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Muslim scientist
Ibn al-Haytham depicted in an Iraqi 10,000-dinar note.
Name:	Abū ‘Alī al-Ḥasan ibn al-Ḥasan ibn al-Haytham
Title:	Ibn al-Haytham and Alhacen
Birth:	965
Death:	1039
Ethnicity:	Arab or Persian
Region:	Iraq (Mesopotamia) and Egypt
School tradition:	Shi'a Muslim
Main interests:	Anatomy, Astronomy, Engineering, Mathematics, Mechanics, Medicine, Optics, Ophthalmology, Philosophy, Physics, Psychology, Science
Notable ideas:	Pioneer in optics, scientific method, scientific skepticism, experimental science, experimental physics, experimental psychology, psychophysics, phenomenology, visual perception, analytic geometry, elliptical geometry, hyperbolic geometry, non-Euclidean geometry, non-Ptolemaic astronomy, astrophysics and celestial mechanics
Works:	Book of Optics, Analysis and Synthesis, Balance of Wisdom, Discourse on Place, Doubts Concerning Ptolemy, Maqala fi'l-qarastun, On the Configuration of the World, Opuscula, The Model of the Motions, The Resolution of Doubts, Treatise on Light, Treatise on Place
Influences:	Aristotle, Euclid, Ptolemy, Galen, Muhammad, Banū Mūsā, Thabit ibn Qurra, al-Kindi, Ibn Sahl, Abū Sahl al-Qūhī
Influenced:	Khayyam, al-Khazini, Sharaf al-Dīn al-Tūsī, Urdi, Tusi, Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi, Farisi, Ibn al-Shatir, Roger Bacon, Peckham, Witelo, Gersonides, Alfonso, da Vinci, Cardano, Francis Bacon, Fermat, Kepler, Willebrord Snellius, Descartes, Christiaan Huygens, James Gregory, Guillaume de l'Hôpital, Isaac Barrow, John Wallis, Isaac Newton, Saccheri

Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥasan ibn al-Ḥasan ibn al-Haytham or Ali, hasan poore hasan poore heysam (Arabic: and Persian: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم‎ Latinized: Alhacen or (deprecated) Alhazen) (965 – 1039), was an Arab^{[1][2][3][4][5]} or Persian^[6][7][8] Muslim polymath^[9][10] who made significant contributions to the principles of optics, as well as to anatomy, astronomy, engineering, mathematics, medicine, ophthalmology, philosophy, physics, psychology, visual perception, and to science in general with his introduction of the scientific method. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding layout and formatting it should ensure no clashes with the top of the infobox For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Anatomy (from the Greek anatomia, from ana separate apart from and temnein, to cut up cut open is a branch of Biology that is the consideration Mechanics ( Greek) is the branch of Physics concerned with the behaviour of physical bodies when subjected to Forces or displacements Ophthalmology was one of the foremost branches in medieval Islamic medicine. Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar Physics (Greek Physis - φύσις in everyday terms is the Science of Matter and its motion. Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena Scientific skepticism or rational skepticism ( also spelled scepticism) sometimes referred to as skeptical inquiry, is a scientific or practical In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or Within the field of Physics, experimental physics is the category of disciplines and sub-disciplines concerned with the Observation of physical Phenomena Experimental psychology approaches Psychology as one of the natural sciences investigates it using the experimental method. Psychophysics is a subdiscipline of Psychology dealing with the relationship between physical stimuli and their subjective correlates or Percepts In Psychology, visual perception is the ability to interpret information from Visible light reaching the Eyes The resulting Perception is also Analytic geometry, also called coordinate geometry and earlier referred to as Cartesian geometry or analytical geometry, is the study of Geometry Elliptic geometry (sometimes known as Riemannian geometry) is a Non-Euclidean geometry, in which given a line L and a point In In mathematics non-Euclidean geometry describes how this all works--> hyperbolic and Elliptic geometry, which are contrasted with Euclidean geometry In Astronomy, the geocentric model of the Universe is the superseded theory that the Earth is the center of the universe and other Astrophysics is the branch of Astronomy that deals with the Physics of the Universe, including the physical properties ( Luminosity, Celestial mechanics is the branch of Astrophysics that deals with the motions of Celestial objects The field applies principles of Physics, historically The Book of Optics ( Arabic: Kitab al-Manazir, Latin: De Aspectibus or Opticae Thesaurus Alhazeni Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Euclid ( Greek:.) fl 300 BC also known as Euclid of Alexandria, is often referred to as the Father of Geometry Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or IMPORTANT PLEASE READ ##### For all questions relating to the addition of (pbuh peace be upon him or other honorifics The Banū Mūsā brothers (بنو موسى "Sons of Mūsā" were three 9th century Persian Scholars of Baghdad, active in the House (836 in Harran, Mesopotamia &ndash February 18, 901 in Baghdad) was an Arab astronomer, mathematician ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c This article is about the physicist For the physician see Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari. (sometimes) was a Persian mathematician, physicist and astronomer. For the Thoroughbred racehorse see Omar Khayyam (horse Ghiyās od-Dīn Abol-Fath Omār ibn Ebrāhīm Khayyām Neyshābūri (غیاث الدین Abd al-Rahman al-Khazini ( عبدالرحمن الخزيني) (flourished 1115–1130 was a Muslim scientist, physicist, astronomer, biologist (1135 - 1213 was a Persian mathematician and astronomer of the Islamic Golden Age (during the Middle Ages) Mu’ayyad al-Din al-’Urdi (d 1266 was an Arab Muslim astronomer, mathematician, architect and engineer working at the Maragheh TemplateInfobox Persian scholars --> Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi (1236 &ndash 1311 (قطب‌الدین شیرازی was a 13th Kamal al-Din Abu'l-Hasan Muhammad Al-Farisi (1267-ca1319/1320 (كمال‌الدين ابوالحسن محمد فارسی was a prominent Persian Muslim physicist Ala Al-Din Abu'l-Hasan Ali Ibn Ibrahim Ibn al-Shatir (1304 &ndash 1375 (ابن الشاطر was an Arab Muslim astronomer, mathematician, engineer For the Nova Scotia premier see Roger Bacon (politician. Roger Bacon, O John Peckham or Pecham (circa 1230&ndash8 December 1292 was Archbishop of Canterbury in the years 1279&ndash1292 Witelo - also known as Erazmus Ciolek Witelo, Witelon, Vitellio, Vitello, Vitello Thuringopolonis, Vitulon, Erazm Levi ben Gershom ( לוי בן גרשום) better known as Gersonides or the Ralbag (1288-1344 was a famous Rabbi, philosopher Mathematician Alfonso ( Italian and Spanish) Alfons ( Catalan and German) Afonso ( Portuguese Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci ( April 15 1452 – May 2 1519 was an Italian Polymath, having been a scientist Mathematician, Engineer Francis Bacon 1st Viscount St Alban KC QC (22 January 1561 – 9 April 1626 was an English Philosopher, Statesman, and author Pierre de Fermat pjɛːʁ dəfɛʁ'ma ( 17 August 1601 or 1607/8 &ndash 12 January 1665) was a French Lawyer at the Johannes Kepler (ˈkɛplɚ ( December 27 1571 &ndash November 15 1630) was a German Mathematician, Astronomer “Snellius” redirects here For the lunar crater named Snellius see Snellius (crater. Christiaan Huygens (ˈhaɪgənz in English ˈhœyɣəns in Dutch) ( April 14, 1629 &ndash July 8, 1695) was a Dutch James Gregory may refer to James Gregory (writer (?-2003 South African prison guard author of Goodbye Bafana James Gregory (astronomer Guillaume François Antoine Marquis de l'Hôpital (1661 &ndash February 2, 1704) was a French Mathematician. Isaac Barrow (October 1630 &ndash May 4, 1677) was an English scholar and Mathematician who is generally given credit for his early role John Wallis ( November 23, 1616 - October 28, 1703) was an English mathematician who is given partial credit for the Sir Isaac Newton, FRS (ˈnjuːtən 4 January 1643 31 March 1727) Biography Early years See also Isaac Newton's early life and achievements Giovanni Girolamo Saccheri ( September 5, 1667 - October 25, 1733) was an Italian Jesuit priest and mathematician Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding layout and formatting it should ensure no clashes with the top of the infobox A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion A polymath ( Greek polymathēs, πολυμαθής "having learned much" is a person whose knowledge is not restricted to one subject area Anatomy (from the Greek anatomia, from ana separate apart from and temnein, to cut up cut open is a branch of Biology that is the consideration Ophthalmology was one of the foremost branches in medieval Islamic medicine. Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar Physics (Greek Physis - φύσις in everyday terms is the Science of Matter and its motion. In Psychology, visual perception is the ability to interpret information from Visible light reaching the Eyes The resulting Perception is also Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena He is sometimes called al-Basri (Arabic: البصري), after his birthplace in the city of Basra, Iraq then ruled by the Buyid dynasty of Persia. Basra ( BGN: AlBasrah also called Basorah Abillah and Uruk or IRAQ The name that British colony has adopted for Basra For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. The Buyids (آل بویه Āl-e Buye, Caspian: Bowyiyün also known as Buwaihids or Buyyids, were a Shī‘ah Iranian The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia ^[11]

