camp and begs Achilles for the body of his son. "Achilleus" redirects here For the emperor with this name see Achilleus (emperor. In Greek mythology, Hectōr ( "holding fast" or Hektōr, is a Trojan prince and one of the greatest fighters in the In Greek mythology, Priam ( Greek Πρίαμος Priamos) was the king of Troy during the Trojan War and youngest son "Achilleus" redirects here For the emperor with this name see Achilleus (emperor.

Achilles Slays Hector, by Peter Paul Rubens, 1630-1635.
Achilles Slays Hector, by Peter Paul Rubens, 1630-1635.

Fate

Fate is shown to be a driving force behind many of the events of the Iliad. It is obeyed by both gods and men once it is set, and neither seems able (or willing) to change it. The forming of Fate is unknown, but it is told by The Fates and seers such as Calchas, and mentioned by gods and men throughout the epic. Destiny refers to a predetermined course of events It may be conceived as a predetermined future whether in general or of an individual In Greek mythology, Calchas ("bronze-man" son of Thestor was a Argive Seer, with a gift for interpreting the flight of birds that he received It was considered heroic to accept one's fate honorably and cowardly to attempt to avoid it. Destiny refers to a predetermined course of events It may be conceived as a predetermined future whether in general or of an individual [5] However, fate does not predetermine all human action. Destiny refers to a predetermined course of events It may be conceived as a predetermined future whether in general or of an individual Instead, it primarily refers to the outcome or end, such as a man's life or a city such as Troy. Troy ( Greek: grc Τροία Troia, also, Ilion; Latin: Trōia, Īlium, Hittite: Wilusa or [6] For instance, before killing him, Hector calls Patroclus a fool for trying to conquer him in battle. In Greek mythology, Hectōr ( "holding fast" or Hektōr, is a Trojan prince and one of the greatest fighters in the In Greek mythology, as recorded in the Iliad by Homer, Patroclus, or Patroklos (Gr Patroclus retorts:

No, deadly destiny, with the son of Leto, has killed me,
and of men it was Euphorbos; you are only my third slayer. In Greek mythology, as recorded in the Iliad by Homer, Patroclus, or Patroklos (Gr
And put away in your heart this other thing that I tell you.
You yourself are not one who shall live long, but now already
death and powerful destiny are standing beside you,
to go down under the hands of Aiakos' great son, Achilleus. [8]

Here Patroclus alludes to his own fate as well as Hector's to die at the hands of Achilles. In Greek mythology, as recorded in the Iliad by Homer, Patroclus, or Patroklos (Gr Destiny refers to a predetermined course of events It may be conceived as a predetermined future whether in general or of an individual In Greek mythology, Hectōr ( "holding fast" or Hektōr, is a Trojan prince and one of the greatest fighters in the "Achilleus" redirects here For the emperor with this name see Achilleus (emperor. Upon killing Hector, Achilles is fated to die at Troy as well. In Greek mythology, Hectōr ( "holding fast" or Hektōr, is a Trojan prince and one of the greatest fighters in the "Achilleus" redirects here For the emperor with this name see Achilleus (emperor. Troy ( Greek: grc Τροία Troia, also, Ilion; Latin: Trōia, Īlium, Hittite: Wilusa or All of these outcomes are predetermined, and although each character has free will in his actions he knows that eventually his end has already been set.

In some places it is ambiguous whether the gods, namely [Zeus], have the ability to alter fate. This situation first appears in Book XVI when Zeus' mortal son, Sarpedon, is about to be slain in battle by Patroclus. Zeus (zjuːs in Greek: nominative: Zeús /zdeús/ genitive: Diós; Modern Greek /'zefs/ in Greek mythology In Greek mythology, Sarpedon (Σαρπηδὠν referred to at least three different people In Greek mythology, as recorded in the Iliad by Homer, Patroclus, or Patroklos (Gr Zeus says:

'Ah me, that it is destined that the dearest of men, Sarpedon,
must go down under the hands of Menoitios' son Patroclus. Zeus (zjuːs in Greek: nominative: Zeús /zdeús/ genitive: Diós; Modern Greek /'zefs/ in Greek mythology [9]

When Zeus mentions his dilemma to Hera, she answers him:

