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Reconstruction of a Neanderthal hunter, American Museum of Natural History. Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 An adaptation is a characteristic of an Organism that has been favored by Natural selection and In Population genetics, genetic drift is the accumulation of random events that change the makeup of a gene pool slightly but often compound over time In Population genetics, gene flow (also known as gene migration) is the transfer of Alleles of Genes from one Population to another In biology mutations are changes to the Nucleotide sequence of the Genetic material of an organism Natural selection is the process by which favorable Heritable traits become more common in successive Generations of a Population of Speciation is the Evolutionary process by which new biological Species arise The wide range of evidence of common descent of living things strongly indicates the occurrence of Evolution and provides a wealth of information on the natural processes Although evidence of early Life is scarce and often difficult to interpret it appears that life appeared on Earth relatively soon (on the Geologic time scale) after Evolutionary thought, the idea that species change over time has roots in antiquity in the ideas of the Greeks, Romans, Chinese and Muslims theory of transmutation had early origins in the speculations and hypotheses of Erasmus Darwin, and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck. Objections to evolution have been raised ever since various evolutionary ideas came to prominence around the start of the nineteenth century Cladistics is the hierarchical classification of Species based on evolutionary ancestry Ecological genetics is the study of Genetics in the context of the interactions among organisms and between the organisms and their environment Evolutionary developmental biology ( evolution of development or informally evo-devo) is a field of Biology that compares the developmental processes Molecular evolution is the process of evolution at the scale of DNA, RNA, and Proteins Molecular evolution emerged as a scientific field in the 1960s as Population genetics is the study of the Allele frequency distribution and change under the influence of the four evolutionary forces Natural selection, Genetic The American Museum of Natural History ( AMNH) located on the Upper West Side, Manhattan, New York, USA is one of the largest and most

Human evolution is the part of biological evolution concerning the emergence of Homo sapiens as a distinct species from other hominans, great apes and placental mammals. eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. The more Anthropomorphic Primates of the Hominini tribe are placed in the Hominina subtribe Mammals ( class Mammalia) are a class of Vertebrate Animals characterized by the presence of Sweat glands, including sweat glands It is the subject of a broad scientific inquiry that seeks to understand and describe how this change occurred. Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding The study of human evolution encompasses many scientific disciplines, most notably physical anthropology, linguistics and genetics. Biological anthropology, or physical anthropology is a branch of Anthropology that studies the mechanisms of biological Evolution, genetic inheritance Linguistics is the scientific study of Language, encompassing a number of sub-fields Genetics (from Ancient Greek grc-Latn genetikos, “genitive” and that from grc-Latn genesis, “origin” a discipline of Biology, is

The term "human", in the context of human evolution, refers to the genus Homo, but studies of human evolution usually include other hominins, such as the australopithecines. Homo is the Genus that includes modern humans and their close relatives Hominini is the tribe of Homininae that comprises humans ( Homo) Chimpanzees ( Pan) and their Extinct ancestors The term australopithecine refers to two very closely related genera within the Hominina subtribe of the Hominini tribe. The Homo genus diverged from the australopithecines about 2 million years ago in Africa. Several species of Homo evolved, including Homo erectus, which spread to Asia, and Homo neanderthalensis, which spread to Europe. Homo erectus ( Latin: "upright man" is an extinct species of the genus Homo, believed to have been the first hominin The Neanderthal (neɪˈændərtɑːl also with /niː-/ and /-θɔːl/ or Neandertal, is an extinct member of the Homo genus that is known from Homo sapiens evolved between 400,000 and 250,000 years ago. Most scientists favor the view that modern humans evolved in Africa and spread across the globe, replacing populations of H. erectus and Neanderthals. Others view modern humans as having evolved as a single, widespread population.

Starting with H. habilis, humans have used stone tools of increasing sophistication. Homo habilis (ˈhoʊmoʊ ˈhæbəlɪs ("handy man" "skillful person" is a Species of the genus Homo, which lived Starting about 50,000 years ago, human technology and culture began to change more rapidly.

History of paleoanthropology

Paleoanthropology is the study of ancient humans based on fossil evidence, tools, and other signs of human habitation. The modern field of paleoanthropology began in the 19th century with the discovery of "Neanderthal man". Paleoanthropology, which combines the disciplines of Paleontology and Physical anthropology, is the study of ancient humans as found in Fossil hominid The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar The Neanderthal (neɪˈændərtɑːl also with /niː-/ and /-θɔːl/ or Neandertal, is an extinct member of the Homo genus that is known from The eponymous skeleton was found in 1856, but there had been finds elsewhere since 1830. ^[1]

By 1859, the morphological similarity of humans to certain great apes had been discussed and argued for some time, but the idea of the biological evolution of species in general was not legitimized until Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species in November of that year. Year 1859 ( MDCCCLIX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The term morphology in Biology refers to the outward appearance ( Shape, Structure, Colour, Pattern) of an Organism Charles Robert Darwin (February 12 1809 &ndash April 19 1882 was an English naturalist, who realised and demonstrated that all Species of life Charles Darwin 's On the Origin of Species (published 24 November 1859) is a seminal work in Scientific literature and arguably the Darwin's first book on evolution did not address the specific question of human evolution: "Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history," was all Darwin wrote on the subject. Nevertheless, the implications of evolutionary theory were clear to contemporary readers. ^[2]

Debates between Thomas Huxley and Richard Owen focused on human evolution. Thomas Henry Huxley PC FRS (4 May 1825 – 29 June 1895 was an English Biologist, known as "Darwin's Bulldog" for his advocacy Sir Richard Owen KCB ( Lancaster, July 20 1804 &ndash December 18 1892) was an English Biologist Huxley convincingly illustrated many of the similarities and differences between humans and apes in his 1863 book Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature. Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature is an 1863 book by Thomas Henry Huxley and arguably the first to discuss Human evolution. By the time Darwin published his own book on the subject, The Descent of Man, it was already a well-known interpretation of his theory, and the interpretation which made the theory highly controversial. The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex is a book on Evolutionary theory by English naturalist Charles Darwin, first Even many of Darwin's original supporters (such as Alfred Russel Wallace and Charles Lyell) did not like the idea that human beings could have evolved their impressive mental capacities and moral sensibilities through natural selection. Alfred Russel Wallace OM, FRS (8 January 1823 &ndash 7 November 1913 was an British naturalist, Explorer, Geographer Sir Charles Lyell 1st Baronet, KT, FRS (14 November 1797 &ndash 22 February 1875 was a Scottish Lawyer, Geologist, and protagonist Natural selection is the process by which favorable Heritable traits become more common in successive Generations of a Population of

Since the time of Carolus Linnaeus, scientists have considered the great apes to be the closest relatives of human beings because they look very similar. Carl Linnaeus (Latinized as Carolus Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as, May 23 new style (13 May old style 1707 who laid the foundations for In the 19th century, they speculated that the closest living relatives of humans are chimpanzees. Chimpanzee (often shortened to chimp) is the common name for the two extant Species of Apes in the Genus Pan. Based on the natural range of these creatures, they surmised that humans share a common ancestor with other African great apes and that fossils of these ancestors would be found in Africa. A group of organisms is said to have common descent if they have a common Ancestor. FOSSIL is a standard protocol for allowing serial communication for Telecommunications programs under the DOS Operating system. It is now accepted by virtually all biologists that humans are not only similar to the great apes but, in fact, are great apes.