Ibn al-Haytham is regarded as the father of optics for his influential Book of Optics, which correctly explained and proved the modern intromission theory of vision, and for his experiments on optics, including experiments on lenses, mirrors, refraction, reflection, and the dispersion of light into its constituent colours. The Book of Optics ( Arabic: Kitab al-Manazir, Latin: De Aspectibus or Opticae Thesaurus Alhazeni In Psychology, visual perception is the ability to interpret information from Visible light reaching the Eyes The resulting Perception is also In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or A lens is an optical device with perfect or approximate Axial symmetry which transmits and refracts Light, converging or diverging A mirror is an object with a surface that has good Specular reflection; that is it is smooth enough to form an Image. Refraction is the change in direction of a Wave due to a change in its Speed. Reflection is the change in direction of a Wave front at an interface between two different media so that the wave front returns into the medium from which Light, or visible light, is Electromagnetic radiation of a Wavelength that is visible to the Human eye (about 400–700 ^[12] He studied binocular vision and the moon illusion, speculated on the finite speed and rectilinear propagation of light,^[13] and argued for the corpuscular theory. Binocular vision is vision in which both Eyes are used together The Moon illusion is an Optical illusion in which the Moon appears larger near the Horizon than it does while higher up in the Sky. Rectilinear propagation is a Wave property which states that waves propagate (move or spread out in straight In Optics, the corpuscular theory of light, set forward by Sir Isaac Newton, says that light is made up of small discrete particles called "corpuscles" (little Due to his formulation of a modern quantitative, empirical and experimental approach to physics and science, he is considered the pioneer of the modern scientific method^[14][15] and the originator of experimental science^[16] and experimental physics,^[17] and some have described him as the "first scientist" for these reasons. A quantitative attribute is one that exists in a range of magnitudes and can therefore be measured. In Philosophy, empiricism is a theory of Knowledge which asserts that knowledge arises from Experience. In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or Physics (Greek Physis - φύσις in everyday terms is the Science of Matter and its motion. Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or Within the field of Physics, experimental physics is the category of disciplines and sub-disciplines concerned with the Observation of physical Phenomena A scientist, in the broadest sense refers to any person that engages in a systematic activity to acquire Knowledge or an individual that engages in such practices ^[18] He is also considered by some to be the founder of experimental psychology^[19] for his experimental approach to the psychology of visual perception and optical illusions,^[20] and a pioneer of the philosophical field of phenomenology. Experimental psychology approaches Psychology as one of the natural sciences investigates it using the experimental method. Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and In Psychology, visual perception is the ability to interpret information from Visible light reaching the Eyes The resulting Perception is also This article is about visual perception See Optical Illusion (Album for information about the Time Requiem album His Book of Optics has been ranked alongside Isaac Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica as one of the most influential books in the history of physics,^[21] for initiating a revolution in optics^[22] and visual perception. Sir Isaac Newton, FRS (ˈnjuːtən 4 January 1643 31 March 1727) Biography Early years See also Isaac Newton's early life and achievements The Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ( Latin: "mathematical principles of natural philosophy" often Principia The modern discipline of Physics emerged in the 17th century following in traditions of inquiry established by Galileo Galilei, René Descartes, Isaac The period which many historians of science call the Scientific Revolution can be roughly dated as having begun in 1543 the year in which Nicolaus Copernicus published In Psychology, visual perception is the ability to interpret information from Visible light reaching the Eyes The resulting Perception is also ^[23]

Among his other achievements, Ibn al-Haytham gave the first clear description^[24] and correct analysis^[25] of the camera obscura, discovered Fermat's principle of least time, and early ideas relating to inertia,^[26] discovered the concept of momentum (part of Newton's second law of motion),^[27] described the attraction between masses and was aware of the magnitude of acceleration due to gravity at a distance,^[28] discovered that the heavenly bodies were accountable to the laws of physics, presented a critique and reform of Ptolemaic astronomy, first stated Wilson's theorem in number theory, formulated and solved Alhazen's problem geometrically using early ideas related to calculus and mathematical induction,^[29] and in his optical research laid the foundations for the later development of telescopic astronomy,^[30] as well as for the microscope and the use of optical aids in Renaissance art. The camera obscura (Latin dark chamber) is an optical device used for example in drawing or for entertainment In Optics, Fermat's principle or the principle of least time is the idea that the path taken between two points by a ray of light is the path that can be The vis insita or innate force of matter is a power of resisting by which every body as much as in it lies endeavors to preserve in its present state whether it be of rest or of moving In Classical mechanics, momentum ( pl momenta SI unit kg · m/s, or equivalently N · s) is the product Newton's laws of motion are three Physical laws which provide relationships between the Forces acting on a body and the motion of the Gravitation is a natural Phenomenon by which objects with Mass attract one another Mass is a fundamental concept in Physics, roughly corresponding to the Intuitive idea of how much Matter there is in an object The magnitude of a mathematical object is its size a property by which it can be larger or smaller than other objects of the same kind in technical terms an Ordering Gravitation is a natural Phenomenon by which objects with Mass attract one another In Physics, action at a distance is the Interaction of two objects which are separated in Space with no known mediator of the interaction s are significant physical entities, associations or structures which current Science has confirmed to exist in Space. A physical law or scientific law is a Scientific generalization based on empirical Observations of physical behavior (i In Astronomy, the geocentric model of the Universe is the superseded theory that the Earth is the center of the universe and other In Mathematics, Wilson's theorem states that p > 1 is a Prime number If and only if (p-1!\ \equiv\ -1\ (\mbox{mod}\ p Number theory is the branch of Pure mathematics concerned with the properties of Numbers in general and Integers in particular as well as the wider classes The Book of Optics ( Arabic: Kitab al-Manazir, Latin: De Aspectibus or Opticae Thesaurus Alhazeni Calculus ( Latin, calculus, a small stone used for counting is a branch of Mathematics that includes the study of limits, Derivatives Mathematical induction is a method of Mathematical proof typically used to establish that a given statement is true of all Natural numbers It is done by proving that A telescope is an instrument designed for the observation of remote objects and the collection of Electromagnetic radiation. A microscope ( Greek: ( micron) = small + ( skopein) = to look or see is an instrument for viewing objects that are The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere Art refers to a diverse range of Human activities creations and expressions that are appealing to the Senses or Emotions of a human individual ^[31]

Overview

Biography

Abū ‘Alī al-Hasan ibn al-Hasan ibn al-Haytham was born in Basra, Iraq, then under the rule of the Buyid dynasty of Persia,^[11] and he probably died in Cairo, Egypt. Basra ( BGN: AlBasrah also called Basorah Abillah and Uruk or IRAQ The name that British colony has adopted for Basra For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. The Buyids (آل بویه Āl-e Buye, Caspian: Bowyiyün also known as Buwaihids or Buyyids, were a Shī‘ah Iranian The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Cairo () which means "the Vanquisher" or "the Triumphant" is the capital and largest city of Egypt. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. ^[32] Known in the West as Alhacen or Alhazen, Ibn al-Haytham was born in 965 in Basra, and was educated there and in Baghdad. Basra ( BGN: AlBasrah also called Basorah Abillah and Uruk or IRAQ The name that British colony has adopted for Basra Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous

One account of his career has him summoned to Egypt by the mercurial caliph Hakim to regulate the flooding of the Nile. The Caliph is the Head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah Tāriqu l-Ḥākim, called bi Amr al-Lāh ( Arabic: الحاكم بأمر الله; literally "Ruler by God's Command" was the sixth Fatimid A flood is an overflow of an expanse of water that submerges land a deluge The Nile (النيل, Ancient Egyptian iteru or Ḥ'pī, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing River After his field work made him aware of the impracticality of this scheme, and fearing the caliph's anger, he feigned madness. Feigned madness a term used in popular culture to describe the assumption of a mental condition or illness by a person for purposes of evasion or deceit He was kept under house arrest until Hakim's death in 1021. In Justice and Law, house arrest (also called home confinement, home detention, or electronic monitoring) is a measure by which During this time, he wrote his influential Book of Optics and scores of other important treatises on physics and mathematics. The Book of Optics ( Arabic: Kitab al-Manazir, Latin: De Aspectibus or Opticae Thesaurus Alhazeni Physics (Greek Physis - φύσις in everyday terms is the Science of Matter and its motion. Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and He later traveled to Spain and, during this period, he had ample time for his scientific pursuits, which included optics, mathematics, physics, medicine, and the development of scientific methods — on all of which he has left several outstanding books. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the