'Majesty, son of Kronos, what sort of thing have you spoken?
Do you wish to bring back a man who is mortal, one long since
doomed by his destiny, from ill-sounding death and release him?
Do it, then; but not all the rest of us gods shall approve you. Zeus (zjuːs in Greek: nominative: Zeús /zdeús/ genitive: Diós; Modern Greek /'zefs/ in Greek mythology [10]

When faced with having to decide between losing his beloved son and abiding by fate, even Zeus, the king of the gods, decides to let the matter pass as it has been already decided. Zeus (zjuːs in Greek: nominative: Zeús /zdeús/ genitive: Diós; Modern Greek /'zefs/ in Greek mythology This same motif is used again when Zeus contemplates whether to spare Hector, whom he loves and respects. Zeus (zjuːs in Greek: nominative: Zeús /zdeús/ genitive: Diós; Modern Greek /'zefs/ in Greek mythology In Greek mythology, Hectōr ( "holding fast" or Hektōr, is a Trojan prince and one of the greatest fighters in the This time, grey-eyed Athena answers him:

'Father of the shining bold, dark misted, what is this you said?
Do you wish to bring back a man who is mortal, one long since
doomed by his destiny, from ill-sounding death and release him?
Do it, then; but not all the rest of us gods shall approve you. ATHENA was an Antimatter research project that took place at the AD Ring at CERN. [11]

Again Zeus seems able to change fate but does not, choosing instead to abide by the outcomes decided long before that day's events. Zeus (zjuːs in Greek: nominative: Zeús /zdeús/ genitive: Diós; Modern Greek /'zefs/ in Greek mythology

Fate, working in the other direction, spares Aeneas from death at the hands of Achilles. This article is about the Roman hero For other uses see Aeneas (disambiguation. "Achilleus" redirects here For the emperor with this name see Achilleus (emperor. Apollo convinced Aeneas to confront Achilles during battle, although Achilles was too strong to be defeated. This article is about the Roman hero For other uses see Aeneas (disambiguation. "Achilleus" redirects here For the emperor with this name see Achilleus (emperor. "Achilleus" redirects here For the emperor with this name see Achilleus (emperor. Seeing Aeneas outmatched and in peril, Poseidon speaks out among the immortals:

But come, let us ourselves get him away from death, for fear
the son of Kronos may be angered if now Achilleus
kills this man. This article is about the Roman hero For other uses see Aeneas (disambiguation. In Greek mythology, Poseidon ( Greek:; Latin: Neptūnus) was the god of the Sea and as "Earth-Shaker" It is destined that he shall be the survivor,
that the generation of Dardanos shall not die. . . [12]

Aeneas has been fated to survive the Trojan War and because of this is saved in battle from Achilles. This article is about the Roman hero For other uses see Aeneas (disambiguation. In Greek mythology, the Trojan War was waged against the city of Troy by the Achaeans after Paris of Troy stole Helen from her "Achilleus" redirects here For the emperor with this name see Achilleus (emperor. Although it is unclear whether the gods have the power to change fate, they repeatedly make a conscious effort to maintain fate even in opposition to their personal allegiances. This shows that although its origins are mysterious, fate plays a huge role in the outcome of events in the Iliad. It is the one power that lies even above the gods and shapes the outcome of events more than any other force in the epic.

The question of fate also hints at the primeval division of the world by the three sons of Cronus, when they toppled their father. Cronus or Kronos, ( Ancient Greek Κρόνος Krónos) was the leader and the youngest of the first generation of Titans, divine descendants Zeus was given the air and sky, Poseidon the waters and Hades the Underworld, where the dead go. Zeus (zjuːs in Greek: nominative: Zeús /zdeús/ genitive: Diós; Modern Greek /'zefs/ in Greek mythology In Greek mythology, Poseidon ( Greek:; Latin: Neptūnus) was the god of the Sea and as "Earth-Shaker" Hades (from Greek, Hadēs, originally, Haidēs or, Aidēs, probably from Indo-European *n̥-wid- 'unseen' refers both to the ancient The earth per se was given jointly to all three, hence Poseidon may flood it, or convulse it with earthquakes, and Hades is free to roam it and claim those who are to die and descend to his own domain. Furthermore the Three Fates, deities of obscure and possibly far older origin than the Olympian gods, were often shown as having the only say as to the length of the lives of mortals, a matter over which the gods were unable to intervene. The Moirae or Moerae (in Greek – the " apportioners " often called the The Fates) in Greek mythology, were the white-robed

The Iliad as oral tradition

The Iliad and the Odyssey were considered by Greeks of the classical age, and later, as the most important works in Ancient Greek literature, and were the basis of Greek pedagogy in antiquity. Ancient Greek literature refers to Literature written in the Greek language until the 4th century AD Pedagogy (ˈpɛdəgɒdʒi or paedagogy is the Art or Science of being a Teacher. As the center of the rhapsode's repertoire, their recitation was a central part of Greek religious festivals. In Classical Greece, in the fifth and fourth centuries BC and perhaps earlier a rhapsode (ῥαψῳδός was a professional Performer of Poetry, especially The book would be spoken or sung all night (modern readings last around 14 hours), with audiences coming and going for parts they particularly enjoyed.

