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A hypothesis (from Greek ὑπόθεσις) consists either of a suggested explanation for a phenomenon or of a reasoned proposal suggesting a possible correlation between multiple phenomena. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly A phenomenon (from Greek φαινόμενoν, pl φαινόμενα - phenomena) is any observable occurrence The term derives from the Greek, hypotithenai meaning "to put under" or "to suppose. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly " The scientific method requires that one can test a scientific hypothesis. Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena Testability, a property applying to an Empirical Hypothesis, involves two components (1 the logical property that is variously described as Contingency Scientists generally base such hypotheses on previous observations or on extensions of scientific theories. Observation is either an activity of a living being (such as a Human) which senses and assimilates the Knowledge of a Phenomenon, or the recording of data The word theory has many distinct meanings in different fields of Knowledge, depending on their methodologies and the context of discussion. Even though the words "hypothesis" and "theory" are often used synonymously in common and informal usage, a scientific hypothesis is not the same as a scientific theory. The word theory has many distinct meanings in different fields of Knowledge, depending on their methodologies and the context of discussion.

In early usage, scholars often referred to a clever idea or to a convenient mathematical approach that simplified cumbersome calculations as a hypothesis; when used this way, the word did not necessarily have any specific meaning. A calculation is a deliberate process for transforming one or more inputs into one or more results with variable change Cardinal Bellarmine gave a famous example of the older sense of the word in the warning issued to Galileo in the early 17th century: that he must not treat the motion of the Earth as a reality, but merely as a hypothesis. Robert Bellarmine ( Roberto Francesco Romolo Cardinale Bellarmino) (4 October 1542 Montepulciano, Siena, Italy – 17 September 1621 Galileo Galilei (15 February 1564 &ndash 8 January 1642 was a Tuscan ( Italian) Physicist, Mathematician, Astronomer, and Philosopher EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001

In common usage in the 21st century, a hypothesis refers to a provisional idea whose merit requires evaluation. For proper evaluation, the framer of a hypothesis needs to define specifics in operational terms. A hypothesis requires more work by the researcher in order to either confirm or disprove it. In due course, a confirmed hypothesis may become part of a theory or occasionally may grow to become a theory itself. Normally, scientific hypotheses have the form of a mathematical model. Note The term model has a different meaning in Model theory, a branch of Mathematical logic. Sometimes, but not always, one can also formulate them as existential statements, stating that some particular instance of the phenomenon under examination has some characteristic and causal explanations, which have the general form of universal statements, stating that every instance of the phenomenon has a particular characteristic. In Predicate logic, an existential quantification is the predication of a property or relation to at least one member of the domain In Predicate logic, universal quantification is an attempt to formalize the notion that something (a Logical predicate) is true for everything, or every

Any useful hypothesis will enable predictions by reasoning (including deductive reasoning). A prediction is a statement or claim that a particular Event will occur in the Future in more certain terms than a forecast. Reasoning is the cognitive process of looking for Reasons for beliefs conclusions actions or feelings Deductive reasoning is Reasoning which uses deductive Arguments to move from given statements ( Premises to Conclusions which must be true if the It might predict the outcome of an experiment in a laboratory setting or the observation of a phenomenon in nature. In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or A laboratory (informally lab) is a facility that provides controlled conditions in which scientific Research, Experiments and Nature, in the broadest sense is equivalent to the natural world, physical universe, material world or material universe. The prediction may also invoke statistics and only talk about probabilities. Karl Popper, following others, has argued that a hypothesis must be falsifiable, and that one cannot regard a proposition or theory as scientific if it does not admit the possibility of being shown false. Sir Karl Raimund Popper ( July 28 1902  &ndash September 17 1994) was an Austrian and British Philosopher and a professor Falsifiability (or "refutability" is the logical possibility that an assertion can be shown false by an observation or a physical experiment To meet this additional criterion, it must at least in principle be possible to make an observation that would disprove the proposition as false, even if one has not actually (yet) made that observation. A falsifiable hypothesis can greatly simplify the process of testing to determine whether the hypothesis has instances in which it is false. The scientific method involves experimentation on the basis of falsifiable hypotheses in order to answer questions and explore observations. Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena

In framing a hypothesis, the investigator must not currently know the outcome of a potentially falsifying test or that it remains reasonably under continuing investigation. Only in such cases does the experiment, test or study potentially increase the probability of showing the truth of a hypothesis. If the researcher already knows the outcome, it counts as a "consequence" — and the researcher should have already considered this while formulating the hypothesis. If one cannot assess the predictions by observation or by experience, the hypothesis classes as not yet useful, and must wait for others who might come afterward to make possible the needed observations. Experience as a general concept comprises Knowledge of or skill in or Observation of some thing or some event gained through involvement in or For example, a new technology or theory might make the necessary experiments feasible.