Works

Ibn al-Haytham was a pioneer in optics, astronomy, engineering, mathematics, physics, and psychology. Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and His optical writings influenced many Western intellectuals such as Roger Bacon, John Pecham, Witelo, Johannes Kepler. For the Nova Scotia premier see Roger Bacon (politician. Roger Bacon, O John Peckham or Pecham (circa 1230&ndash8 December 1292 was Archbishop of Canterbury in the years 1279&ndash1292 Witelo - also known as Erazmus Ciolek Witelo, Witelon, Vitellio, Vitello, Vitello Thuringopolonis, Vitulon, Erazm Johannes Kepler (ˈkɛplɚ ( December 27 1571 &ndash November 15 1630) was a German Mathematician, Astronomer ^[33] His pioneering work on number theory, analytic geometry, and the link between algebra and geometry, also had an influence on René Descartes's geometric analysis and Isaac Newton's calculus. Number theory is the branch of Pure mathematics concerned with the properties of Numbers in general and Integers in particular as well as the wider classes Analytic geometry, also called coordinate geometry and earlier referred to as Cartesian geometry or analytical geometry, is the study of Geometry Algebra is a branch of Mathematics concerning the study of structure, relation, and Quantity. Geometry ( Greek γεωμετρία; geo = earth metria = measure is a part of Mathematics concerned with questions of size shape and relative position Geometric analysis is a mathematical discipline at the interface of Differential geometry and Differential equations. Sir Isaac Newton, FRS (ˈnjuːtən 4 January 1643 31 March 1727) Biography Early years See also Isaac Newton's early life and achievements Calculus ( Latin, calculus, a small stone used for counting is a branch of Mathematics that includes the study of limits, Derivatives ^[34]

According to medieval biographers, Ibn al-Haytham wrote more than 200 works on a wide range of subjects,^[35] of which at least 96 of his scientific works are known. Most of his works are now lost, but more than 50 of them have survived to some extent. Nearly half of his surviving works are on mathematics, 23 of them are on astronomy, and 14 of them are on optics, with a few on other areas of science. ^[36] Not all of his surviving works have yet been studied, but some of his most important ones are described below. These include:

• Book of Optics (1021)
• Analysis and Synthesis
• Balance of Wisdom
• Discourse on Place
• Maqala fi'l-qarastun
• Doubts Concerning Ptolemy (1028)
• On the Configuration of the World
• Opuscula
• The Model of the Motions of Each of the Seven Planets (1038)
• The Resolution of Doubts
• Treatise on Light
• Treatise on Place

Legacy

Ibn al-Haytham was one of the most eminent physicists, whose developments in optics and the scientific method were particularly outstanding. The Book of Optics ( Arabic: Kitab al-Manazir, Latin: De Aspectibus or Opticae Thesaurus Alhazeni A physicist is a Scientist who studies or practices Physics. Physicists study a wide range of physical phenomena in many branches of physics spanning Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena Ibn al-Haytham's work on optics is credited with contributing a new emphasis on experiment. In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or His influence on physical sciences in general, and on optics in particular, has been held in high esteem and, in fact, ushered in a new era in optical research, both in theory and practice. Physical science is an encompassing term for the branches of Natural science and Science that study non-living systems in contrast to the biological sciences ^[12] The scientific method is considered to be so fundamental to modern science that some — especially philosophers of science and practicing scientists — consider earlier inquiries into nature to be pre-scientific. Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Philosophy of science is the study of assumptions foundations and implications of Science. ^[37]

Due to its importance in the history of science, some have considered his development of the scientific method to be the most important scientific development of the second millennium. Science is a body of empirical, theoretical, and practical knowledge about the natural world, produced by a global community of researchers The second millennium is a period of time that commenced on January 1, 1001, and ended on December 31, 2000. ^[31] Nobel Prize winning physicist Abdus Salam considered Ibn-al-Haitham "one of the greatest physicists of all time. The Nobel Prize (Nobelpriset (Nobelprisen is a Swedish prize established in the 1895 will of Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel; it was first awarded in Peace, Literature Abdus Salam ( Urdu: محمد عبد السلام) ( January 29, 1926; Jhang Punjab &ndash November 21, "^[26] George Sarton, the father of the history of science, wrote that "Ibn Haytham's writings reveal his fine development of the experimental faculty" and considered him "not only the greatest Muslim physicist, but by all means the greatest of mediaeval times. George Alfred Leon Sarton (1884-1956 was a Belgian -American Polymath, historian of science, and father of the writer May Sarton. "^[38][39] Robert S. Elliot considered Ibn al-Haytham to be "one of the ablest students of optics of all times. "^[40] The Biographical Dictionary of Scientists wrote that Ibn al-Haytham was "probably the greatest scientist of the Middle Ages" and that "his work remained unsurpassed for nearly 600 years until the time of Johannes Kepler. "^[41]

The Latin translation of his main work, Kitab al-Manazir, exerted a great influence upon Western science: for example, on the work of Roger Bacon, who cites him by name,^[42] and on Kepler. For the Nova Scotia premier see Roger Bacon (politician. Roger Bacon, O Johannes Kepler (ˈkɛplɚ ( December 27 1571 &ndash November 15 1630) was a German Mathematician, Astronomer It brought about a great progress in experimental methods. In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or His research in catoptrics centered on spherical and parabolic mirrors and spherical aberration. Catoptrics deals with the phenomena of reflected light and image-forming optical systems using Mirrors From the Greek κατοπτρικός (specular In Mathematics, the parabola (pəˈræbələ from the Greek παραβολή) is a Conic section, the intersection of a right circular spherical-aberration-diskjpg|thumb|300 px|left|A Point source as imaged by a system with negative (top zero (center and positive (bottom spherical aberration He made the important observation that the ratio between the angle of incidence and refraction does not remain constant, and investigated the magnifying power of a lens. Angle of incidence is a measure of deviation of something from "straight on" for example in the approach of a ray to a surface or the angle Refraction is the change in direction of a Wave due to a change in its Speed. Magnification is the process of enlarging something only in appearance not in physical size A lens is an optical device with perfect or approximate Axial symmetry which transmits and refracts Light, converging or diverging His work on catoptrics also contains the important problem known as Alhazen's problem.

The list of his books runs to 200 or so, yet very few of the books have survived. Even his monumental treatise on optics survived only through its Latin translation. During the Middle Ages his books on cosmology were translated into Latin, Hebrew and other languages. Cosmology (from Greek grc κοσμολογία - grc κόσμος kosmos, "universe" and grc -λογία -logia) is study

The Alhazen crater on the Moon was named in his honour. Alhazen is a lunar Impact crater that lies near the eastern limb of the Moon 's near side Ibn al-Haytham is also featured on the obverse of the Iraqi 10,000 dinars banknote issued in 2003. The asteroid "59239 Alhazen" was also named in his honour, while Iran's largest laser research facility, located in the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran headquarters in Tehran, is named after him as well. Asteroids, sometimes called Minor planets or planetoids', are bodies—primarily of the inner Solar System —that are smaller than planets but 59239 Alhazen (1999 CR2 is a Main-belt Asteroid discovered on February 7, 1999 by S For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. The Atomic Energy Organization of Iran (AEOI is the main official body responsible for implementing regulations and operating Nuclear energy installations in Iran Tehran (or Teheran) ( Persian: تهران Tehrān) is the capital and largest City of Iran, and the administrative center of

Book of Optics

Main article: Book of Optics

Ibn al-Haytham's most famous work is his seven volume treatise on optics, Kitab al-Manazir (Book of Optics) (written from 1011 to 1021),^[43] which has been ranked alongside Isaac Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica as one of the most influential books in physics,^[21] for introducing an early scientific method and for initiating a revolution in optics^[22] and visual perception. The Book of Optics ( Arabic: Kitab al-Manazir, Latin: De Aspectibus or Opticae Thesaurus Alhazeni Sir Isaac Newton, FRS (ˈnjuːtən 4 January 1643 31 March 1727) Biography Early years See also Isaac Newton's early life and achievements The Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ( Latin: "mathematical principles of natural philosophy" often Principia Physics (Greek Physis - φύσις in everyday terms is the Science of Matter and its motion. Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena The period which many historians of science call the Scientific Revolution can be roughly dated as having begun in 1543 the year in which Nicolaus Copernicus published In Psychology, visual perception is the ability to interpret information from Visible light reaching the Eyes The resulting Perception is also ^[23]

Optics was translated into Latin by an unknown scholar at the end of the 12th century or the beginning of the 13th century. The Renaissance of the 12th century saw a major search by European scholars for new learning which led them to the Arabic fringes of Europe especially to Islamic ^[44] It was printed by Friedrich Risner in 1572, with the title Opticae thesaurus: Alhazeni Arabis libri septem, nuncprimum editi; Eiusdem liber De Crepusculis et nubium ascensionibus. Friedrich Risner (died 1580 was a German mathematician from Hersfeld, Hesse. ^[45] Risner is also the author of the name variant "Alhazen"; before Risner he was known in the west as Alhacen, which is the correct transcription of the Arabic name. ^[46] This work enjoyed a great reputation during the Middle Ages. Works by Alhacen on geometrical subjects were discovered in the Bibliothèque nationale in Paris in 1834 by E. Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city A. Sedillot. Other manuscripts are preserved in the Bodleian Library at Oxford and in the library of Leiden. The Bodleian Library ( the main Research library of the University of Oxford, is one of the oldest libraries in Europe, and in England Oxford is currently bidding for the 2010 Wikimania Conference Oxford () is a city, and the County town of Oxfordshire, "Leyden" redirects here For other uses see Leyden (disambiguation. Ibn al-Haytham's optical studies were influential in a number of later developments, including the telescope, which laid the foundations of telescopic astronomy,^[30] as well as of the modern camera, the microscope, and the use of optical aids in Renaissance art. A telescope is an instrument designed for the observation of remote objects and the collection of Electromagnetic radiation. A camera is a device used to capture images either as still Photographs or as sequences of moving images ( Movies or Videos. A microscope ( Greek: ( micron) = small + ( skopein) = to look or see is an instrument for viewing objects that are The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere Art refers to a diverse range of Human activities creations and expressions that are appealing to the Senses or Emotions of a human individual ^[31]