Throughout much of their history, scholars of the written word treated the Iliad and Odyssey as literary poems, and Homer as a writer much like them. Homer ( Ancient Greek:, Homēros) is a legendary ancient Greek epic Poet, traditionally said to be the author of the epic poems the However, in the late 19th century and the early 20th century, scholars began to question this assumption. Milman Parry, a classical scholar, was intrigued by peculiar features of Homeric style: in particular the stock epithets and the often extensive repetition of words, phrase and even whole chunks of text. Milman Parry ( 1902 - December 3[[ 935]] was a scholar of Epic poetry and the founder of the discipline of Oral tradition. He argued that these features were artifacts of oral composition. The poet employs stock phrases because of the ease with which they could be applied to a hexameter line. Specifically, Parry observed that Homer complemented each main character's name with a specific stock epithet such that the two-word unit filled half a line. Therefore, he would only ever have to compose afresh half a line – the other half could be automatically completed with a formulaic phrase like “resourceful Odysseus. ”[13] Taking this theory, Parry travelled in Yugoslavia, studying the local oral poetry. In his research he observed oral poets employing stock phrases and repetition to assist with the challenge of composing a poem orally and improvisationally. Parry's line of inquiry opened up a wider study of oral modes of thought and communication and their evolution under the impact of writing and print by Eric Havelock, Marshall McLuhan, Walter Ong and others. Orality can be defined as Thought and its verbal expression in societies where the technologies of Literacy (especially writing and print are unfamiliar to most of Printing is a process for reproducing text and image typically with ink on Paper using a printing press Eric Alfred Havelock (ˈhævlɒk (June 3 1903 &ndash April 4 1988 was a British classicist who spent most of his life in Canada and the United States Father Walter Jackson Ong, PhD ( November 30, 1912 &ndash August 12, 2003) was an American Jesuit Priest, In fact, Parry's student Albert Lord, in his landmark work The Singer of Tales, detects similarities between the tragic story of Patroclus and the death of Enkidu in the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh. Albert Bates Lord (1912-1991 was a Professor of Slavic and Comparative Literature at Harvard University who after the untimely death of Milman Parry, carried on The Singer of Tales is a book by Albert Lord that discusses the Oral tradition as a theory of literary composition and its applications to Homeric In Greek mythology, as recorded in the Iliad by Homer, Patroclus, or Patroklos (Gr First Tablet Enkidu is the quintessential savage person in the beginning of the epic The whole of his body was hairy and his (uncut locks were like a woman's or the hair of The Epic of Gilgamesh is an epic poem from Ancient Mesopotamia and is among the earliest known works of literary fiction. In the book, Lord refutes the idea that the Patroclus story-line upsets the "established" Homeric pattern of "wrath, bride-stealing, and rescue"[14] and says that the structure of the Iliad is dictated by "a careful analysis of the repetition of thematic patterns. "[15]

It should be noted, however, that the use of repetition and stock phrases has not necessarily been interpreted as a restriction on Homer's originality and capacity to rework the story as he saw fit. Professor James Armstrong, in his paper The Arming Motif in the Iliad, argues that even formulaic sections of Homer's text contain enriched meaning through illustrative word choice. He points to what he refers to as the “arming motif;” characters such as Paris, Agamemnon, Patroclus, and Achilles are all described while being armed in a formulaic, long-winded fashion. Armstrong writes that this is needed to “heighten the importance of…an impressive moment” while the repetition “creates an atmosphere of smoothness. ” Yet each time, he modifies elements of the passages – for example, when describing Patroclus[16], he changes from a positive to a negative turn of phrase, which Armstrong explains as demonstrating that Patroclus is not Achilles, foreshadowing Patroclus’ death. [17]

One of the effects that oral tradition has had on the Iliad is that the poem sometimes has inconsistency. For example, Aphrodite is described as “laughter-loving” even when she is in pain from the wound given to her by Diomedes (5. 375). Oral tradition has also been a reason attributed for the Iliad's break from the view of the gods the Greeks in Homer's time actually had. In the Iliad, Mycenaean elements have become mixed up with Dark Age elements. For example, the most powerful Olympic gods have been compared to the Dark Ages’ hereditary basilees nobles who ruled over lesser social ranks, paralleling lesser gods like Scamander[18].