It was only in the 1920s that such fossils were discovered in Africa. The 1920s is sometimes referred to as the " Jazz Age " or the " Roaring Twenties " when speaking about the United States and Canada FOSSIL is a standard protocol for allowing serial communication for Telecommunications programs under the DOS Operating system. In 1925, Raymond Dart described Australopithecus africanus. Year 1925 ( MCMXXV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Raymond Dart ( February 4 1893 &ndash November 22 1988) was an Australian Anatomist and anthropologist Australopithecus africanus was an early hominid, an Australopithecine, who lived between 2-3 million years ago in the Pliocene. ^[3] The type specimen was the Taung Child, an australopithecine infant discovered in a cave. In biology a type is that which fixes a name to a Taxon. Depending on the nomenclature code which is applied to the organism in question a type may be a specimen Taung Child is the fossilized skull of a young Australopithecus africanus individual The Genus Australopithecus ( Latin australis "of the south" Greek πίθηκος pithekos "ape" A cave is a natural underground void large enough for a human to enter This cave, in Taung, South Africa, was being mined for raw materials used to make concrete. Taung is a small Town situated in the North West Province of South Africa. The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa Mining is the extraction of valuable Minerals or other geological materials from the earth usually (but not always from an Ore body The child's remains were a remarkably well-preserved tiny skull and an endocranial cast of the individual's brain. An endocast or endocranial cast is a cast made of the mold formed by the impression the Brain makes on the inside of the Neurocranium (braincase providing Although the brain was small (410 cm³), its shape was rounded, unlike that of chimpanzees and gorillas, and more like a modern human brain. Also, the specimen showed short canine teeth, and the position of the foramen magnum was evidence of bipedal locomotion. "Cuspid" redirects here For the heart valves see Bicuspid valve and Tricuspid valve. In Anatomy, in the Occipital bone, the foramen magnum (Latin 'great hole' is one of the several oval or circular apertures in the base of the Skull (the Bipedalism is a form of Terrestrial locomotion where an organism moves by means of its two rear limbs All of these traits convinced Dart that the Taung baby was a bipedal human ancestor, a transitional form between apes and humans.

Another 20 years would pass before Dart's claims were taken seriously, following the discovery of more fossils that resembled his find. The prevailing view of the time was that a large brain evolved before bipedality. It was thought that intelligence on par with modern humans was a prerequisite to bipedalism.

The australopithecines are now thought to be immediate ancestors of the genus Homo, the group to which modern humans belong. ^[4] Both australopithecines and Homo sapiens are part of the tribe Hominini, but recent data has brought into doubt the position of A. Hominini is the tribe of Homininae that comprises humans ( Homo) Chimpanzees ( Pan) and their Extinct ancestors africanus as a direct ancestor of modern humans; it may well have been a dead-end cousin. ^[5] The australopithecines were originally classified as either gracile or robust. Robustness is the quality of being able to withstand stresses pressures or changes in procedure or circumstance The robust variety of Australopithecus has since been reclassified as Paranthropus, although it is still regarded as a subgenus of Australopithecus by some authors. The robust australopithecines, members of the Extinct Hominin genus Paranthropus (Greek para "beside" Greek anthropos "human" ^[6]

In the 1930s, when the robust specimens were first described, the Paranthropus genus was used. The 1930s were described as an abrupt shift to more radical and conservative lifestyles as countries were struggling to find a solution to the Great Depression. During the 1960s, the robust variety was moved into Australopithecus. The 1960s decade refers to the years from the beginning of 1960 to the end of 1969 The recent trend has been back to the original classification as a separate genus. ^[7]

Note: 1e +06 years = 1 million years = 1 Ma. Hominini is the tribe of Homininae that comprises humans ( Homo) Chimpanzees ( Pan) and their Extinct ancestors

Before Homo

The evolutionary history of the primates can be traced back for some 85 million years, as one of the oldest of all surviving placental mammal groups. A primate is a member of the biological order Primates ( Latin: "prime first rank" the group that contains Lemurs the Aye-aye Most paleontologists consider that primates share a common ancestor with the bats, another extremely ancient lineage, and that this ancestor probably lived during the late Cretaceous, together with the last dinosaurs. The Cretaceous (kriːˈteɪʃəs, usually abbreviated 'K' for its German translation "Kreide" is a geologic period and system, reaching from the end of The oldest known primates come from North America, but they were widespread in Eurasia and Africa as well, during the tropical conditions of the Paleocene and Eocene. The Paleocene or Palaeocene, "early dawn of the recent" is a geologic epoch that lasted from 65 The Eocene epoch (558 ± 02 - 339 ± 01 Ma) is a major division of the Geologic timescale and the second epoch of the Palaeogene period in

With the beginning of modern climates, marked by the formation of the first Antarctic ice in the early Oligocene around 40 million years ago, primates went extinct everywhere but Africa and southern Asia. The Oligocene is a geologic epoch of the Paleogene period and extends from about 33 One such primate from this time was Notharctus. Notharctus was an early Primate that inhabited Europe and North America 50 million years ago Fossil evidence found in Germany 20 years ago was determined to be about 16. 5 million years old, some 1. 5 million years older than similar species from East Africa. ^[8] It suggests that the primate lineage of the great apes first appeared in Eurasia and not Africa .

The discoveries suggest that the early ancestors of the hominids (the family of great apes and humans) migrated to Eurasia from Africa about 17 million years ago, just before these two continents were cut off from each other by an expansion of the Mediterranean Sea. A hominid is any member of the biological family Hominidae (the "great apes" including the extinct and extant Humans Chimpanzees Begun^[8] says that these primates flourished in Eurasia and that their lineage leading to the African apes and humans—Dryopithecus—migrated south from Europe or Western Asia into Africa. Dryopithecus was a Genus of Apes that is known from localities ranging from Eastern Africa into Eurasia. The surviving tropical population, which is seen most completely in the upper Eocene and lowermost Oligocene fossil beds of the Fayum depression southwest of Cairo, gave rise to all living primates—lemurs of Madagascar, lorises of Southeast Asia, galagos or "bush babies" of Africa, and the anthropoids; platyrrhines or New World monkeys, and catarrhines or Old World monkeys and the great apes and humans. Faiyum ( Arabic: الفيوم Coptic:) is a city in Middle Egypt and the capital of the Faiyum Governorate. Lemurs make up the infraorder Lemuriformes and are members of a group of Primates known as Prosimians The term "lemur" is derived from the Loris is the common name for the Strepsirrhine Primates of the subfamily Lorinae in family Lorisidae. Galagos, also known as bushbabies, bush babies or nagapies (meaning "little night monkeys" in Afrikaans) are small Nocturnal Anthropoid came from the Greek for "of human likeness" The New World monkeys are the four families of Primates that are found in Central and South America: Cebidae, Aotidae, Pitheciidae Catarrhini is a Parvorder of the Primates, one of the three major divisions of the Suborder Haplorrhini.

The earliest known catarrhine is Kamoyapithecus from uppermost Oligocene at Eragaleit in the northern Kenya rift valley, dated to 24 mya (millions of years before present). In Astronomy, Geology, and Paleontology, mya or " mya " is an abbreviation for "million years ago". Its ancestry is generally thought to be close to such genera as Aegyptopithecus, Propliopithecus, and Parapithecus from the Fayum, at around 35 mya. Aegyptopithecus, also called the Dawn Ape, is an early Fossil Catarrhine that predates the divergence between Hominoids (apes Propliopithecus is an Extinct Genus of Ape. The 40 cm (1 ft 4 in long creature resembled today's Gibbons Its Eyes faced There are no fossils from the intervening 11 million years. No near ancestor to South American platyrrhines, whose fossil record begins at around 30 mya, can be identified among the North African fossil species, and possibly lies in other forms that lived in West Africa that were caught up in the still-mysterious transatlantic sweepstakes that sent primates, rodents, boa constrictors, and cichlid fishes from Africa to South America sometime in the Oligocene.