Optics

In classical antiquity, there were two major theories on vision. Classical antiquity (also the classical era or classical period) is a broad term for a long period of cultural History centered on the Mediterranean The first theory, the emission theory, was supported by such thinkers as Euclid and Ptolemy, who believed that sight worked by the eye emitting rays of light. Emission theory or extramission theory is the proposal that Visual perception is accomplished by rays of Light emitted by the Eyes This Euclid ( Greek:.) fl 300 BC also known as Euclid of Alexandria, is often referred to as the Father of Geometry Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca In Optics, a ray is an idealized narrow Beam of light. Rays are used to model the propagation of Light through an optical system by dividing the real light Light, or visible light, is Electromagnetic radiation of a Wavelength that is visible to the Human eye (about 400–700 The second theory, the intromission theory, supported by Aristotle and his followers, had physical forms entering the eye from an object. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Ibn al-Haytham argued on the basis of common observations (such as the eye being dazzled or even injured if we look at a very bright light) and logical arguments (such as how a ray could proceeding from the eyes reach the distant stars the instant after we open our eye) to maintain that we cannot see by rays being emitted from the eye, nor through physical forms entering the eye. He instead developed a highly successful theory which explained the process of vision as rays of light proceeding to the eye from each point on an object, which he proved through the use of experimentation. In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or ^[47]

Ibn al-Haytham proved that rays of light travel in straight lines, and carried out a number of experiments with lenses, mirrors, refraction, and reflection. A lens is an optical device with perfect or approximate Axial symmetry which transmits and refracts Light, converging or diverging A mirror is an object with a surface that has good Specular reflection; that is it is smooth enough to form an Image. Refraction is the change in direction of a Wave due to a change in its Speed. Reflection is the change in direction of a Wave front at an interface between two different media so that the wave front returns into the medium from which ^[12] He was also the first to reduce reflected and refracted light rays into vertical and horizontal components, which was a fundamental development in geometric optics. ^[48] He also discovered a result similar to Snell's law of sines, but did not quantify it and derive the law mathematically. In Optics and Physics, Snell's law (also known as Descartes' law or the law of refraction) is a formula used to describe the relationship ^[49] Ibn al-Haytham also gave the first clear description^[24] and correct analysis^[25] of the camera obscura, though the underlying principles of the camera oscura or pinhole camera were earlier known to Mozi and Aristotle. The camera obscura (Latin dark chamber) is an optical device used for example in drawing or for entertainment A' pinhole camera' is a very simple Camera with no lens and a single very small Aperture. Mozi ( Lat as Micius, ca 470 BCE&ndashca 391 BCE was a Philosopher who lived in China during the Hundred Schools of Thought Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. ^[24]

Scientific method

Rosanna Gorini notes that "according to the majority of the historians al-Haytham was the pioneer of the modern scientific method. Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena "^[14][50] Ibn al-Haytham developed rigorous experimental methods of controlled scientific testing in order to verify theoretical hypotheses and substantiate inductive conjectures. In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or A test method is a definitive procedure that produces a test result A hypothesis (from Greek) consists either of a suggested explanation for a phenomenon (an event that is observable or of a reasoned proposal suggesting a possible Induction or inductive reasoning, sometimes called inductive logic, is the process of Reasoning in which the premises of an argument are believed In Mathematics, a conjecture is a Mathematical statement which appears resourceful but has not been formally proven to be true under the rules of ^[28] Ibn al-Haytham's scientific method was very similar to the modern scientific method and consisted of the following procedures:^[35]

1. Observation
2. Statement of problem
3. Formulation of hypothesis
4. Testing of hypothesis using experimentation
5. Analysis of experimental results
6. Interpretation of data and formulation of conclusion
7. Publication of findings

Alhazen's problem

His work on catoptrics in Book V of the Book of Optics contains the important problem known as Alhazen's problem. Observation is either an activity of a living being (such as a Human) which senses and assimilates the Knowledge of a Phenomenon, or the recording of data A problem is an obstacle which makes it difficult to achieve a desired goal objective or purpose A hypothesis (from Greek) consists either of a suggested explanation for a phenomenon (an event that is observable or of a reasoned proposal suggesting a possible In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or A result is the final consequence of a Sequence of actions or events (broadly incidents and accidents expressed qualitatively or quantitatively being a loss injury disadvantage Debt AIDS Trade in Africa (or DATA) is a Multinational non-government organization founded in January 2002 in London by U2 's A conclusion is a Proposition, which is arrived at after the consideration of Evidence, Arguments or Premises Logic To publish is to make content Publicly known. The term is most frequently applied to the distribution of text or images on paper or to the placing of content Catoptrics deals with the phenomena of reflected light and image-forming optical systems using Mirrors From the Greek κατοπτρικός (specular It comprises drawing lines from two points in the plane of a circle meeting at a point on the circumference and making equal angles with the normal at that point. The circumference is the distance around a closed Curve. Circumference is a kind of Perimeter. This leads to an equation of the fourth degree. In Mathematics, a quartic equation is one which can be expressed as a Quartic function equalling zero This eventually led Ibn al-Haytham to derive the earliest formula for the sum of fourth powers; and by using an early proof by mathematical induction, he developed a method that is readily generalizable to finding the formula for the sum of any integral powers. In Arithmetic and Algebra, the fourth power of a number n is the result of multiplying n by itself four times Mathematical induction is a method of Mathematical proof typically used to establish that a given statement is true of all Natural numbers It is done by proving that The European Space Agency 's INTErnational Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory ( INTEGRAL) is detecting some of the most energetic radiation that comes from space This was fundamental to the development of infinitesimal and integral calculus. Infinitesimals (from a 17th century Modern Latin coinage infinitesimus, originally referring to the " Infinite[[ th]]" member of a series have The European Space Agency 's INTErnational Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory ( INTEGRAL) is detecting some of the most energetic radiation that comes from space Calculus ( Latin, calculus, a small stone used for counting is a branch of Mathematics that includes the study of limits, Derivatives ^[29] Ibn al-Haytham eventually solved the problem using conic sections and a geometric proof, though many after him attempted to find an algebraic solution to the problem,^[3] until the end of the 20th century. In Mathematics, a conic section (or just conic) is a Curve obtained by intersecting a cone (more precisely a circular Conical surface ^[20]

Hockney-Falco thesis

Main article: Hockney-Falco thesis

At a scientific conference in February 2007, Charles M. Falco argued that Ibn al-Haytham's work on optics may have influenced the use of optical aids by Renaissance artists. The Hockney-Falco thesis is a controversial theory of Art history, advanced by artist David Hockney and physicist Charles M Charles M Falco (born August 17 1948 is an American experimental Physicist and an expert on the magnetic and optical properties of thin film materials The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere Art refers to a diverse range of Human activities creations and expressions that are appealing to the Senses or Emotions of a human individual Falco said that his and David Hockney's examples of Renaissance art "demonstrate a continuum in the use of optics by artists from circa 1430, arguably initiated as a result of Ibn al-Haytham's influence, until today. David Hockney, CH, RA, (born 9 July 1937 is an English Artist, based in Los Angeles California, United States "^[51]

Other contributions

Chapters 15–16 of the Book of Optics dealt with astronomy. Ibn al-Haytham was the first to discover that the celestial spheres do not consist of solid matter, and he also discovered that the heavens are less dense than the air. The celestial spheres or celestial orbs were the fundamental celestial entities of the cosmological celestial mechanics first invented by Eudoxus, and developed by Aristotle A solid' object is in the States of matter characterized by resistance to Deformation and changes of Volume. These views were later repeated by Witelo and had a significant influence on the Copernican and Tychonic systems of astronomy. Witelo - also known as Erazmus Ciolek Witelo, Witelon, Vitellio, Vitello, Vitello Thuringopolonis, Vitulon, Erazm See also Nicolaus Copernicus, Heliocentrism Earlier theories See also Heliocentrism Early traces of a Heliocentric model The Tychonic system (or Tychonian system) was a model of the Solar system published by Tycho Brahe in the late 16th century which combined what he saw as ^[52]