The relationship of Achilles and Patroclus

Main article: Achilles and Patroclus
Achilles and Patroclus.
Achilles and Patroclus. The relationship between Achilles and Patroclus is a key element of the myths associated with the Trojan War.

The precise nature of the relationship between Achilles and Patroclus has been the subject of some dispute in both the classical period and modern times. In the Iliad, it is clear that the two heroes have a deep and extremely meaningful friendship, but the evidence of a romantic or sexual element is equivocal. Commentators from the classical period to today have tended to interpret the relationship through the lens of their own cultures. Thus, in fifth-century Athens the relationship was commonly interpreted as pederastic, since pederasty was an accepted part of Athenian society. Pederasty or paederasty refers to an erotic relationship sexually expressed or not between an adolescent boy and an adult male outside his immediate family Present day readers are more likely to interpret the two heroes either as non-sexual war buddies or as a similarly-aged homosexual couple. Homosexuality refers to sexual behavior with or attraction to people of the same sex or to a Homosexual orientation.

Warfare in the Iliad

Even though Mycene was a maritime power that managed to launch over a thousand ships and Troy at the very least had built the fleet with which Paris took Helen,[19] no sea-battle takes place throughout the conflict and Phereclus, the shipbuilder of Troy, fights on foot. In Greek mythology, Phereclus, son of Tecton was the ship-builder who constructed the boat that Paris used to kidnap Helen. [20]

The heroes of the Iliad are dressed in elaborate and well described armor. They ride to the battle field on a chariot, throw a spear to the enemy formation and then dismount, use their other spear and engage in personal combat. The chariot is the earliest and simplest type of Carriage, used in both peace and war as the chief vehicle of many ancient peoples Telamonian Ajax carried a large tower-shaped shield (σάκος) that was used not only to cover him but also his brother:

Ninth came Teucer, stretching his curved bow. "Aias" redirects here For other uses of this name see AIAS and Ajax.
He stood beneath the shield of Ajax, son of Telamon.
As Ajax cautiously pulled his shield aside,
Teucer would peer out quickly, shoot off an arrow,
hit someone in the crowd, dropping that soldier
right where he stood, ending his life—then he'd duck back,
crouching down by Ajax, like a child beside its mother.
Ajax would then conceal him with his shining shield.
(Iliad 8. 267–272, translated by Ian Johnston)

Ajax's shield was heavy and difficult to carry. It was thus more suited for defence than offence. His cousin Achilles on the other hand had a large round shield that he used along with his famous spear with great success against the Trojans. Round or eight-sided was the shield of the simple soldier. Unlike the heroes they rarely had a breast-plate and relied exclusively on the shield for defence. They would form very dense formations:

Just as a man constructs a wall for some high house,
using well-fitted stones to keep out forceful winds,
that's how close their helmets and bossed shields lined up,
shield pressing against shield, helmet against helmet
man against man. On the bright ridges of the helmets,
horsehair plumes touched when warriors moved their heads.
That's how close they were to one another.
(Iliad 16. 213–7, translated by Ian Johnston)

Once Homer actually calls the formation phalanx though the true phalanx formation appears in the 7th century BC. The phalanx (Ancient Greek φάλαγξ Modern Greek φάλαγγα phālanga (plural phalanxes or phalanges (Ancient and Modern Greek φάλαγγες The 7th century BC started the first day of 700 BC and ended the last day of 601 BC. [21] Was this the way that the true Trojan War was fought? Most scholars do not believe so. [22] The chariot was the main weapon in battles of the time, like the Battle of Kadesh. } The Battle of Kadesh (also Qadesh) took place between the forces of the Egyptian Empire under Ramesses II and the Hittite Empire under There is evidence from the Dendra armor and paintings at the palace of Pylos that the Mycenaeans used two-man chariots, with the principal rider armed with a long spear, unlike the Hittite three-man chariots whose riders were armed with shorter spears or the two-man chariots armed with arrows used by Egyptians and Syrians. Homer is aware of the use of chariots as a main weapon. Nestor places his charioteers in front of the rest of his troop and tells them:

In your eagerness to engage the Trojans,
don't any of you charge ahead of others,
trusting in your strength and horsemanship.
And don't lag behind. That will hurt our charge.
Any man whose chariot confronts an enemy's
should thrust with his spear at him from there.
That's the most effective tactic, the way
men wiped out city strongholds long ago—
their chests full of that style and spirit.