In the early Miocene, after 22 mya, many kinds of arboreally adapted primitive catarrhines from East Africa suggest a long history of prior diversification. The Miocene is a geological epoch of the Neogene period and extends from about 23 Because the fossils at 20 mya include fragments attributed to Victoriapithecus, the earliest cercopithecoid; the other forms are (by default) grouped as hominoids, without clear evidence as to which are closest to living apes and humans. Victoriapithecus macinnesi was a Primate. It was described from a single Fossil specimen the oldest Old World monkey Skull fossil Among the presently recognized genera in this group, which ranges up to 13 mya, we find Proconsul, Rangwapithecus, Dendropithecus, Limnopithecus, Nacholapithecus, Equatorius, Nyanzapithecus, Afropithecus, Heliopithecus, and Kenyapithecus, all from East Africa. Proconsul was an early Genus of Primates that existed from 27 to 17 million years ago during the Miocene epoch first in Kenya Afropithecus was a Primate that lived in Africa and Saudi Arabia during the early to middle Miocene, 16-18 million years ago Kenyapithecus wickeri was a Fossil Ape discovered by Louis Leakey in 1961 at a site called Fort Ternan in Kenya. The presence of other generalized non-cercopithecids of middle Miocene age from sites far distant—Otavipithecus from cave deposits in Namibia, and Pierolapithecus and Dryopithecus from France, Spain and Austria—is evidence of a wide diversity of forms across Africa and the Mediterranean basin during the relatively warm and equable climatic regimes of the early and middle Miocene. Pierolapithecus catalaunicus is an extinct species of Primate which lived about 13 million years ago during the Miocene in what is now Hostalets Dryopithecus was a Genus of Apes that is known from localities ranging from Eastern Africa into Eurasia.

The youngest of the Miocene hominoids, Oreopithecus, is from 9 mya coal beds in Italy. The Swamp Ape ( Oreopithecus bambolii) is a prehistoric Primate Species from the Miocene epoch whose Fossils have been found in

Molecular evidence indicates that the lineage of gibbons (family Hylobatidae) became distinct between 18 and 12 Ma, and that of orangutans (subfamily Ponginae) at about 12 Ma; we have no fossils that clearly document the ancestry of gibbons, which may have originated in a so far unknown South East Asian hominid population, but fossil proto-orangutans may be represented by Ramapithecus from India and Griphopithecus from Turkey, dated to around 10 Ma. Gibbons are the small Apes in the family Hylobatidae. The family is divided into four genera based on their Diploid Chromosome Gibbons are the small Apes in the family Hylobatidae. The family is divided into four genera based on their Diploid Chromosome The orangutans are two Species of great apes known for their intelligence long arms and reddish-brown hair Sivapithecus is a Genus of Extinct Primates Fossil remains of animals now assigned to this genus dated from 12

It has been suggested that species close to last common ancestors of gorillas, chimpanzees and humans may be represented by Nakalipithecus fossils found in Kenya and Ouranopithecus found in Greece. Nakalipithecus nakayamai is a prehistoric Great ape Species that lived in today's Kenya region early in the Late Miocene, 10 Ouranopithecus macedoniensis, sometimes called Graecopithecus freybergi, is a prehistoric Hominid species found in Greece and Molecular evidence suggests that between 8 and 4 mya, first the gorillas, and then the chimpanzee (genus Pan) split off from the line leading to the humans; human DNA is 98. Gorillas, the largest of the living Primates are ground-dwelling Herbivores that inhabit the Forests of Africa. Chimpanzee (often shortened to chimp) is the common name for the two extant Species of Apes in the Genus Pan. 4 percent identical to the DNA of chimpanzees. ^[9] The fossil record of gorillas and chimpanzees is quite limited ^[10]. Both poor preservation (rain forest soils tend to be acidic and dissolve bone) and sampling bias probably contribute to this problem.

Other Hominines, however, likely adapted (along with antelopes, hyenas, dogs, pigs, elephants, and horses) to the somewhat drier environments outside the equatorial belt (which contracted after about 8 million years ago; reference needed) and their fossils are relatively well known. Homininae is a subfamily of Hominidae, including Humans and some extinct relatives as well as the Gorillas and the Chimpanzees It comprises The earliest are Sahelanthropus tchadensis (7–6 mya) and Orrorin tugenensis (6 mya), followed by:

• Ardipithecus (5. Sahelanthropus tchadensis is a Fossil Ape that lived approximately 7-6 Million years ago. Orrorin tugenensis is considered to be the oldest known Hominin ancestor related to modern Humans and is the only species classified in genus Ardipithecus is a very early hominin Genus ( Subfamily Homininae) which lived about 4 5–4. 4 mya), with species Ar. kadabba and Ar. ramidus;
• Australopithecus (4–2 mya), with species Au. anamensis, Au. afarensis, Au. africanus, Au. bahrelghazali, and Au. garhi;
• Kenyanthropus (3-2. Ardipithecus is a very early hominin Genus ( Subfamily Homininae) which lived about 4 Ardipithecus is a very early hominin Genus ( Subfamily Homininae) which lived about 4 The Genus Australopithecus ( Latin australis "of the south" Greek πίθηκος pithekos "ape" Australopithecus anamensis is a Fossil Species of Australopithecus. Australopithecus afarensis is an extinct Hominid which lived between 3 Australopithecus africanus was an early hominid, an Australopithecine, who lived between 2-3 million years ago in the Pliocene. Australopithecus bahrelghazali is a Fossil Hominin that was first discovered in 1993 by the Paleontologist Michel Brunet Australopithecus garhi is a Gracile australopithecine species whose fossils were discovered in 1996 by a research team led by Ethiopian Kenyanthropus platyops is a 35 to 32 million year old ( Pliocene) Extinct Hominin Species that was discovered in Lake Turkana 7 mya), with species Kenyanthropus platyops
• Paranthropus (3–1. Kenyanthropus platyops is a 35 to 32 million year old ( Pliocene) Extinct Hominin Species that was discovered in Lake Turkana The robust australopithecines, members of the Extinct Hominin genus Paranthropus (Greek para "beside" Greek anthropos "human" 2 mya), with species P. aethiopicus, P. boisei, and P. robustus;
• Homo (2 mya–present), with species Homo habilis, Homo rudolfensis, Homo ergaster, Homo georgicus, Homo antecessor, Homo cepranensis, Homo erectus, Homo heidelbergensis, Homo rhodesiensis, Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, Homo sapiens idaltu, Archaic Homo sapiens, Homo floresiensis

Genus Homo

The word homo is Latin for "human", chosen originally by Carolus Linnaeus in his classification system. Paranthropus aethiopicus is an extinct species of Hominid. The finding discovered in 1985 in West Turkana, Kenya, KNM WT Paranthropus boisei (originally called Zinjanthropus boisei and then Australopithecus boisei until recently was an early Paranthropus robustus was originally discovered in Southern Africa in 1938 Homo is the Genus that includes modern humans and their close relatives Homo habilis (ˈhoʊmoʊ ˈhæbəlɪs ("handy man" "skillful person" is a Species of the genus Homo, which lived Homo rudolfensis is a Fossil Hominin Species discovered by Bernard Ngeneo, a member of a team led by anthropologist Richard Homo ergaster ("working man" is an extinct Hominid Species (or subspecies according to some authorities which lived throughout eastern Homo georgicus is a species of Hominin that was suggested in 2002 to describe fossil skulls and jaws found in Dmanisi, Georgia Homo antecessor is an extinct Hominin and a potential distinct species dating from 1 Homo cepranensis is a proposed name for a Hominin species discovered in 1994 known from only one skull cap Homo erectus ( Latin: "upright man" is an extinct species of the genus Homo, believed to have been the first hominin Homo heidelbergensis ("Heidelberg Man" is an Extinct Species of the Genus Homo which may be the direct ancestor Homo rhodesiensis is a possible Hominin species described from the fossil Rhodesian Man. The Neanderthal (neɪˈændərtɑːl also with /niː-/ and /-θɔːl/ or Neandertal, is an extinct member of the Homo genus that is known from Homo sapiens idaltu is an extinct Subspecies of Homo sapiens that lived almost 160000 years ago in Pleistocene The term Archaic Homo sapiens refers generally to the earliest members of the species Homo sapiens. Homo floresiensis ("Man of Flores " nicknamed Hobbit) is a possible Species in the Genus Homo Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Carl Linnaeus (Latinized as Carolus Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as, May 23 new style (13 May old style 1707 who laid the foundations for It is often translated as "man", although this can lead to confusion, given that the English word "man" can be generic like homo, but can also specifically refer to males. Latin for "man" in the gender-specific sense is vir (pronounced weer), cognate with "virile" and "werewolf". Cognates in Linguistics are words that have a common origin They may occur within a language such as shirt and skirt as two English words descended from The word "human" is from humanus, the adjectival form of homo.