Ibn al-Haytham discussed the topics of medicine, ophthalmology and eye surgery in the anatomical and physiological portions of the Book of Optics and in his commentaries on Galenic works. Ophthalmology was one of the foremost branches in medieval Islamic medicine. Eye surgery, also known as orogolomistician surgery or ocular surgery, is Surgery performed on the Eye or its Adnexa, typically by Anatomy (from the Greek anatomia, from ana separate apart from and temnein, to cut up cut open is a branch of Biology that is the consideration Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical The Book of Optics ( Arabic: Kitab al-Manazir, Latin: De Aspectibus or Opticae Thesaurus Alhazeni Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or ^[53] He also made several improvements to eye surgery and described the process of sight. Eye surgery, also known as orogolomistician surgery or ocular surgery, is Surgery performed on the Eye or its Adnexa, typically by ^[54]

In philosophy, Ibn al-Haytham is considered a pioneer of phenomenology. Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar He articulated a relationship between the physical and observable world and that of intuition, psychology and mental functions. In philosophy the World is everything that makes up Reality. While clarifying the Concept of world has arguably always been among the basic tasks of Western Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and Mental functions and cognitive Processes are terms often used interchangeably (although not always correctly so the term cognitive tends to have specific His theories regarding knowledge and perception, linking the domains of science and religion, led to a philosophy of existence based on the direct observation of reality from the observer's point of view. Knowledge is defined ( Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (i expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education the theoretical or practical understanding In Psychology and the Cognitive sciences perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory Information. In common usage existence is the world of which we are aware through our senses but in Philosophy the word has a more specialized meaning and is often contrasted with Reality, in everyday usage means "the state of things as they actually exist" ^[55]

In Islamic psychology, Ibn al-Haytham is considered the founder of experimental psychology,^[19] for his pioneering work on the psychology of visual perception and optical illusions. Experimental psychology approaches Psychology as one of the natural sciences investigates it using the experimental method. Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and In Psychology, visual perception is the ability to interpret information from Visible light reaching the Eyes The resulting Perception is also This article is about visual perception See Optical Illusion (Album for information about the Time Requiem album ^[20] In the Book of Optics, Ibn al-Haytham was the first scientist to argue that vision occurs in the brain, rather than the eyes. The Book of Optics ( Arabic: Kitab al-Manazir, Latin: De Aspectibus or Opticae Thesaurus Alhazeni He pointed out that personal experience has an effect on what people see and how they see, and that vision and perception are subjective. ^[20]

Other works on physics

Optical treatises

Besides the Book of Optics, Ibn al-Haytham wrote a number of other treatises on optics. His Risala fi l-Daw’ (Treatise on Light) is a supplement to his Kitab al-Manazir (Book of Optics). The text contained further investigations on the properties of luminance and its radiant dispersion through various transparent and translucent media. Luminance is a photometric measure of the density of Luminous intensity in a given direction Radiance and spectral radiance are radiometric measures that describe the amount of light that passes through or is emitted from a particular area and falls In Optics, transparency (also called pellucidity) is the Material property of allowing He also carried out further observations, investigations and examinations on the anatomy of the eye, the camera obscura and pinhole camera, illusions in visual perception, the meteorology of the rainbow and the density of the atmosphere, various celestial phenomena (including the eclipse, twilight, and moonlight), refraction, catoptrics, dioptrics, spherical and parabolic mirrors, and magnifying lenses. Anatomy (from the Greek anatomia, from ana separate apart from and temnein, to cut up cut open is a branch of Biology that is the consideration Eyes are organs that detect Light, and send signals along the Optic nerve to the visual areas of the brain The camera obscura (Latin dark chamber) is an optical device used for example in drawing or for entertainment A' pinhole camera' is a very simple Camera with no lens and a single very small Aperture. This article is about visual perception See Optical Illusion (Album for information about the Time Requiem album In Psychology, visual perception is the ability to interpret information from Visible light reaching the Eyes The resulting Perception is also Meteorology (from Greek grc μετέωρος metéōros, "high in the sky" and grc -λογία -logia) is the Interdisciplinary A rainbow is an optical and meteorological phenomenon that causes a spectrum of Light to appear in the Sky when the Sun The density of a material is defined as its Mass per unit Volume: \rho = \frac{m}{V} Different materials usually have different An atmosphere (from Greek ατμός - atmos, " Vapor " + σφαίρα - sphaira, " Sphere " An eclipse is an astronomical event that occurs when one Celestial object moves into the shadow of another Twilight is the time before Sunrise, called Dawn, and the time after Sunset, called Dusk. Moonlight is the light that comes to Earth from the Moon. This light does not originate from the Moon but is actually reflected Sunlight. Refraction is the change in direction of a Wave due to a change in its Speed. Catoptrics deals with the phenomena of reflected light and image-forming optical systems using Mirrors From the Greek κατοπτρικός (specular Dioptrics is the study of the Refraction of light especially by lenses. "Globose" redirects here See also Globose nucleus. A sphere (from Greek σφαίρα - sphaira, "globe In Mathematics, the parabola (pəˈræbələ from the Greek παραβολή) is a Conic section, the intersection of a right circular magnifying glass (called a hand lens in laboratory contexts is a convex lens which is used to produce a magnified Image of an object ^[28]

In his treatise, Mizan al-Hikmah (Balance of Wisdom), Ibn al-Haytham discussed the density of the atmosphere and related it to altitude. The density of a material is defined as its Mass per unit Volume: \rho = \frac{m}{V} Different materials usually have different Temperature and layers The temperature of the Earth's atmosphere varies with altitude the mathematical relationship between temperature and altitude varies among five Altitude is the Elevation of a point or object from a known level or datum (plural data He also studied atmospheric refraction. Atmospheric Refraction is the deviation of Light or other Electromagnetic wave from a straight line as it passes through the atmosphere due to the He discovered that the twilight only ceases or begins when the Sun is 19° below the horizon and attempted to measure the height of the atmosphere on that basis. Twilight is the time before Sunrise, called Dawn, and the time after Sunset, called Dusk. ^[12]

Astrophysics

In astrophysics and the celestial mechanics field of physics, Ibn al-Haytham, in his Epitome of Astronomy, discovered that the heavenly bodies "were accountable to the laws of physics". Astrophysics is the branch of Astronomy that deals with the Physics of the Universe, including the physical properties ( Luminosity, Celestial mechanics is the branch of Astrophysics that deals with the motions of Celestial objects The field applies principles of Physics, historically Physics (Greek Physis - φύσις in everyday terms is the Science of Matter and its motion. s are significant physical entities, associations or structures which current Science has confirmed to exist in Space. A physical law or scientific law is a Scientific generalization based on empirical Observations of physical behavior (i ^[56]

Ibn al-Haytham's Mizan al-Hikmah (Balance of Wisdom) dealt with statics, astrophysics, and celestial mechanics. Statics is the branch of Mechanics concerned with the analysis of loads ( Force, torque/moment) on Physical systems in Static equilibrium He discussed the theory of attraction between masses, and it seems that he was also aware of the magnitude of acceleration due to gravity at a distance. Gravitation is a natural Phenomenon by which objects with Mass attract one another Mass is a fundamental concept in Physics, roughly corresponding to the Intuitive idea of how much Matter there is in an object The magnitude of a mathematical object is its size a property by which it can be larger or smaller than other objects of the same kind in technical terms an Ordering Gravitation is a natural Phenomenon by which objects with Mass attract one another In Physics, action at a distance is the Interaction of two objects which are separated in Space with no known mediator of the interaction ^[28]

His Maqala fi'l-qarastun is a treatise on centers of gravity. Little is currently known about the work, except for what is known through the later works of al-Khazini in the 12th century. Abd al-Rahman al-Khazini ( عبدالرحمن الخزيني) (flourished 1115–1130 was a Muslim scientist, physicist, astronomer, biologist In this treatise, Ibn al-Haytham formulated the theory that the heaviness of bodies varies with their distance from the center of the Earth. In the Physical sciences weight is a Measurement of the gravitational Force acting on an object EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 ^[57]

Mechanics

In the dynamics and kinematics fields of mechanics, Ibn al-Haytham's Risala fi’l-makan (Treatise on Place) discussed theories on the motion of a body. Kinematics ( Greek κινειν, kinein, to move is a branch of Classical mechanics which describes the motion of objects without Mechanics ( Greek) is the branch of Physics concerned with the behaviour of physical bodies when subjected to Forces or displacements In Physics, motion means a constant change in the location of a body He maintained that a body moves perpetually unless an external force stops it or changes its direction of motion. The term perpetual motion, taken literally refers to movement that goes on forever ^[28] This idea was largely a philosophical construct, since it was not verified by experimentation and the key breakthrough, the introduction of frictional force, was made by Galileo. Friction is the Force resisting the relative motion of two Surfaces in contact or a surface in contact with a fluid (e Galileo Galilei (15 February 1564 &ndash 8 January 1642 was a Tuscan ( Italian) Physicist, Mathematician, Astronomer, and Philosopher ^[26]

Ibn al-Haytham also discovered the concept of momentum, part of Newton's second law of motion, around the same time as his contemporary, Avicenna. In Classical mechanics, momentum ( pl momenta SI unit kg · m/s, or equivalently N · s) is the product Newton's laws of motion are three Physical laws which provide relationships between the Forces acting on a body and the motion of the TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born ^[27]

