Horizontal cells are the laterally interconnecting neurons in the outer plexiform layer of the retina of mammalian eyes. The vertebrate retina is a light sensitive part inside the inner layer of the Eye. Mammals ( class Mammalia) are a class of Vertebrate Animals characterized by the presence of Sweat glands, including sweat glands They help integrate and regulate the input from multiple photoreceptor cells. A photoreceptor, or photoreceptor cell, is a specialized type of Neuron (nerve cell found in the Eye 's Retina that is capable of Among their functions, horizontal cells are responsible for allowing eyes to adjust to see well under both bright and dim light conditions.

Contents 1 Organization 2 Functional Properties 3 See also 4 External links 5 References

Organization

There are three basic types of horizontal cells, designated HI, HII and HIII. The selectivity of these three horizontal cells, towards one of the three cone types, is a matter of debate. Cone cells, or cones, are Photoreceptor cells in the Retina of the Eye which function best in relatively bright Light. According to studies conducted by Boycott and Wassle neither HI cells nor HII cells were selective towards S,M, or L cones. By contrast, Anhelt and Kolb claim that in their observations HI cells connected to all three cone types indiscremenantly, however, HII cells tended to contact S cones the most. They also identified a third type of horizontal cell, HIII, which was identical to HI but did not make contact with S cones.

The HII cells also make connections with rods, but do so far enough away from the horizontal cell's soma such that they do not interfere with the activities of the cones.

They span across cones and summate inputs from them all to control the amount of GABA released back onto the photoreceptor cells, which hyperpolarises them. Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA is the chief inhibitory Neurotransmitter in the Mammalian Central nervous system. Their arrangement together with the on-center and off-center bipolar cells that receive input from the photoreceptors constitutes a form of lateral inhibition, increasing spatial resolution at the expense of some information on absolute intensity. A bipolar cell is a type of Neuron which has two extensions Bipolar cells are specialized sensory neurons for the transmission of special senses In Neurobiology, lateral inhibition is the capacity of an excited Neuron to reduce the activity of its neighbors The eye is thus more sensitive to contrast and differences in intensity.

Functional Properties

When light is shown onto a photoreceptor, the photoreceptor hyperpolarizes and reduces the release of glutamate, when this happens, horizontal cells reduce the release of GABA, which has an inhibitory affect on the photoreceptors. This reduction of inhibition leads to a depolarization of the photoreceptors. We therefore have the following negative feedback

Illuminationphotoreceptor hyperpolarizationhorizontal cell hyperpolarizationphotoreceptor depolarization

One proposed theory for facilitation by the horizontal cells proceeds as follows. Assume we have 10 photoreceptors, one hyperpolarizing (H) bipolar cell, and one horizontal cell. All ten photoreceptors connect to the horizontal cell, and the middle photoreceptor (P_m) connects to the bipolar cell. The surrounding cells, which represent the outer receptive field, will be designated P_o then we can explain an off-centre arrangement as follows. If light is shown onto the P_m then

1. P_m is activated by light and therefore hyperpolarizes
2. P_m reduces release of glutamate
3. Reduction of glutamate hyperpolarizes the H bipolar cell
4. Reduction of glutamate hyperpolarizes the horizontal cell and it reduces release of GABA
5. Since P_ois still releasing glutamate, reduction in GABA is marginal

If the light is shone onto the surrounding area then

1. P_o is activated and therefore hyperpolarizes
2. P_o reduce release of glutamate
3. Reduction of glutamate hyperpolarizes the horizontal cell
4. Horizontal cell reduces release of GABA
5. Reduction of GABA depolarizes photoreceptors
6. P_o not affected since they are strongly being hyperpolarized by activation
7. P_m is affected and therefore depolarizes
8. P_m releases glutamate
9. H Bipolar cell is depolarized

To explain diffuse light, then we consider both cases together, and as it turns out, the two effects cancel each other out, and we get little or no net effect.

See also

• Photoreceptors
• Bipolar cells
• Amacrine cells
• Ganglion cells

External links

• Webvision horizontal cell entry.

References

• Nicholls, John G. Photoreceptor can refer to In anatomy/cell biology Photoreceptor cell: a photosensitive cell most commonly referring to a specialized type of neuron As a part of the Retina, the bipolar cell exists between photoreceptors ( Rod cells and Cone cells and Ganglion cells They act to Amacrine cells are Interneurons in the Retina. Amacrine cells are responsible for 70% of input to retinal ganglion cells A ganglion cell (more correctly a retinal ganglion cell or RGC) is a type of Neuron typically located near the inner surface of the Retina ; A. Robert Martin, Bruce G. Wallace, Paul A. Fuchs (2001). From Neuron to Brain. Boston, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates, Inc. ISBN 0-87893-439-1.  

• Masland RH (2001). "The fundamental plan of the retina". Nat. Neurosci. 4 (9): 877–86. doi:10.1038/nn0901-877. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 11528418.  

• Dacey, Dennis M (1999). "Primate Retina: Cell Types, Circuits and Color Opponency". Progress in Retinal and Eye Research 18: 737–763. doi:10.1016/S1350-9462(98)00013-5. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.  

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