(Iliad 4. 301–309, translated by Ian Johnston)

Mythological Characters in the Iliad

Although gods, goddesses, and demi-gods play a large role in the plot of the Iliad, scholars note that the portrayal of gods by Homer represents a break from the ways in which Greeks actually observed their religion. The gods of the Iliad were crafted to suit the author's needs in telling his story instead of to give an ideal representation of how the Greeks viewed their mythological figures. Herodotus, the classical historian, even went so far as to say that Homer and his contemporary, Hesiod, first named and described the characteristics and appearances of the gods. Herodotus of Halicarnassus ( Greek: Hēródotos Halikarnāsseús) was a Greek Historian who lived in the 5th century BC ( 484 BC&ndash Hesiod ( Greek: Hesiodos) was an early Greek Poet and Rhapsode, who presumably lived around 700 BCE [23]

In her book, Greek Gods: Human Lives, scholar Mary Lefkowitz discusses the relevance of the gods' actions in the Iliad and attempts to answer the question of whether their actions are applicable for their own sakes or if they are merely a metaphorical representation of human characteristics. Mary R Lefkowitz Many classic authors, such as Thucydides and Plato, were only interested in the Homeric characters of gods as "a way of talking about human life rather than a description or a truth. Thucydides ( C 460 BC &ndash C 395 BC) ( Greek Θουκυδίδης Thoukydídēs) was a Greek Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece "[24] She argues that, if one looks at the Greek gods as religious elements rather than metaphors, their existence is what allowed Greeks to be so intellectually open. Without any established dogma or single holy book, Greeks could design gods that fit any description of religion. [25]

The Iliad in subsequent arts and literature

Subjects from the Trojan War were a favourite among ancient Greek dramatists. Aeschylus' trilogy, the Oresteia, comprising Agamemnon, The Libation Bearers, and The Eumenides, follows the story of Agamemnon after his return from the war. Aeschylus (ˈɛskɨləs or /ˈiːskɨləs/ Greek: Ασχύλος, Aischylos, 525 BC/524 BC 456 BC/455 BC was an ancient Greek Playwright

Robert Browning's poem Development discusses his childhood introduction to the matter of the Iliad and his delight in the epic, as well as contemporary debates about its authorship. Robert Browning (7 May 1812 - 12 December 1889 was an English poet and playwright whose mastery of Dramatic verse, especially Dramatic monologues made him one of

William Shakespeare used the plot of the Iliad as a source material for his play Troilus and Cressida, but focused the love story of Troilus, a Trojan prince and a son of Priam, and a Trojan woman Cressida. William Shakespeare ( baptised Troilus and Cressida is a tragedy by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written in 1602 Troilus (also Troilos, Troylus) ( Ancient Greek: Τρωίλος Troïlos Latin: Troilus is a legendary character associated with the story In Greek mythology, Priam ( Greek Πρίαμος Priamos) was the king of Troy during the Trojan War and youngest son For other uses see Cressida (disambiguation. Cressida (also Criseida, Cresseid or Criseyde) is a character The play, often considered to be a comedy, reverses traditional views on events of the Trojan War and depicts Achilles as a coward, Ajax as a dull, unthinking mercenary, etc. In Greek mythology, the Trojan War was waged against the city of Troy by the Achaeans after Paris of Troy stole Helen from her "Achilleus" redirects here For the emperor with this name see Achilleus (emperor. "Aias" redirects here For other uses of this name see AIAS and Ajax.

The 1954 Broadway musical The Golden Apple by librettist John Treville Latouche and composer Jerome Moross was freely adapted from the Iliad and the Odyssey, re-setting the action to America's Washington state in the years after the Spanish-American War, with events inspired by the Iliad in Act One and events inspired by the Odyssey in Act Two. Broadway theater, commonly called simply Broadway, refers to theatrical performances presented in one of the 39 large professional theaters with 500 seats or more located The Golden Apple is a musical adaptation of both the Iliad and Odyssey of Homer, with music by Jerome Moross and lyrics by John Treville John Treville Latouche ( November 13, 1914 in Richmond Virginia – August 7, 1956 in Calais Vermont) was a musician and Jerome Moross ( August 1, 1913 – July 27, 1983) was an American-born composer for the stage and a composer conductor and orchestrator for The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Washington ( is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States.