Astronomical works

Doubts Concerning Ptolemy

In his Al-Shukūk ‛alā Batlamyūs, variously translated as Doubts Concerning Ptolemy or Aporias against Ptolemy, written between 1025 and 1028, Ibn al-Haytham criticized many of Ptolemy's works, including the Almagest, Planetary Hypotheses, and Optics, pointing out various contradictions he found in these works. Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca Almagest is the Latin form of the Arabic name ( الكتاب المجسطي, al-kitabu-l-mijisti, i He considered that some of the mathematical devices Ptolemy introduced into astronomy, especially the equant, failed to satisfy the physical requirement of uniform circular motion, and wrote a scathing critique of the physical reality of Ptolemy's astronomical system, noting the absurdity of relating actual physical motions to imaginary mathematical points, lines and circles:^[58]

Ptolemy assumed an arrangement (hay'a) that cannot exist, and the fact that this arrangement produces in his imagination the motions that belong to the planets does not free him from the error he committed in his assumed arrangement, for the existing motions of the planets cannot be the result of an arrangement that is impossible to exist… [F]or a man to imagine a circle in the heavens, and to imagine the planet moving in it does not bring about the planet's motion. Equant (or Punctum aequans) is a Mathematical concept developed by Claudius Ptolemy in the 2nd century AD to account for the observed ^[59][60]

Ibn al-Haytham further criticized Ptolemy's model on other empirical, observational and experimental grounds,^[61] such as Ptolemy's use of conjectural undemonstrated theories in order to "save appearances" of certain phenomena, which Ibn al-Haytham did not approve of due to his insistence on scientific demonstration. A central concept in Science and the Scientific method is that all Evidence must be empirical, or empirically based that is dependent on evidence Observation is either an activity of a living being (such as a Human) which senses and assimilates the Knowledge of a Phenomenon, or the recording of data In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or In Mathematics, a conjecture is a Mathematical statement which appears resourceful but has not been formally proven to be true under the rules of A phenomenon (from Greek φαινόμενoν, pl φαινόμενα - phenomena) is any observable occurrence A scientific demonstration is a Scientific experiment carried out for the purposes of demonstrating scientific principles rather than for Hypothesis testing or knowledge Unlike some later astronomers who criticized the Ptolemaic model on the grounds of being incompatible with Aristotelian natural philosophy, Ibn al-Haytham was mainly concerned with empirical observation and the internal contradictions in Ptolemy's works. The Greek Philosopher Aristotle ( 384 BC – 322 BC) developed many theories on the nature of Physics that are completely different ^[62]

In his Aporias against Ptolemy, Ibn al-Haytham commented on the difficulty of attaining scientific knowledge:

Truth is sought for itself [but] the truths, [he warns] are immersed in uncertainties [and the scientific authorities (such as Ptolemy, whom he greatly respected) are] not immune from error…^[63]

He held that the criticism of existing theories — which dominated this book — holds a special place in the growth of scientific knowledge:

Therefore, the seeker after the truth is not one who studies the writings of the ancients and, following his natural disposition, puts his trust in them, but rather the one who suspects his faith in them and questions what he gathers from them, the one who submits to argument and demonstration, and not to the sayings of a human being whose nature is fraught with all kinds of imperfection and deficiency. Thus the duty of the man who investigates the writings of scientists, if learning the truth is his goal, is to make himself an enemy of all that he reads, and, applying his mind to the core and margins of its content, attack it from every side. He should also suspect himself as he performs his critical examination of it, so that he may avoid falling into either prejudice or leniency. ^[63]

On the Configuration of the World

In his On the Configuration of the World, despite his criticisms directed towards Ptolemy, Ibn al-Haytham continued to accept the physical reality of the geocentric model of the universe,^[64] presenting a detailed description of the physical structure of the celestial spheres in his On the Configuration of the World:

The earth as a whole is a round sphere whose center is the center of the world. In Astronomy, the geocentric model of the Universe is the superseded theory that the Earth is the center of the universe and other The celestial spheres or celestial orbs were the fundamental celestial entities of the cosmological celestial mechanics first invented by Eudoxus, and developed by Aristotle It is stationary in its [the world's] middle, fixed in it and not moving in any direction nor moving with any of the varieties of motion, but always at rest. ^[65]

While he attempted to discover the physical reality behind Ptolemy's mathematical model, he developed the concept of a single orb (falak) for each component of Ptolemy's planetary motions. The celestial spheres or celestial orbs were the fundamental celestial entities of the cosmological celestial mechanics first invented by Eudoxus, and developed by Aristotle This work was eventually translated into Hebrew and Latin in the 13th and 14th centuries and subsequently had an important influence during the European Middle Ages and Renaissance. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere ^[66][67]

The Model of the Motions

Ibn al-Haytham's The Model of the Motions of Each of the Seven Planets, written in 1038, was an important book on astronomy. The surviving manuscript of this work has only recently been discovered, with much of it still missing, hence the work has not yet been published in modern times. Following on from his Doubts on Ptolemy and The Resolution of Doubts, Ibn al-Haytham described the first non-Ptolemaic model in The Model of the Motions. His reform was not concerned with cosmology, as he developed a systematic study of celestial kinematics that was completely geometric. Cosmology (from Greek grc κοσμολογία - grc κόσμος kosmos, "universe" and grc -λογία -logia) is study Celestial mechanics is the branch of Astrophysics that deals with the motions of Celestial objects The field applies principles of Physics, historically Kinematics ( Greek κινειν, kinein, to move is a branch of Classical mechanics which describes the motion of objects without Geometry ( Greek γεωμετρία; geo = earth metria = measure is a part of Mathematics concerned with questions of size shape and relative position This in turn led to innovative developments in infinitesimal geometry. Infinitesimals (from a 17th century Modern Latin coinage infinitesimus, originally referring to the " Infinite[[ th]]" member of a series have Geometry ( Greek γεωμετρία; geo = earth metria = measure is a part of Mathematics concerned with questions of size shape and relative position ^[68]

His reformed empirical model was the first to reject the equant^[69] and eccentrics,^[70] separate natural philosophy from astronomy, free celestial kinematics from cosmology, and reduce physical entities to geometrical entities. A central concept in Science and the Scientific method is that all Evidence must be empirical, or empirically based that is dependent on evidence Equant (or Punctum aequans) is a Mathematical concept developed by Claudius Ptolemy in the 2nd century AD to account for the observed For the current in the 19th century German idealism see Naturphilosophie Natural philosophy or the philosophy of nature (from The model also propounded the Earth's rotation about its axis,^[71] and the centres of motion were geometrical points without any physical significance, like Johannes Kepler's model centuries later. Rotation period Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun (its mean solar day is 86400 Seconds of mean solar time Johannes Kepler (ˈkɛplɚ ( December 27 1571 &ndash November 15 1630) was a German Mathematician, Astronomer ^[72]

In the text, Ibn al-Haytham also describes an early version of Occam's razor, where he employs only minimal hypotheses regarding the properties that characterize astronomical motions, as he attempts to eliminate from his planetary model the cosmological hypotheses that cannot be observed from the Earth. Occam's razor (sometimes spelled Ockham's razor) is a principle attributed to the 14th-century English Logician and Franciscan Friar, EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 ^[73]

Refutation of astrology

Ibn al-Haytham distinguished astrology from astronomy, and he refuted the study of astrology, due to the methods used by astrologers being conjectural rather than empirical, and also due to the views of astrologers conflicting with orthodox Islam. This is a sub-article of History of science in the Islamic World and Astrology. In Mathematics, a conjecture is a Mathematical statement which appears resourceful but has not been formally proven to be true under the rules of A central concept in Science and the Scientific method is that all Evidence must be empirical, or empirically based that is dependent on evidence For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. ^[74]

Mathematical works

In mathematics, Ibn al-Haytham builds on the mathematical works of Euclid and Thabit ibn Qurra. Euclid ( Greek:.) fl 300 BC also known as Euclid of Alexandria, is often referred to as the Father of Geometry (836 in Harran, Mesopotamia &ndash February 18, 901 in Baghdad) was an Arab astronomer, mathematician He goes on to systemize conic sections and number theory, carries out some early work on analytic geometry, and works on "the beginnings of the link between algebra and geometry. In Mathematics, a conic section (or just conic) is a Curve obtained by intersecting a cone (more precisely a circular Conical surface Number theory is the branch of Pure mathematics concerned with the properties of Numbers in general and Integers in particular as well as the wider classes Analytic geometry, also called coordinate geometry and earlier referred to as Cartesian geometry or analytical geometry, is the study of Geometry Algebra is a branch of Mathematics concerning the study of structure, relation, and Quantity. Geometry ( Greek γεωμετρία; geo = earth metria = measure is a part of Mathematics concerned with questions of size shape and relative position " This in turn had an influence on the development of René Descartes's geometric analysis and Isaac Newton's calculus. Geometric analysis is a mathematical discipline at the interface of Differential geometry and Differential equations. Sir Isaac Newton, FRS (ˈnjuːtən 4 January 1643 31 March 1727) Biography Early years See also Isaac Newton's early life and achievements Calculus ( Latin, calculus, a small stone used for counting is a branch of Mathematics that includes the study of limits, Derivatives ^[34]