In the United States of America, teachers of science in primary schools have often simplified the meaning of the term "hypothesis" by describing a hypothesis as "an educated guess". The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Overemphasizing this aspect fails to convey the explanatory or predictive quality of scientific hypotheses. To define a hypothesis as "an educated guess" resembles describing a tricycle as a "vehicle with three". The definition omits the concept's most important and characteristic feature: the purpose of hypotheses. People generate hypotheses as early attempts to explain patterns observed in nature or to predict the outcomes of experiments. For example, in science, one could correctly call the following statement a hypothesis: identical twins can have different personalities because the environment influences personality. In contrast, although one might have informed one's self about the qualifications of various political candidates, making an educated guess about the outcome of an election would not qualify as a scientific hypothesis: the guess lacks an underpinning generic explanation.

Contents

Evaluating hypotheses

The hypothetico-deductive method (also known as the method of "conjectures and refutations", cf Karl Popper) demands falsifiable hypotheses, framed in such a manner that the scientific community can prove them false (usually by observation). See also Falsifiability The hypothetico-deductive model, or method is a proposed description of Scientific method. In Mathematics, a conjecture is a Mathematical statement which appears resourceful but has not been formally proven to be true under the rules of Falsifiability (or "refutability" is the logical possibility that an assertion can be shown false by an observation or a physical experiment Observation is either an activity of a living being (such as a Human) which senses and assimilates the Knowledge of a Phenomenon, or the recording of data Strictly speaking, a hypothesis cannot be "confirmed", because there is always the possibility that a future experiment will show that it is false. Hence, failing to falsify a hypothesis does not prove that hypothesis: it remains provisional. However, a hypothesis that has been rigorously tested and not falsified can form a reasonable basis for action, i. e. , we can act as if it is true, until such time as it is falsified.

For example: someone who enters a new country and observes only white sheep might form the hypothesis that all sheep in that country are white. It can be considered a hypothesis, as it is falsifiable. Anyone could falsify the hypothesis by observing several black sheep. Provided that the experimental uncertainties remain small (for example, provided that one can fairly reliably distinguish the observed black sheep from (say) a goat), and provided that the experimenter has correctly interpreted the statement of the hypothesis (for example, does the meaning of "sheep" include rams?), finding a black sheep falsifies the "white sheep only" hypothesis. However, one cannot consider failure to find black sheep as proof that no black sheep exist.

Scientific hypothesis

People refer to a trial solution to a problem as a hypothesis — often called an "educated guess" — because it provides a suggested solution based on the evidence. Experimenters may test and reject several hypotheses before solving the problem.

According to Schick and Vaughn,[1] researchers weighing up alternative hypotheses may take into consideration:


See also

References

  1. ^ Schick, Theodore and Vaughn, Lewis: How to think about weird things: Critical thinking for a New Age Boston, 2002

External links

Falsifiability (or "refutability" is the logical possibility that an assertion can be shown false by an observation or a physical experiment Occam's razor (sometimes spelled Ockham's razor) is a principle attributed to the 14th-century English Logician and Franciscan Friar, An entity is something that has a distinct separate Existence, though it need not be a material existence The ecological fallacy is a widely recognized error in the interpretation of Statistical data in an Ecological study, whereby inferences about the nature of individuals Hypothesis Theory is a psychological theory of learning developed during the 1960s and 1970's Cognitive psychology is a branch of Psychology that investigates internal mental processes such as problem solving memory and language In the fields of Neuropsychology, Personal development and Education, Learning is one of the most important Mental function of humans Logic is the study of the principles of valid demonstration and Inference. See also Statistical hypothesis testing In Statistics, a null hypothesis ( H 0 is a plausible hypothesis (scenario which may explain Null Hypothesis The Journal of Unlikely Science is an online satirical Science Website, which casts a wry eye over the world of science The Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ( Latin: "mathematical principles of natural philosophy" often Principia Sir Isaac Newton, FRS (ˈnjuːtən 4 January 1643 31 March 1727) Biography Early years See also Isaac Newton's early life and achievements Reductionism can either mean (a an approach to understanding the nature of complex things by reducing them to the interactions of their parts or to simpler or more fundamental things A study design is an analytic approach to conduct an Epidemiological investigation such as a Clinical trial. Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena A thought experiment (from the German Gedankenexperiment) is a proposal for an Experiment that would test a Hypothesis or Theory

Dictionary

hypothesis

-noun

  1. (sciences) A tentative conjecture explaining an observation, phenomenon, or scientific problem that can be tested by further observation, investigation and/or experimentation.
  2. (general) An assumption taken to be true for the purpose of argument or investigation.
  3. (grammar) The antecedent of a conditional statement.
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