In modern taxonomy, Homo sapiens is the only extant species of its genus, Homo. In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. Homo is the Genus that includes modern humans and their close relatives Likewise, the ongoing study of the origins of Homo sapiens often demonstrates that there were other Homo species, all of which are now extinct. While some of these other species might have been ancestors of H. sapiens, many were likely our "cousins", having speciated away from our ancestral line. ^[11] There is not yet a consensus as to which of these groups should count as separate species and which as subspecies of another species. In some cases this is due to the paucity of fossils, in other cases it is due to the slight differences used to classify species in the Homo genus. The Sahara pump theory provides an explanation of the early variation in the genus Homo. The Sahara Pump Theory explains how flora and fauna left Africa to penetrate the Middle East and beyond to Europe and Asia

Homo habilis

H. habilis lived from about 2. Homo habilis (ˈhoʊmoʊ ˈhæbəlɪs ("handy man" "skillful person" is a Species of the genus Homo, which lived 4 to 1. 4 million years ago (mya). In Astronomy, Geology, and Paleontology, mya or " mya " is an abbreviation for "million years ago". H. habilis, the first species of the genus Homo, evolved in South and East Africa in the late Pliocene or early Pleistocene, 2. The Pliocene epoch (spelled Pleiocene in some older texts is the period in the Geologic timescale that extends The Pleistocene ('plaɪstəsin is the epoch from 18 million to 10000 years BP covering the world's recent period 5–2 mya, when it diverged from the Australopithecines. H. habilis had smaller molars and larger brains than the Australopithecines, and made tools from stone and perhaps animal bones. Molars are the rearmost and most complicated kind of Tooth in most Mammals In many mammals they grind food hence the Latin name mola, " Millstone The brain is the center of the Nervous system in animals All Vertebrates and the majority of Invertebrates have a brain A broader definition of a tool is an entity used to interface between two or more domains that facilitates more effective action of one domain upon the other In Geology, rock is a naturally occurring aggregate of Minerals and/or Mineraloids The Earth's outer solid layer the ‘ Lithosphere Bones are rigid organs that form part of the Endoskeleton of Vertebrates They function to move support and protect the various organs of the body produce One of the first known hominids, it was nicknamed 'handy man' by its discoverer, Louis Leakey. Louis Seymour Bazett Leakey ( LSB Leakey) ( August 7, 1903 – October 1 1972) was a Kenyan archaeologist and naturalist Some scientists have proposed moving this species out of Homo and into Australopithecus. The Genus Australopithecus ( Latin australis "of the south" Greek πίθηκος pithekos "ape"

Homo rudolfensis and Homo georgicus

These are proposed species names for fossils from about 1. 9–1. 6 mya, the relation of which with H. habilis is not yet clear.

• H. rudolfensis refers to a single, incomplete skull from Kenya. Homo rudolfensis is a Fossil Hominin Species discovered by Bernard Ngeneo, a member of a team led by anthropologist Richard Scientists have suggested that this was just another habilis, but this has not been confirmed. ^[12]
• H. georgicus, from Georgia, may be an intermediate form between H. Homo georgicus is a species of Hominin that was suggested in 2002 to describe fossil skulls and jaws found in Dmanisi, Georgia Georgia ( საქართველო, Sakartvelo) is a Transcontinental country in the Caucasus region situated at the dividing line between habilis and H. erectus,^[13] or a sub-species of H. erectus. ^[14]

Homo ergaster and Homo erectus

One current view of the temporal and geographical distribution of hominid populations. Other interpretations differ mainly in the taxonomy and geographical distribution of hominid species.

The first fossils of Homo erectus were discovered by Dutch physician Eugene Dubois in 1891 on the Indonesian island of Java. Marie Eugène François Thomas Dubois ( 28 January 1858 – 16 December 1940) was a Dutch Anatomist. The Republic of Indonesia ( (Republik Indonesia is a Country in Southeast Asia. He originally gave the material the name Pithecanthropus erectus based on its morphology that he considered to be intermediate between that of humans and apes. ^[15] H. erectus lived from about 1. Homo erectus ( Latin: "upright man" is an extinct species of the genus Homo, believed to have been the first hominin 8 mya to 70,000 years ago. Often the early phase, from 1. 8 to 1. 25 mya, is considered to be a separate species, H. ergaster, or it is seen as a subspecies of H. Homo ergaster ("working man" is an extinct Hominid Species (or subspecies according to some authorities which lived throughout eastern erectus, Homo erectus ergaster. Homo erectus ( Latin: "upright man" is an extinct species of the genus Homo, believed to have been the first hominin

In the Early Pleistocene, 1. 5–1 mya, in Africa, Asia, and Europe, presumably, some populations of Homo habilis evolved larger brains and made more elaborate stone tools; these differences and others are sufficient for anthropologists to classify them as a new species, H. erectus. Homo habilis (ˈhoʊmoʊ ˈhæbəlɪs ("handy man" "skillful person" is a Species of the genus Homo, which lived Homo erectus ( Latin: "upright man" is an extinct species of the genus Homo, believed to have been the first hominin In addition H. erectus was the first human ancestor to walk truly upright. ^[16] This was made possible by the evolution of locking knees and a different location of the foramen magnum (the hole in the skull where the spine enters). In Anatomy, in the Occipital bone, the foramen magnum (Latin 'great hole' is one of the several oval or circular apertures in the base of the Skull (the They may have used fire to cook their meat. Fire is the heat and light energy released during a Chemical reaction, in particular a combustion reaction. Cooking is the process of preparing Food by applying Heat, selecting measuring and combining of ingredients in an ordered procedure for producing safe and edible In modern English usage meat most often refers to Animal tissue used as food mostly Skeletal muscle and associated Fat, but it may also refer

See also: Control of fire by early humans

A famous example of Homo erectus is Peking Man; others were found in Asia (notably in Indonesia), Africa, and Europe. The control of Fire by early humans was a turning point in human cultural evolution that allowed for humans to proliferate due to the incorporation Peking Man (now in pinyin as Beijing Man) also called Sinanthropus pekinensis (currently Homo erectus pekinensis) is an example of Homo erectus Many paleoanthropologists are now using the term Homo ergaster for the non-Asian forms of this group, and reserving H. erectus only for those fossils found in the Asian region and meeting certain skeletal and dental requirements which differ slightly from ergaster.

Homo cepranensis and Homo antecessor

These are proposed as species that may be intermediate between H. erectus and H. heidelbergensis.