Geometry

In geometry, Ibn al-Haytham developed analytical geometry and established a link between algebra and geometry. Geometry ( Greek γεωμετρία; geo = earth metria = measure is a part of Mathematics concerned with questions of size shape and relative position Analytic geometry, also called coordinate geometry and earlier referred to as Cartesian geometry or analytical geometry, is the study of Geometry Algebra is a branch of Mathematics concerning the study of structure, relation, and Quantity. ^[34] Ibn al-Haytham also discovered a formula for adding the first 100 natural numbers (which may later have been intuited by Carl Friedrich Gauss as a youth). Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss (ˈɡaʊs, Gauß Carolus Fridericus Gauss ( 30 April 1777 – 23 February 1855) was a German Ibn al-Haytham used a geometric proof to prove the formula. ^[75]

Ibn al-Haytham made the first attempt at proving the Euclidean parallel postulate using a proof by contradiction,^[76] where he introduced the concept of motion and transformation into geometry. Euclidean geometry is a mathematical system attributed to the Greek Mathematician Euclid of Alexandria. In Geometry, the parallel postulate, also called Euclid 's fifth postulate since it is the fifth postulate in Euclid's ''Elements'', is a distinctive Reductio ad absurdum ( Latin for "reduction to the absurd" also known as an apagogical argument, reductio ad impossibile In Physics, motion means a constant change in the location of a body In Mathematics, a transformation could be any Function from a set X to itself ^[77] His proof was also the first to employ the Lambert quadrilateral and Playfair's axiom, both of which were not known in Europe until the 18th century. A Lambert quadrilateral, or Ibn al-Haytham &ndashLambert quadrilateral, is a Hyperbolic Quadrilateral. In Geometry, the parallel postulate, also called Euclid 's fifth postulate since it is the fifth postulate in Euclid's ''Elements'', is a distinctive ^[3] Some have referred to the Lambert quadrilateral as the "Ibn al-Haytham–Lambert quadrilateral" as a result. ^[78] His theorems on quadrilaterals, including the Lambert quadrilateral, were the first theorems on elliptical geometry and hyperbolic geometry, and along with his alternative postulates, such as Playfair's axiom, his work marked the beginning of non-Euclidean geometry and had a considerable influence on its development among later Muslim geometers such as Omar Khayyám and Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī and European geometers such as Witelo, Gersonides, Alfonso, John Wallis and Giovanni Girolamo Saccheri. In Geometry, a quadrilateral is a Polygon with four sides or edges and four vertices or corners. Elliptic geometry (sometimes known as Riemannian geometry) is a Non-Euclidean geometry, in which given a line L and a point In In mathematics non-Euclidean geometry describes how this all works--> hyperbolic and Elliptic geometry, which are contrasted with Euclidean geometry For the Thoroughbred racehorse see Omar Khayyam (horse Ghiyās od-Dīn Abol-Fath Omār ibn Ebrāhīm Khayyām Neyshābūri (غیاث الدین Witelo - also known as Erazmus Ciolek Witelo, Witelon, Vitellio, Vitello, Vitello Thuringopolonis, Vitulon, Erazm Levi ben Gershom ( לוי בן גרשום) better known as Gersonides or the Ralbag (1288-1344 was a famous Rabbi, philosopher Mathematician Alfonso ( Italian and Spanish) Alfons ( Catalan and German) Afonso ( Portuguese John Wallis ( November 23, 1616 - October 28, 1703) was an English mathematician who is given partial credit for the Giovanni Girolamo Saccheri ( September 5, 1667 - October 25, 1733) was an Italian Jesuit priest and mathematician ^[79]

In elementary geometry, Ibn al-Haytham attempted to solve the problem of squaring the circle using the area of lunes, but later gave up on the impossible task. Euclidean geometry is a mathematical system attributed to the Greek Mathematician Euclid of Alexandria. Squaring the circle is a problem proposed by ancient Geometers. A lune is either of two figures both shaped roughly like a crescent Moon. ^[32] Ibn al-Haytham also tackled other problems in elementary (Euclidean) and advanced (Apollonian and Archimedean) geometry, some of which he was the first to solve. Euclidean geometry is a mathematical system attributed to the Greek Mathematician Euclid of Alexandria. Archimedes of Syracuse ( Greek:) ( c. 287 BC – c 212 BC was a Greek mathematician, Physicist, Engineer ^[63]

Number theory

His contributions to number theory includes his work on perfect numbers. Number theory is the branch of Pure mathematics concerned with the properties of Numbers in general and Integers in particular as well as the wider classes In mathematics a perfect number is defined as a positive integer which is the sum of its proper positive Divisors that is the sum of the positive divisors excluding In his Analysis and Synthesis, Ibn al-Haytham was the first to realize that every even perfect number is of the form 2ⁿ⁻¹(2ⁿ − 1) where 2ⁿ − 1 is prime, but he was not able to prove this result successfully (Euler later proved it in the 18th century). In Mathematics, a prime number (or a prime) is a Natural number which has exactly two distinct natural number Divisors 1 ^[32]

Ibn al-Haytham solved problems involving congruences using what is now called Wilson's theorem. See Congruence (geometry for the term as used in elementary geometry In Mathematics, Wilson's theorem states that p > 1 is a Prime number If and only if (p-1!\ \equiv\ -1\ (\mbox{mod}\ p In his Opuscula, Ibn al-Haytham considers the solution of a system of congruences, and gives two general methods of solution. His first method, the canonical method, involved Wilson's theorem, while his second method involved a version of the Chinese remainder theorem. The Chinese remainder theorem is a result about congruences in Number theory and its generalizations in Abstract algebra. ^[32]

Other works

Engineering

In engineering, one account of his career as a civil engineer has him summoned to Egypt by the Fatimid Caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah to regulate the flooding of the Nile River. A civil engineer is a person who practices Civil engineering, one of the many engineering professions The Caliph is the Head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah Tāriqu l-Ḥākim, called bi Amr al-Lāh ( Arabic: الحاكم بأمر الله; literally "Ruler by God's Command" was the sixth Fatimid A flood is an overflow of an expanse of water that submerges land a deluge The Nile (النيل, Ancient Egyptian iteru or Ḥ'pī, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing River He carried out a detailed scientific study of the annual inundation of the Nile River, and he drew plans for building a dam, at the site of the modern-day Aswan Dam. A flood is an overflow of an expanse of water that submerges land a deluge A dam is a barrier that divides waters. Dams generally serve the primary purpose of retaining water while other structures such as Floodgates, Levees Aswan (Assuan is a city on the first cataract of the Nile in Egypt. His field work, however, later made him aware of the impracticality of this scheme, and he soon feigned madness in order to avoid punishment from the Caliph. Feigned madness a term used in popular culture to describe the assumption of a mental condition or illness by a person for purposes of evasion or deceit ^[80]

According to al-Khazini, Ibn al-Haytham also wrote a treatise providing a description on the construction of a water clock. Abd al-Rahman al-Khazini ( عبدالرحمن الخزيني) (flourished 1115–1130 was a Muslim scientist, physicist, astronomer, biologist In the fields of Architecture and Civil engineering, construction is a process that consists of the Building or assembling of Infrastructure A water clock or clepsydra ( Greek kleptein to steal; hydro water) is any timekeeper operated by means of a regulated flow of liquid into (inflow ^[81]

Philosophy

In early Islamic philosophy, Ibn al-Haytham's Risala fi’l-makan (Treatise on Place) presents a critique of Aristotle's concept of place (topos). Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. In Mathematics, a topos (plural "topoi" or "toposes" is a type of category that behaves like the category of sheaves of sets Aristotle's Physics stated that the place of something is the two-dimensional boundary of the containing body that is at rest and is in contact with what it contains. Physics (or "Physica" or "Physicae Auscultationes" meaning "lessons" is a key text in the philosophy of Aristotle. Ibn al-Haytham disagreed and demonstrated that place (al-makan) is the imagined three-dimensional void between the inner surfaces of the containing body. He showed that place was akin to space, foreshadowing René Descartes's concept of place in the Extensio in the 17th century. Space is the extent within which Matter is physically extended and objects and Events have positions relative to one another

Following on from his Treatise on Place, Ibn al-Haytham's Qawl fi al-Makan (Discourse on Place) was an important treatise which presents geometrical demonstrations for his geometrization of place, in opposition to Aristotle's philosophical concept of place, which Ibn al-Haytham rejected on mathematical grounds. Geometry ( Greek γεωμετρία; geo = earth metria = measure is a part of Mathematics concerned with questions of size shape and relative position Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Abd-el-latif, a supporter of Aristotle's philosophical view of place, later criticized the work in Fi al-Radd ‘ala Ibn al-Haytham fi al-makan (A refutation of Ibn al-Haytham’s place) for its geometrization of place. Abd-al-latif, Abd-el-latif or Abd-ul-Latif (1162 &ndash 1231 also known as al-Baghdadi ( Arabic, عبداللطيف البغدادي ^[82]

Theology

Ibn al-Haytham was a devout Shi'a Muslim, and supported Mu'tazili thought,^[83] and he may have been a supporter of Mu'tazili theology^[84][85] at some point in his life. Muʿtazilah ( Arabic المعتزلة al-mu`tazilah) is a theological school of thought within Sunni Islam.