Christa Wolf's 1983 novel Kassandra is a critical engagement with the stuff of the Iliad. Christa Wolf (born Christa Ihlenfeld on March 18, 1929) is a German Literary critic, Novelist and Essayist Wolf's narrator is Cassandra, whose thoughts we hear at the moment just before her murder by Clytemnestra in Sparta. Wolf's narrator presents a feminist's view of the war, and of war in general. Cassandra's story is accompanied by four essays which Wolf delivered as the Frankfurter Poetik-Vorlesungen. The essays present Wolf's concerns as a writer and rewriter of this canonical story and show the genesis of the novel through Wolf's own readings and in a trip she took to Greece.

A number of comic series have re-told the legend of the Trojan War. The most inclusive may be Age of Bronze, a comprehensive retelling by writer/artist Eric Shanower that incorporates a broad spectrum of literary traditions and archaeological findings. For other uses of the term see Age of Bronze. For comic books from the early-1970s to mid-1980s see Bronze Age of Comic Books Eric James Shanower (b October 23 is an American Comics Artist and Writer, best known for his Oz novels and comics and the on-going retelling Started in 1999, it is projected to number seven volumes.

The Washington D. C. based painter, David Richardson, began a series of paintings in 2002 based on the Iliad and titled The Trojan War Series. Each painting in the series is intended to be a monument to a character in the Iliad and bears a name taken from the poem. As of October 2007, Richardson had completed over eighty paintings in the series and was still not finished with the body of work.

Power metal band Blind Guardian composed a 14 minute song about the Iliad, "And Then There Was Silence", appearing on the 2002 album A Night at the Opera. Power metal is a style of Heavy metal music combining characteristics of traditional metal with Thrash metal or Speed metal, often within Blind Guardian is a German heavy metal band which is often credited as one of the seminal and most influential bands in Power metal and Speed metal " And Then There Was Silence " is a single by the German Power metal band Blind Guardian, released in 2001 A Night at the Opera is a 2002 album by the German Power metal band Blind Guardian.

Power metal band Manowar composed a 28 minute medley "Achilles, Agony and Ecstasy in Eight Parts" in their 1992 album, The Triumph of Steel. Manowar is an American heavy metal band from Auburn New York.

An epic science fiction adaptation/tribute by acclaimed author Dan Simmons titled Ilium was released in 2003. Dan Simmons (born April 4, 1948 in Peoria, Illinois) is an American Author most widely known for his Hugo Award Olympos sequel on for example the true nature of Setebos the voynix or Odysseus' changing The novel received a Locus Award for best science fiction novel of 2003. The Locus Awards were established in 1971 and are presented to winners of Locus Magazine 's annual readers' poll

A loose film adaptation of the Iliad, Troy, was released in 2004, starring Brad Pitt as Achilles, Orlando Bloom as Paris, Eric Bana as Hector, Sean Bean as Odysseus and Brian Cox as Agamemnon. Troy is an epic movie released on May 14, 2004 concerning the Trojan War. William Bradley "Brad" Pitt Pitt received a Golden Globe Award and an Academy Award nomination for his role in the 1995 film Twelve Monkeys Orlando Jonathan Blanchard Bloom (born 13 January 1977) is an English Actor. Eric Bana (born Eric Banadinovich; 9 August 1968 is an Australian Film and Television Actor. Shaun Mark Bean (born 17 April 1959 is an English Film and stage Actor. grc-Latn Odysseus or la Ulysses ( Greek grc-Latn Odysseus; Latin: la Ulixes or more commonly Ulysses) oʊˈdɪsiəs Brian Denis Cox, CBE (born June 1, 1946) is a BAFTA - and Emmy Award -winning Golden Globe -nominated British In Greek mythology, Agamemnon (very resolute / ( ancient Greek:) is a hero, the son of King Atreus of Mycenae It was directed by German-born Wolfgang Petersen. The movie only loosely resembles the Homeric version, with the supernatural elements of the story were deliberately expunged, except for one scene that includes Achilles' sea nymph mother, Thetis (although her supernatural nature is never specifically stated, and she is aged as though human). This article is about the Greek sea nymph Thetis should not be confused with Themis, the embodiment of the laws of nature but see the sea-goddess Tethys.