• H. antecessor is known from fossils from Spain and England that are 1. Homo antecessor is an extinct Hominin and a potential distinct species dating from 1 2 mya–500,000 years old. ^{[17] [18]}
• H. cepranensis refers to a single skull cap from Italy, estimated to be about 800,000 years old. Homo cepranensis is a proposed name for a Hominin species discovered in 1994 known from only one skull cap ^[19]

Homo heidelbergensis

H. heidelbergensis (Heidelberg Man) lived from about 800,000 to about 300,000 years ago. Homo heidelbergensis ("Heidelberg Man" is an Extinct Species of the Genus Homo which may be the direct ancestor Heidelberg is a city in Baden-Württemberg, Germany. As of 2006 over 140000 people live within the city's area Also proposed as Homo sapiens heidelbergensis or Homo sapiens paleohungaricus. ^[20]

Homo rhodesiensis, and the Gawis cranium

• H. rhodesiensis, estimated to be 300,000–125,000 years old. Homo rhodesiensis is a possible Hominin species described from the fossil Rhodesian Man. Most current experts believe Rhodesian Man to be within the group of Homo heidelbergensis though other designations such as Archaic Homo sapiens and Homo sapiens rhodesiensis have also been proposed. Homo heidelbergensis ("Heidelberg Man" is an Extinct Species of the Genus Homo which may be the direct ancestor The term Archaic Homo sapiens refers generally to the earliest members of the species Homo sapiens. Homo rhodesiensis is a possible Hominin species described from the fossil Rhodesian Man.
• In February 2006 a fossil, the Gawis cranium, was found which might possibly be a species intermediate between H. The Gawis cranium is a hominid skull discovered on February 16 2006 near the drainage of Gawis, a tributary of the Awash River in the Afar Depression erectus and H. sapiens or one of many evolutionary dead ends. The skull from Gawis, Ethiopia, is believed to be 500,000–250,000 years old. Only summary details are known, and no peer reviewed studies have been released by the finding team. Gawis man's facial features suggest its being either an intermediate species or an example of a "Bodo man" female. ^[21]

Homo neanderthalensis

H. neanderthalensis lived from about 250,000 to as recent as 30,000 years ago. The Neanderthal (neɪˈændərtɑːl also with /niː-/ and /-θɔːl/ or Neandertal, is an extinct member of the Homo genus that is known from Also proposed as Homo sapiens neanderthalensis: there is ongoing debate over whether the 'Neanderthal Man' was a separate species, Homo neanderthalensis, or a subspecies of H. The Neanderthal (neɪˈændərtɑːl also with /niː-/ and /-θɔːl/ or Neandertal, is an extinct member of the Homo genus that is known from sapiens. ^[22] While the debate remains unsettled, evidence from mitochondrial DNA and Y-chromosomal DNA sequencing indicates that little or no gene flow occurred between H. Mitochondrial DNA ( mtDNA) is the DNA located in Organelles called mitochondria. The Y chromosome is the sex-determining Chromosome in most Mammals including Humans In mammals it contains the gene SRY, which triggers Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) is a Nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known neanderthalensis and H. sapiens, and, therefore, the two were separate species. ^[23] In 1997, Dr. Year 1997 ( MCMXCVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1997 Gregorian calendar Mark Stoneking, then an associate professor of anthropology at Pennsylvania State University, stated: "These results [based on mitochondrial DNA extracted from Neanderthal bone] indicate that Neanderthals did not contribute mitochondrial DNA to modern humans… Neanderthals are not our ancestors. The Pennsylvania State University (commonly known as Penn State) is a state-related, land-grant, space grant public research University Mitochondrial DNA ( mtDNA) is the DNA located in Organelles called mitochondria. " Subsequent investigation of a second source of Neanderthal DNA supported these findings. ^[24] However, supporters of the multiregional hypothesis point to recent studies indicating non-African nuclear DNA heritage dating to one mya,^[25] although the reliability of these studies has been questioned. In paleoanthropology, the multiregional hypothesis is one of two accounts of the origin of anatomically modern humans Homo sapiens. ^[26]

Homo sapiens

Main article: Early Homo sapiens

H. sapiens ("sapiens" means wise or intelligent) has lived from about 250,000 years ago to the present. The term Archaic Homo sapiens refers generally to the earliest members of the species Homo sapiens. Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus Between 400,000 years ago and the second interglacial period in the Middle Pleistocene, around 250,000 years ago, the trend in cranial expansion and the elaboration of stone tool technologies developed, providing evidence for a transition from H. The Pleistocene ('plaɪstəsin is the epoch from 18 million to 10000 years BP covering the world's recent period Cranial capacity is a measure of the volume of the interior of the Cranium (also called the braincase or brainpan of those Vertebrates who have both a cranium and erectus to H. sapiens. Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus The direct evidence suggests there was a migration of H. Human migration denotes any movement by Humans from one locality to another sometimes over long distances or erectus out of Africa, then a further speciation of H. Speciation is the Evolutionary process by which new biological Species arise sapiens from H. erectus in Africa (there is little evidence that this speciation occurred elsewhere). Then a subsequent migration within and out of Africa eventually replaced the earlier dispersed H. In Paleoanthropology, the recent African origin of modern humans is one of two hypotheses of the origin of anatomically modern humans Homo sapiens sapiens erectus. This migration and origin theory is usually referred to as the single-origin theory. In Paleoanthropology, the recent African origin of modern humans is one of two hypotheses of the origin of anatomically modern humans Homo sapiens sapiens However, the current evidence does not preclude multiregional speciation, either. This is a hotly debated area in paleoanthropology. Paleoanthropology, which combines the disciplines of Paleontology and Physical anthropology, is the study of ancient humans as found in Fossil hominid

Current research has established that human beings are genetically highly homogenous, that is the DNA of individuals is more alike than usual for most species, which may have resulted from their relatively recent evolution or the Toba catastrophe. According to the Toba catastrophe theory, 70000 to 75000 years ago a supervolcanic event at Lake Toba, on Sumatra, reduced the world's human population Distinctive genetic characteristics have arisen, however, primarily as the result of small groups of people moving into new environmental circumstances. These adapted traits are a very small component of the Homo sapiens genome and include such outward "racial" characteristics as skin color and nose form in addition to internal characteristics such as the ability to breathe more efficiently in high altitudes.

H. sapiens idaltu, from Ethiopia, lived from about 160,000 years ago (proposed subspecies). Homo sapiens idaltu is an extinct Subspecies of Homo sapiens that lived almost 160000 years ago in Pleistocene It is the oldest known anatomically modern human.

Homo floresiensis

Main article: Homo floresiensis

H. floresiensis, which lived about 100,000–12,000 years ago has been nicknamed hobbit for its small size, possibly a result of insular dwarfism. Homo floresiensis ("Man of Flores " nicknamed Hobbit) is a possible Species in the Genus Homo Homo floresiensis ("Man of Flores " nicknamed Hobbit) is a possible Species in the Genus Homo In J R R Tolkien 's legendarium, Hobbits are a diminutive race that inhabit the lands of Middle-earth. Insular dwarfism is the process and condition of the reduction in size of large animals – almost always Mammals – when their gene pool is limited to a very small environment ^[27] H. floresiensis is intriguing both for its size and its age, being a concrete example of a recent species of the genus Homo that exhibits derived traits not shared with modern humans. In other words, H. floresiensis share a common ancestor with modern humans, but split from the modern human lineage and followed a distinct evolutionary path. The main find was a skeleton believed to be a woman of about 30 years of age. Found in 2003 it has been dated to approximately 18,000 years old. The living woman was estimated to be one meter in height, with a brain volume of just 380 cm³ (considered small for a chimpanzee and less than a third of the H. sapiens average of 1400 cm³).