Ibn al-Haytham also wrote a work on Islamic theology, in which he discusses prophethood and develops a system of philosophical criteria to discern true prophethood from false claimants in his time. In Religion, a prophet (or prophetess) is a person who has encountered the Supernatural or the divine and serves as an intermediary ^[86]

Ibn al-Haytham attributed his experimental scientific method and scientific skepticism to his Islamic faith. In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena Scientific skepticism or rational skepticism ( also spelled scepticism) sometimes referred to as skeptical inquiry, is a scientific or practical For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. The Qur'an, for example, placed a strong emphasis on empiricism. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran In Philosophy, empiricism is a theory of Knowledge which asserts that knowledge arises from Experience. ^[87][88][89] He also believed that human beings are inherently flawed and that only God is perfect. Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. He reasoned that to discover the truth about nature, it is necessary to eliminate human opinion and error, and allow the universe to speak for itself. Reason involves the ability to think understand and draw Conclusions in an Abstract way as in Human thinking The meaning of the word truth extends from Honesty, Good faith, and Sincerity in general to agreement with Fact or Reality Nature, in the broadest sense is equivalent to the natural world, physical universe, material world or material universe. An opinion is a Person 's Ideas and thoughts towards something which it is either impossible to verify the truth of or the truth of which is thought unimportant to The word error has different meanings and usages relative to how it is conceptually applied The Universe is defined as everything that Physically Exists: the entirety of Space and Time, all forms of Matter, Energy ^[35] He wrote in his Doubts Concerning Ptolemy:

Therefore, the seeker after the truth is not one who studies the writings of the ancients and, following his natural disposition, puts his trust in them, but rather the one who suspects his faith in them and questions what he gathers from them, the one who submits to argument and demonstration, and not to the sayings of a human being whose nature is fraught with all kinds of imperfection and deficiency. A scientific demonstration is a Scientific experiment carried out for the purposes of demonstrating scientific principles rather than for Hypothesis testing or knowledge Thus the duty of the man who investigates the writings of scientists, if learning the truth is his goal, is to make himself an enemy of all that he reads, and, applying his mind to the core and margins of its content, attack it from every side. He should also suspect himself as he performs his critical examination of it, so that he may avoid falling into either prejudice or leniency. The word prejudice refers to prejudgment making a decision before becoming aware of the relevant facts of a case or event Mercy ( Middle English, from Anglo-French merci, from Medieval Latin merced-, merces, from Latin, "price ^[63]

In The Winding Motion, Ibn al-Haytham further wrote that faith should only apply to prophets of Islam and not to any other authorities, in the following comparison between the Islamic prophetic tradition and the demonstrative sciences:

From the statements made by the noble Shaykh, it is clear that he believes in Ptolemy's words in everything he says, without relying on a demonstration or calling on a proof, but by pure imitation (taqlid); that is how experts in the prophetic tradition have faith in Prophets, may the blessing of God be upon them. Faith is a Belief in the trustworthiness of an Idea. Formal usage of the word "faith" is usually reserved for concepts of Religion, as in Muslims regard as Prophets of Islam ( Arabic: نبي) those non-divine humans chosen by Allah as Prophets Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Sheikh, also rendered as Sheik, Cheikh, Shaikh, and other variants ( Arabic:, shaykh Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca Taqlid or taqleed ( Arabic تَقْليد taqlīd) is an Arabic term meaning "to follow (someone" or "to imitate" Ulema ( ar علماء,, singular ar عالِم,, "scholar" refers to the educated class of Muslim legal scholars engaged in the several But it is not the way that mathematicians have faith in specialists in the demonstrative sciences. ^[90]

Ibn al-Haytham described his search for truth and knowledge as a way of leading him closer to God:

I constantly sought knowledge and truth, and it became my belief that for gaining access to the effulgence and closeness to God, there is no better way than that of searching for truth and knowledge. Knowledge is defined ( Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (i expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education the theoretical or practical understanding ^[91]

See also

• Islamic Golden Age
• Islamic science
• List of Muslim scientists
• List of Arab scientists and scholars
• List of Iraqis
• Optics
• Scientific method
• History of science

Notes

References

Further reading

Primary sources

• Langermann, Y. Tzvi, ed. and trans. (1990), Ibn al-Haytham's On the Configuration of the World, Harvard Dissertations in the History of Science, New York: Garland, ISBN 0824000412 
• Sabra, A. I., ed. (1983), The Optics of Ibn al-Haytham, Books I-II-III: On Direct Vision. New York ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous Taylor & Francis Group is an international company originating in the United Kingdom which publishes books and academic journals Abdelhamid I Sabra is a retired professor of the history of science specializing in the History of optics and Science in medieval Islam. The Arabic text, edited and with Introduction, Arabic-Latin Glossaries and Concordance Tables, Kuwait: National Council for Culture, Arts and Letters 
• Sabra, A. I., ed. (2002), The Optics of Ibn al-Haytham. The State of Kuwait ( دولة الكويت IPA [dawlatt̪ alkuwajt̪]) is a sovereign Arab Emirate on the coast of the Persian Gulf, enclosed Abdelhamid I Sabra is a retired professor of the history of science specializing in the History of optics and Science in medieval Islam. Edition of the Arabic Text of Books IV-V: On Reflection and Images Seen by Reflection. 2 vols. , Kuwait: The National Council for Culture, Arts and Letters 
• Sabra, A. I., trans. (1989), The Optics of Ibn al-Haytham. The State of Kuwait ( دولة الكويت IPA [dawlatt̪ alkuwajt̪]) is a sovereign Arab Emirate on the coast of the Persian Gulf, enclosed Abdelhamid I Sabra is a retired professor of the history of science specializing in the History of optics and Science in medieval Islam. Books I-II-III: On Direct Vision. English Translation and Commentary. 2 vols. , Studies of the Warburg Institute, vol. 40, London: The Warburg Institute, University of London, ISBN 0-85481-072-2 
• Smith, A. London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. The Warburg Institute is a research institution associated with the University of London. The University of London is a university based primarily in London, England, UK. Mark, ed. and trans. (2001), “Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's De aspectibus, the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's Kitāb al-Manāzir, 2 vols. ”, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society (Philadelphia) 91 (4–5), ISBN 0-87169-914-1 
• Smith, A. The American Philosophical Society is a discussion group founded in 1743 by Benjamin Franklin as an offshoot of his earlier club the Junto. Philadelphia (ˌfɪləˈdɛlfiə Mark, ed. and trans. (2006), “Alhacen on the Principles of Reflection: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of Books 4 and 5 of Alhacen's De Aspectibus, the Medieval Latin version of Ibn-al-Haytham's Kitāb al-Manāzir, 2 vols. ”, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society (Philadelphia) 96 (2–3), ISBN 0-87169-962-1 

Secondary literature

• Falco, Charles M. (12–15 February 2007), Ibn al-Haytham and the Origins of Modern Image Analysis, presented at a plenary session at the International Conference on Information Sciences, Signal Processing and its Applications. The American Philosophical Society is a discussion group founded in 1743 by Benjamin Franklin as an offshoot of his earlier club the Junto. Philadelphia (ˌfɪləˈdɛlfiə Charles M Falco (born August 17 1948 is an American experimental Physicist and an expert on the magnetic and optical properties of thin film materials In this lecture, Falco speculates that Ibn al-Haytham may have influenced the use of optical aids in Renaissance art (see Hockney-Falco thesis), <http://www.optics.arizona.edu/ssd/FalcoPlenaryUAE.pdf>. The Hockney-Falco thesis is a controversial theory of Art history, advanced by artist David Hockney and physicist Charles M Retrieved on 23 January 2008 
• Omar, Saleh Beshara (June 1975), Ibn al-Haytham and Greek optics: a comparative study in scientific methodology, PhD Dissertation, University of Chicago, Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations 

External links

• O'Connor, John J. The University of Chicago is a Private university located principally in the Hyde Park neighborhood of Chicago. & Robertson, Edmund F. , “Abu Ali al-Hasan ibn al-Haytham”, MacTutor History of Mathematics archive 
• Weisstein, Eric W. The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive is an award-winning website maintained by John J , Alhazen (ca. 965–1039) at ScienceWorld. ScienceWorld, also known as Eric Weisstein's World of Science, is a Web site that opened to the general public in January 2002.
• Ibn al-Haitham on two Iraqi banknotes
• The Miracle of Light – a UNESCO article on Ibn Haitham
• Roshdi Rashed, A Polymath in the 10th century, Science 297 (2002): 773
• A. I. Sabra, "Ibn al-Haytham: Brief life of an Arab mathematician"