Though the film received mixed reviews, it was a commercial success, particularly in international sales. It grossed $133 million in the United States and $497 million worldwide, placing it in the 50 top-grossing movies of all time.

S. M. Stirling's Island in the Sea of Time series contains numerous characters who are clearly the "original versions" of those appearing in the Iliad; the twentieth-century characters are quite aware of this and make rather frequent reference to it. Island in the Sea of Time is the first out of the three novels of the Nantucket series by S One, for example, comments that "a big horse ought to be present at the fall of Troy", and another uses the glory that the poem would have brought its protagonists to turn one of them against his master.

Translations into English

The Iliad has been translated into English for centuries. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States George Chapman's 16th century translation was praised by John Keats in his sonnet, On First Looking into Chapman's Homer, and it quickly became a classic of English poetry. George Chapman (c 1559 &ndash May 12 1634) was an English Dramatist, Translator, and Poet. On First Looking into Chapman's Homer is a Sonnet by English Romantic Poet John Keats ( 1795 - 1821 Alexander Pope's translation into rhymed pentameter, published in 1715, is also considered to be a major poetic achievement. Alexander Pope (21 May 1688 – 30 May 1744 is generally regarded as the greatest English Poet of the eighteenth century best known for his Satirical In Poetry, a pentameter is a line of verse consisting of five metrical feet. William Cowper's 1791 version in forceful Miltonic blank verse is highly regarded and is more faithful to the Greek than Chapman or Pope.

In his lectures On Translating Homer Matthew Arnold commented on the problems of translating the Iliad and on the major translations available in 1861. On Translating Homer, published in January 1861 was a printed version of the series of public lectures given by Matthew Arnold as Professor of Poetry Matthew Arnold (24 December 1822 &ndash 15 April 1888 was an English Poet, and Cultural critic who worked as an inspector of schools Arnold identifies four essential qualities of Homer the poet to which the translator must do justice:

that he is eminently rapid; that he is eminently plain and direct both in the evolution of his thought and in the expression of it, that is, both in his syntax and in his words; that he is eminently plain and direct in the substance of his thought, that is, in his matter and ideas; and, finally, that he is eminently noble

After a discussion of the meters employed by previous translators, and in other existing English narrative poetry, he argues the need for a translation of the Iliad in hexameters in a poetic dialect, like the original.

In 1870 the American poet William Cullen Bryant published a version in blank verse that Van Wyck Brooks called "simple, faithful" .

There have been several English translations since 1950. Richmond Lattimore's version is "a free six-beat" line for line rendering that explicitly eschews "poetical dialect" for "the plain English of today"; it is more literal than older verse renderings. Richmond Alexander Lattimore ( May 6, 1906 - February 26, 1984) was an American Poet and Translator known for Robert Fitzgerald strove to situate the Iliad in the musical forms of English poetry and his forceful version is freer; his lines are shorter and this helps to increase the sense of swiftness and energy. Robert Stuart Fitzgerald ( 12 October 1910 – 16 January 1985) was a poet critic and translator whose renderings of the Greek classics "became Some find Lattimore a bit dull and "plodding", considering Fitzgerald's "voice" to be "sometimes a better reflection of the nuances and connotations in the original Greek than Lattimore's". Robert Fagles and Stanley Lombardo are both bolder in adding dramatic significance to conventional and formulaic Homeric language, but Fagles generally follows the original more closely, while Lombardo has chosen an American idiom that is much more colloquial than the other translations and his gritty "steet verse" style has been critcised by some as being out of tune with the diction of the original. Robert Fagles ( September 11, 1933 &ndash March 26, 2008) was an American Professor, poet, and academic Stanley F Lombardo (born 1943 is an American Professor of Classics at the University of Kansas. Rodney Merrill's version employs an accentual dactylic hexameter that "by following the Homeric line in its shape as well as its meter" reproduces Homer's combination of sound and sense more accurately than previous verse translations.