However, there is an ongoing debate over whether H. floresiensis is indeed a separate species. ^[28] Some scientists presently believe that H. floresiensis was a modern H. sapiens suffering from pathological dwarfism. ^[29] This hypothesis is supported in part, because the modern humans who live on Flores, the island where the skeleton was found, are pygmies. Pygmies (singular Pygmy) refers to a member of any human group whose adult males grow to less than 150 cm (4 feet 11 inches in average height or less than 155 cm This coupled with pathological dwarfism could indeed create a hobbit-like human. The other major attack on H. floresiensis is that it was found with tools only associated with H. sapiens. ^[29]

Comparative table of Homo species

Use of tools

Using tools has been interpreted as a sign of intelligence, and it has been theorized that tool use may have stimulated certain aspects of human evolution - most notably the continued expansion of the human brain. The brain is the center of the Nervous system in animals All Vertebrates and the majority of Invertebrates have a brain Paleontology has yet to explain the expansion of this organ over millions of years despite being extremely demanding in terms of energy consumption. Palaeontology redirects here For the Scientific journal, see Palaeontology (journal. The brain of a modern human consumes about 20 Watts (400 kilocalories per day), which is one fifth of the energy consumption of a human body. The watt (symbol W) is the SI derived unit of power, equal to one Joule of energy per Second. Increased tool use would allow for hunting and consuming meat, which is more energy-rich than plants. Researchers have suggested that early hominids were thus under evolutionary pressure to increase their capacity to create and use tools. ^[31]

Precisely when early humans started to use tools is difficult to determine, because the more primitive these tools are (for example, sharp-edged stones) the more difficult it is to decide whether they are natural objects or human artifacts. There is some evidence that the australopithecines (4 mya) may have used broken bones as tools, but this is debated.

Stone tools

Stone tools are first attested around 2. 6 million years ago, when H. habilis in Eastern Africa used so-called pebble tools, choppers made out of round pebbles that had been split by simple strikes. Oldowan (earlier spelled Olduwan or sometimes Oldawan) is an anthropological designation for an industrial complex of Stone tools used by define a chopper as a Pebble tool with an irregular cutting edge formed through the removal of flakes from one side of a stone ^[32] This marks the beginning of the Paleolithic, or Old Stone Age; its end is taken to be the end of the last Ice Age, around 10,000 years ago. The term Paleolithic (or Palaeolithic) (from Greek παλαιός palaios, " Old " and λίθος Lithos, "stone" The Paleolithic is subdivided into the Lower Paleolithic (Early Stone Age, ending around 350,000–300,000 years ago), the Middle Paleolithic (Middle Stone Age, until 50,000–30,000 years ago), and the Upper Paleolithic. The Lower Paleolithic (or Lower Palaeolithic) is the earliest subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age. The Middle Paleolithic (or Middle Palaeolithic) is the second subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age as it is understood in Europe, The Upper Paleolithic (or Upper Palaeolithic) is the third and last subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age as it is understood in Europe Africa

The period from 700,000–300,000 years ago is also known as the Acheulean, when H. Acheulean (also spelled Acheulian,) is the name given to an Archaeological industry of Stone tool manufacture associated with prehistoric Hominins ergaster (or erectus) made large stone hand-axes out of flint and quartzite, at first quite rough (Early Acheulian), later "retouched" by additional, more subtle strikes at the sides of the flakes. A handaxe is a bifacial Lower and Middle Paleolithic core Tool. Flint (or flintstone) is a hard sedimentary Cryptocrystalline form of the Mineral Quartz, categorized as a variety of Chert Quartzite (from German Quarzit) not to be confused with the Mineral Quartz, is a hard Metamorphic rock which was originally Archaeology, a lithic flake is a "portion of rock removed from an objective piece by percussion or pressure" and may also be referred to as a chip or spall or collectively After 350,000 BP (Before Present) the more refined so-called Levallois technique was developed. Before Present (BP years are a time scale used in Archaeology, Geology, and other scientific disciplines to specify when events in the past occurred The Levallois technique is a name given by Archaeologists to a distinctive type of flint knapping developed by humans during the Palaeolithic period It consisted of a series of consecutive strikes, by which scrapers, slicers ("racloirs"), needles, and flattened needles were made. ^[32] Finally, after about 50,000 BP, ever more refined and specialized flint tools were made by the Neanderthals and the immigrant Cro-Magnons (knives, blades, skimmers). Cro-Magnon ( French) is one of the main types of Homo sapiens of the European Upper Paleolithic, living approximately 40000 to 10000 years In this period they also started to make tools out of bone.

"Modern man" debate and the Great Leap Forward

Until about 50,000–40,000 years ago the use of stone tools seems to have progressed stepwise: each phase (habilis, ergaster, neanderthal) started at a higher level than the previous one, but once that phase had started further development was slow. In other words, one might call these Homo species culturally conservative. After 50,000 BP, what Jared Diamond, author of The Third Chimpanzee, and other anthropologists characterize as a "Great Leap Forward," human culture apparently started to change at much greater speed: "modern" humans started to bury their dead carefully, made clothing out of hides, developed sophisticated hunting techniques (such as pitfall traps, or driving animals to fall off cliffs), and made cave paintings. TemplateInfobox writer --> Jared Mason Diamond (b 10 September, 1937) is an American Evolutionary biologist The Third Chimpanzee The Evolution and Future of the Human Animal (ISBN 978-0060-98403-8 originally published in English in 1991 as The Rise and Fall of the Behavioral modernity is a term used in Anthropology, Archeology and Sociology to refer to a list of traits that distinguish present day humans and their Cave paintings are Paintings on Cave walls and ceilings and the term is used especially for those dating to Prehistoric times ^[33] This speed-up of cultural change seems connected with the arrival of behaviorally modern humans, Homo sapiens. As human culture advanced, different populations of humans began to create novelty in existing technologies. Artifacts such as fish hooks, buttons and bone needles begin to show signs of variation among different populations of humans, something that had not been seen in human cultures prior to 50,000 BP. Typically, neanderthalensis populations are found with technology similar to other contemporary neanderthalensis populations.

Theoretically, modern human behavior is taken to include four ingredient capabilities: abstract thinking (concepts free from specific examples), planning (taking steps to achieve a further goal), innovation (finding new solutions), and symbolic behaviour (such as images, or rituals). --> Abstraction is the process or result of generalization by reducing the information Planning in Organizations and Public policy is both the organizational process of creating and maintaining a Plan; and the psychological process of The term innovation means a new way of doing something It may refer to incremental radical and revolutionary changes in thinking products processes or organisations Among concrete examples of modern human behaviour, anthropologists include specialization of tools, use of jewelry and images (such as cave drawings), organization of living space, rituals (for example, burials with grave gifts), specialized hunting techniques, exploration of less hospitable geographical areas, and barter trade networks. Barter is a type of Trade in which goods or services are directly exchanged Debate continues whether there was indeed a "revolution" leading to modern humans ("the big bang of human consciousness"), or a more gradual evolution. ^[34]

Models of human evolution

Today, all humans are classified as belonging to the species Homo sapiens sapiens. Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus However, this is not the first species of hominids: the first species of genus Homo, Homo habilis evolved in East Africa at least 2 million years ago, and members of this species populated different parts of Africa in a relatively short time. Homo erectus evolved more than 1. 8 million years ago, and by 1. 5 million years ago had spread throughout the Old World. Virtually all physical anthropologists agree that Homo sapiens evolved out of Homo erectus. Anthropologists have been divided as to whether Homo sapiens evolved as one interconnected species from H. erectus (called the Multiregional Model, or the Regional Continuity Model), or evolved only in East Africa, and then migrated out of Africa and replaced H. erectus populations throughout the Old World (called the Out of Africa Model or the Complete Replacement Model). Anthropologists continue to debate both possibilities, and the evidence is technically ambiguous as to which model is correct, although most anthropologists currently favor the Out of Africa model.

Multiregional model

Main article: Multiregional hypothesis

Advocates of the Multiregional model, primarily Milford Wolpoff and his associates, have argued that the simultaneous evolution of H. In paleoanthropology, the multiregional hypothesis is one of two accounts of the origin of anatomically modern humans Homo sapiens. Milford H Wolpoff (born 1942 to Ruth (Silver and Ben Wolpoff Chicago) is a Paleoanthropologist, and since 1977, a professor of Anthropology sapiens in different parts of Europe and Asia would have been possible if there was a degree of gene flow between archaic populations. In Population genetics, gene flow (also known as gene migration) is the transfer of Alleles of Genes from one Population to another ^[35] Similarities of morphological features between archaic European and Chinese populations and modern H. sapiens from the same regions, Wolpoff argues, support a regional continuity only possible within the Multiregional model. ^[36] Wolpoff and others further argue that this model is consistent with clinal patterns of phenotypic variation (Wolpoff 1993).

Out of Africa model

See also: Recent single origin hypothesis

According to the Out of Africa Model, developed by Chris Stringer and Peter Andrews, modern H. In Paleoanthropology, the recent African origin of modern humans is one of two hypotheses of the origin of anatomically modern humans Homo sapiens sapiens Chris Stringer (born 1947 is a British Anthropologist and one of the leading proponents of the Recent single-origin hypothesis or "Out of Africa" sapiens evolved in Africa 200,000 years ago. Homo sapiens began migrating from Africa between 70,000 - 50,000 years ago and would eventually replace existing hominid species in Europe and Asia. ^[37][38] The Out of Africa Model has gained support by recent research using mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). Mitochondrial DNA ( mtDNA) is the DNA located in Organelles called mitochondria. After analysing genealogy trees constructed using 133 types of mtDNA, they concluded that all were descended from a woman from Africa, dubbed Mitochondrial Eve. Mitochondrial Eve ( mt-mrca) is the name given by researchers to the woman who is defined as the Matrilineal most recent common ancestor (MRCA for all currently ^[39]

There are differing theories on whether there was a single exodus, or several (a Multiple Dispersal Model). A Multiple Dispersal Model involves the Southern Dispersal theory,^[40] which has gained support in recent years from genetic, linguistic and archaeological evidence. In this theory, there was a coastal dispersal of modern humans from the Horn of Africa around 70,000 years ago. This group helped to populate Southeast Asia and Oceania, explaining the discovery of early human sites in these areas much earlier than those in the Levant. A second wave of humans dispersed across the Sinai peninsula into Asia, resulting in the bulk of human population for Eurasia. This second group possessed a more sophisticated tool technology and was less dependent on coastal food sources than the original group. Much of the evidence for the first group's expansion would have been destroyed by the rising sea levels at the end of the Holocene era. ^[40]

Comparison of the two models

In a recent article, Leonard Lieberman and Fatimah Jackson have called attention to the fact that although the concepts of cline, population, and ethnicity, as well as humanitarian and political concerns, have led many scientists away from the notion of race, a recent survey showed that physical anthropologists were evenly divided as to whether race is a valid biological concept. Noting that among physical anthropologists the vast majority of opposition to the race concept comes from population geneticists, any new support for a biological concept of race will likely come from another source, namely, the study of human evolution. They therefore ask what, if any, implications current models of human evolution may have for any biological conception of race. ^[41]

Lieberman and Jackson have related the multiregional theory to race with the following statement:

Lieberman and Jackson have related the Out of Africa theory to race with the following comment:

Lieberman and Jackson have argued that while advocates of both the Multiregional Model and the Out of Africa Model use the word race and make racial assumptions, none define the term. ^[42] They conclude that "Each model has implications that both magnify and minimize the differences between races. Yet each model seems to take race and races as a conceptual reality. The net result is that those anthropologists who prefer to view races as a reality are encouraged to do so" and conclude that students of human evolution would be better off avoiding the word race, and instead describe genetic differences in terms of populations and clinal gradations. ^[44]

Notable human evolution researchers

• James Burnett, Lord Monboddo, a British judge most famous today as a founder of modern comparative historical linguistics
• Charles Darwin, a British naturalist who documented considerable evidence that species originate through evolutionary change
• Richard Dawkins, a British ethologist, evolutionary biologist who has promoted a gene-centered view of evolution
• J. B. S. Haldane, a British geneticist and evolutionary biologist
• William D. Hamilton, a British Evolutionary Biologist who expounded a rigorous genetic basis for kin selection, and on the evolution of HIV and other human diseases. James Burnett Lord Monboddo ( October 25, 1714 - May 26, 1799) was a Scottish Judge, scholar of language evolution and Charles Robert Darwin (February 12 1809 &ndash April 19 1882 was an English naturalist, who realised and demonstrated that all Species of life Clinton Richard Dawkins, FRS, FRSL (born 26 March 1941 is a British ethologist, evolutionary biologist, and Popular science The gene-centered view of evolution, gene selection theory or selfish gene theory holds that Natural selection acts through differential survival of competing John Burdon Sanderson Haldane FRS ( 5 November 1892 &ndash 1 December 1964) known as Jack (but who used 'J William Donald Hamilton, FRS ( 1 August 1936 &mdash 7 March 2000) was a British Evolutionary biologist From the time of antiquity field biologists have observed that some organisms tend to exhibit strategies that favor the reproductive success of their relatives even at a cost to their own survival Human immunodeficiency virus ( HIV) is a Lentivirus (a member of the Retrovirus family that can lead to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
• Sir Alister Hardy, a British zoologist, who first hypothesised the aquatic ape theory of human evolution
• Henry McHenry, an American anthropologist who specializes in studies of human evolution, the origins of bipedality, and paleoanthropology
• Louis Leakey, an African archaeologist and naturalist whose work was important in establishing human evolutionary development in Africa
• Richard Leakey, an African paleontologist and archaeologist, son of Louis Leakey
• Svante Pääbo, a Swedish biologist specializing in evolutionary genetics
• Jeffrey H. Schwartz, an American physical anthropologist and professor of biological anthropology
• Chris Stringer, anthropologist, leading proponent of the recent single origin hypothesis
• Alan Templeton, geneticist and statistician, proponent of the multiregional hypothesis
• Erik Trinkaus, a prominent American paleoanthropologist and expert on Neanderthal biology and human evolution
• Milford H. Wolpoff, an American paleoanthropologist who is the leading proponent of the multiregional evolution hypothesis

Species list

This list is in chronological order by genus. Sir Alister Clavering Hardy ( 10 February 1896 &ndash 22 May 1985) was an Oxford -educated Marine biologist, expert on Henry Malcolm McHenry (born May 19, 1944) PhD is a professor of Anthropology at the University of California Davis, specializing in studies Louis Seymour Bazett Leakey ( LSB Leakey) ( August 7, 1903 – October 1 1972) was a Kenyan archaeologist and naturalist Richard Erskine Frere Leakey (born 19 December 1944 in Nairobi, Kenya) is a Kenyan politician Svante Pääbo (born April 20, 1955) is a Biologist specializing in evolutionary Genetics. Jeffrey Hugh Schwartz, PhD (b March 6 1948 is an American physical anthropologist and Professor of biological Anthropology at the University Chris Stringer (born 1947 is a British Anthropologist and one of the leading proponents of the Recent single-origin hypothesis or "Out of Africa" Alan Templeton is a United States Geneticist and statistician from Washington University in St Erik Trinkaus, PhD ( December 24, 1948) is a prominent Paleoanthropologist and expert on Neanderthal Biology and human evolution Milford H Wolpoff (born 1942 to Ruth (Silver and Ben Wolpoff Chicago) is a Paleoanthropologist, and since 1977, a professor of Anthropology In paleoanthropology, the multiregional hypothesis is one of two accounts of the origin of anatomically modern humans Homo sapiens. A genus (plural genera from Γένος Latin genus "descent family type gender" is a low-level Taxonomic