Partial list of English translations

This is a partial list of translations into English of Homer's Iliad. For a more complete list, see English translations of Homer. This is a list of English translations

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Pierre Vidal-Naquet, Le monde d'Homère, Perrin 2000, p19
  2. ^ Iliad IX 410-416
  3. ^ Homer. William Henry Denham (W H D Rouse (1863-1950 was a pioneering British teacher who advocated the use of the Direct Method of teaching Latin and Greek. Emile Victor Rieu (1887&ndash1972 is best known for his lucid translations of Homer, as editor of Penguin Classics, and for a modern translation of the four William G Perry Jr (b 1913 Paris d January 12 1998 was a well-known educational psychologist whose work focused on the development of people during their college years Richmond Alexander Lattimore ( May 6, 1906 - February 26, 1984) was an American Poet and Translator known for Robert Stuart Fitzgerald ( 12 October 1910 – 16 January 1985) was a poet critic and translator whose renderings of the Greek classics "became Martin Hammond was educated at Winchester College and Balliol College, Oxford where he studied Literae Humaniores the Oxford course in Latin and Greek Literature Robert Fagles ( September 11, 1933 &ndash March 26, 2008) was an American Professor, poet, and academic Stanley F Lombardo (born 1943 is an American Professor of Classics at the University of Kansas. An epic is a lengthy Narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation The extent of the historical basis of the Iliad has been debated for some time Greek mythology is the body of stories belonging to the ancient Greeks concerning their gods and Heroes the nature of the world and the origins and significance The Odyssey ( Greek: Ὀδύσσεια or Odússeia) is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. Oral tradition, oral culture and oral lore is a way for a society to transmit history, literature, law and other Knowledges Homer ( Ancient Greek:, Homēros) is a legendary ancient Greek epic Poet, traditionally said to be the author of the epic poems the The Iliad. Trans. Richmond Lattimore. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951.
  4. ^ Homer. The Iliad. Trans. Richmond Lattimore. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951. 1. 13.
  5. ^ Homer. The Iliad. Trans. Richmond Lattimore. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951. 1. 122.
  6. ^ Homer. The Iliad. Trans. Richmond Lattimore. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951. 1. 181-7.
  7. ^ Homer. The Iliad. Trans. Richmond Lattimore. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951. 18. 111-116.
  8. ^ Homer. The Iliad. Trans. Richmond Lattimore. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951. 16. 849-54.
  9. ^ Homer. The Iliad. Trans. Richmond Lattimore. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951. 16. 433-4.
  10. ^ Homer. The Iliad. Trans. Richmond Lattimore. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951. 16. 440-3.
  11. ^ Homer. The Iliad. Trans. Richmond Lattimore. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951. 22. 178-81.
  12. ^ Homer. The Iliad. Trans. Richmond Lattimore. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951. 20. 300-4.
  13. ^ Porter, John. “The Iliad as Oral Formulaic Poetry. ” The Iliad as Oral Formulaic Poetry. 8 May 2006. Events 589 - Reccared summons the Third Council of Toledo 1450 - Jack Cade's Rebellion: Kentishmen Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. University of Saskatchewan. Accessed 26 November 2007. Events 43 BC - The Second Triumvirate alliance of Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus ("Octavian" later "Caesar Augustus" Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
  14. ^ Lord, Albert. The Singer of Tales Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1960. p. 190
  15. ^ Lord, Albert. The Singer of Tales Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1960. p. 195
  16. ^ Iliad XVI 130-154
  17. ^ Armstrong, James I. The Arming Motif in the Iliad. The American Journal of Philology, Vol. 79, No. 4. (1958), pp. 337-354.
  18. ^ Toohey, Peter. Reading Epic: An Introduction to the Ancient Narrative. New Fetter Lane, London: Routledge, 1992.
  19. ^ Iliad 3. 45–50
  20. ^ Iliad 5. 59–65
  21. ^ Iliad 6. 6
  22. ^ Tomas Cahill, Sailing the Wine Dark Sea, Why the Greeks Matter, New York 2003
  23. ^ Homer's Iliad: Classical Technology Center. http://ablemedia.com/ctcweb/netshots/homer.htm
  24. ^ Lefkowitz, Mary. Greek Gods: Human Lives. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003
  25. ^ Oliver Taplin. "Bring Back the Gods. " The New York Times. 14 December 2003. Events 1287 - St Lucia's flood: The Zuider Zee sea wall in the Netherlands collapses killing over 50000 people Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar.

References

External links

Dictionary

Iliad

-noun

  1. A famous ancient Greek epic poem about the Trojan War, attributed to Homer.
  2. Any long tragic story.
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