• Sahelanthropus
  • Sahelanthropus tchadensis
• Orrorin
  • Orrorin tugenensis
• Ardipithecus
  • Ardipithecus kadabba
  • Ardipithecus ramidus
• Australopithecus
  • Australopithecus anamensis
  • Australopithecus afarensis
  • Australopithecus bahrelghazali
  • Australopithecus africanus
  • Australopithecus garhi
• Paranthropus
  • Paranthropus aethiopicus
  • Paranthropus boisei
  • Paranthropus robustus
• Kenyanthropus
  • Kenyanthropus platyops
• Homo
  • Homo habilis
  • Homo rudolfensis
  • Homo ergaster
  • Homo georgicus
  • Homo erectus
  • Homo cepranensis
  • Homo antecessor
  • Homo heidelbergensis
  • Homo rhodesiensis
  • Homo neanderthalensis
  • Homo sapiens idaltu
  • Homo sapiens (Cro-magnon)
  • Homo sapiens sapiens
  • Homo floresiensis

Additional notes

• The validity of evolution and the origins of humanity have often been a subject of great political and religious controversy within the non-scientific community (see Creation-evolution controversy and Hybrid-origin). Sahelanthropus tchadensis is a Fossil Ape that lived approximately 7-6 Million years ago. Sahelanthropus tchadensis is a Fossil Ape that lived approximately 7-6 Million years ago. Orrorin tugenensis is considered to be the oldest known Hominin ancestor related to modern Humans and is the only species classified in genus Orrorin tugenensis is considered to be the oldest known Hominin ancestor related to modern Humans and is the only species classified in genus Ardipithecus is a very early hominin Genus ( Subfamily Homininae) which lived about 4 Ardipithecus is a very early hominin Genus ( Subfamily Homininae) which lived about 4 Ardipithecus is a very early hominin Genus ( Subfamily Homininae) which lived about 4 The Genus Australopithecus ( Latin australis "of the south" Greek πίθηκος pithekos "ape" Australopithecus anamensis is a Fossil Species of Australopithecus. Australopithecus afarensis is an extinct Hominid which lived between 3 Australopithecus bahrelghazali is a Fossil Hominin that was first discovered in 1993 by the Paleontologist Michel Brunet Australopithecus africanus was an early hominid, an Australopithecine, who lived between 2-3 million years ago in the Pliocene. Australopithecus garhi is a Gracile australopithecine species whose fossils were discovered in 1996 by a research team led by Ethiopian The robust australopithecines, members of the Extinct Hominin genus Paranthropus (Greek para "beside" Greek anthropos "human" Paranthropus aethiopicus is an extinct species of Hominid. The finding discovered in 1985 in West Turkana, Kenya, KNM WT Paranthropus boisei (originally called Zinjanthropus boisei and then Australopithecus boisei until recently was an early Paranthropus robustus was originally discovered in Southern Africa in 1938 Kenyanthropus platyops is a 35 to 32 million year old ( Pliocene) Extinct Hominin Species that was discovered in Lake Turkana Kenyanthropus platyops is a 35 to 32 million year old ( Pliocene) Extinct Hominin Species that was discovered in Lake Turkana Homo is the Genus that includes modern humans and their close relatives Homo habilis (ˈhoʊmoʊ ˈhæbəlɪs ("handy man" "skillful person" is a Species of the genus Homo, which lived Homo rudolfensis is a Fossil Hominin Species discovered by Bernard Ngeneo, a member of a team led by anthropologist Richard Homo ergaster ("working man" is an extinct Hominid Species (or subspecies according to some authorities which lived throughout eastern Homo georgicus is a species of Hominin that was suggested in 2002 to describe fossil skulls and jaws found in Dmanisi, Georgia Homo erectus ( Latin: "upright man" is an extinct species of the genus Homo, believed to have been the first hominin Homo cepranensis is a proposed name for a Hominin species discovered in 1994 known from only one skull cap Homo antecessor is an extinct Hominin and a potential distinct species dating from 1 Homo heidelbergensis ("Heidelberg Man" is an Extinct Species of the Genus Homo which may be the direct ancestor Homo rhodesiensis is a possible Hominin species described from the fossil Rhodesian Man. The Neanderthal (neɪˈændərtɑːl also with /niː-/ and /-θɔːl/ or Neandertal, is an extinct member of the Homo genus that is known from Homo sapiens idaltu is an extinct Subspecies of Homo sapiens that lived almost 160000 years ago in Pleistocene Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus Cro-Magnon ( French) is one of the main types of Homo sapiens of the European Upper Paleolithic, living approximately 40000 to 10000 years Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus Homo floresiensis ("Man of Flores " nicknamed Hobbit) is a possible Species in the Genus Homo Politics Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos The creation-evolution controversy (also termed the creation vs The Hybrid -origin hypothesis of Human origins argues that all or at least some of the Genetic variation between the contemporary human races is attributable
• The classification of humans and their relatives has changed considerably over time (see History of hominoid taxonomy).
• Speculation about the future evolution of humans is often explored in science fiction as continued speciation of humans as they fill various ecological niches (see Adaptive radiation and Co-evolution), as well as deliberate self-modification (see Participant evolution). Speciation is the Evolutionary process by which new biological Species arise In Ecology, a niche (pronounced nich nēsh or nish A shorthand definition of niche is how an organism makes a living An adaptive radiation is a rapid Evolutionary radiation characterized by an increase in the morphological and ecological diversity of a single rapidly diversifying lineage In a broad sense biological co-evolution is "the change of a biological object triggered by the change of a related object" Participant evolution is a process of deliberately redesigning the Human body and brain using Technological means with the goal of removing "biological
• Currently, scientists have estimated that humans branched off from their common ancestor with chimpanzees about 5–7 mya. Chimpanzee (often shortened to chimp) is the common name for the two extant Species of Apes in the Genus Pan. In Astronomy, Geology, and Paleontology, mya or " mya " is an abbreviation for "million years ago".

References

Further reading

• Flinn, M. V. , Geary, D. C. , & Ward, C. V. (2005). Ecological dominance, social competition, and coalitionary arms races: Why humans evolved extraordinary intelligence. Evolution and Human Behavior, 26, 10-46. Full text.PDF (345 KiB)

• Rozsa L 2008. A kibibyte (a contraction of ki lo bi nary byte) is a unit of Information or Computer storage, established by the International The rise of non-adaptive intelligence in humans under pathogen pressure. Medical Hypotheses, 70, 685-690.
• Wolfgang Enard et al. (2002-08-22). See also 2002 (disambiguation Year 2002 ( MMII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 392 - Arbogast has Eugenius elected Western Roman Emperor. "Molecular evolution of FOXP2, a gene involved in speech and language". FOXP2 (" forkhead box P2" is a Gene that is implicated in the development of language skills, including grammatical competence Nature 418: 870.  
• DNA Shows Neandertals Were Not Our Ancestors
• J. W. IJdo, A. Baldini, D. C. Ward, S. T. Reeders, R. A. Wells (October 1991). "Origin of human chromosome 2: An ancestral telomere-telomere fusion". Genetics 88: 9051–9055.  —two ancestral ape chromosomes fused to give rise to human chromosome 2.
• Ovchinnikov, et al. (2000). "Molecular analysis of Neanderthal DNA from the Northern Caucasus". The Caucasus ( also referred to as North Caucasus) is a geopolitical region located between Europe Asia & Middle East Nature 404: 490.  
• Heizmann, Elmar P J, Begun, David R (2001). "The oldest Eurasian hominoid". Journal of Human Evolution 41 (5).  
• JBS Haldane (1955). John Burdon Sanderson Haldane FRS ( 5 November 1892 &ndash 1 December 1964) known as Jack (but who used 'J "Origin of Man". Nature 176 (169).  
• BBC: Finds test human origins theory. 2007-08-08 Homo habilis and Homo erectus are sister species that overlapped in time. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1220 - Sweden is defeated by Estonian tribes in the Battle of Lihula.

See also

External links

• BBC: The Evolution of Man
• Illustrations from Evolution (textbook)
• Smithsonian - Homosapiens
• Smithsonian - The Human Origins Program