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The Holy Roman Empire was a union of territories in Central Europe during the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period under a Holy Roman Emperor. East ( ern) Francia ( Regnum Francorum orientalium) known variously as Francia Orientalis or the Kingdom of the East Franks, was the The flag of Germany is a Tricolour consisting of three equal horizontal bands displaying the national colours of Germany: Black, Since the Holy Roman Empire was big old and very divided internally it had many coats Throughout the world there are many cities that were once national Capitals but no longer have that status because the country ceased to exist the capital was moved or the capital The Holy Roman Emperor (Römischer Kaiser or Römisch-Deutscher Kaiser Romanorum Imperator was the elected monarch ruling over the many varying numbers of states Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. Italian ( or lingua italiana) is a Romance language spoken by about 63 million people as a First language, primarily in Italy. Czech (ˈʧɛk čeština ˈʧɛʃcɪna in Czech is a West Slavic language with about 12 million native speakers it is the majority language in the Dutch ( is a West Germanic language spoken by around 24 million people 22 million of which are from the Netherlands, Belgium and Suriname French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people Slovene or Slovenian ( slovenski jezik or slovenščina, not to be confused with Slovenčina) is a South Slavic language A state religion (also called an official religion, established church or state church) is a religious body or Creed officially Lutheranism is a major branch of Western Christianity that identifies with the teachings of the sixteenth-century German reformer Martin Luther Calvinism (sometimes called the Reformed tradition, the Reformed faith, or Reformed theology) is a theological system and an approach to the For the government of parliamentary systems see Executive (government. A monarchy is a Form of government in which supreme power is actually or nominally lodged in an individual who is the Head of state, often for life or The Holy Roman Emperor (Römischer Kaiser or Römisch-Deutscher Kaiser Romanorum Imperator was the elected monarch ruling over the many varying numbers of states Events By Place Europe February 2 — Pope John XII crowns Otto I the Great Holy Roman Emperor. 967 was a year in the 10th century. Events By Place Europe The Bishopric of Merseburg is formed in Saxony Otto I the Great ( 23 November 912 &ndash 7 May 973) son of Henry I the Fowler and Matilda of Ringelheim, was Duke Conrad II (c 990&ndash June 4, 1039) was the son of a mid-level nobleman in Franconia, Count Henry of Speyer and Adelaide of Alsace who inherited Charles V (24 February 1500 &ndash 21 September 1558 was Life Eldest son of Emperor Ferdinand II from the house of Habsburg and his first wife Maria Anna of Bavaria. Year 1792 ( MDCCXCII) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year Year 1806 ( MDCCCVI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Francis II (Franz II Heiliger Römischer Kaiser ( 12 February 1768 &ndash 2 March 1835) was the last Holy Roman Emperor, ruling A legislature is a type of representative Deliberative assembly with the power to create amend and change Laws The law created by a legislature is called Legislation The Reichstag ( German for "Imperial Diet " was the Parliament of the Holy Roman Empire, the North German Confederation, Otto I the Great ( 23 November 912 &ndash 7 May 973) son of Henry I the Fowler and Matilda of Ringelheim, was Duke Events 962 - Translatio imperii: Pope John XII crowns Otto I Holy Roman Emperor, the first Holy Roman Emperor Events By Place Europe February 2 — Pope John XII crowns Otto I the Great Holy Roman Emperor. Conrad II (c 990&ndash June 4, 1039) was the son of a mid-level nobleman in Franconia, Count Henry of Speyer and Adelaide of Alsace who inherited Burgundy (Bourgogne Burgund is a region historically situated in modern-day France and Switzerland, inhabited in turn by Celts ( Gauls) The Peace of Augsburg was a treaty between Ferdinand I, who replaced his brother Charles V as Holy Roman Emperor, and the forces of the Schmalkaldic Events 303 - On a voyage preaching the Gospel, Saint Fermin of Pamplona is beheaded in Amiens, France The term Peace of Westphalia refers to the two peace treaties of Osnabrück and Münster, signed on May 15 and October 24 of Events 69 - Second Battle of Bedriacum, forces under Antonius Primus the commander of the Danube armies loyal to Vespasian, defeat Events 1538 - Bogotá, Colombia, is founded by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada. Year 1806 ( MDCCCVI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Central Europe is the Region lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern and The early modern period is a term used by historians to refer to the period in Western '''Europe''' and its first colonies which spans the three centuries between The Holy Roman Emperor (Römischer Kaiser or Römisch-Deutscher Kaiser Romanorum Imperator was the elected monarch ruling over the many varying numbers of states The first Holy Roman Emperor was Otto the Great in 962. Otto I the Great ( 23 November 912 &ndash 7 May 973) son of Henry I the Fowler and Matilda of Ringelheim, was Duke The last was Francis II, who abdicated and dissolved the Empire in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars. Francis II (Franz II Heiliger Römischer Kaiser ( 12 February 1768 &ndash 2 March 1835) was the last Holy Roman Emperor, ruling The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815 involved Napoleon's French Empire and a shifting set of European allies and opposing coalitions It was officially known as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation from the late 15th century.
The Empire's territorial extent varied over its history, but at its peak it encompassed the Kingdom of Germany, Italy and Burgundy, territories including present-day Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Netherlands, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Czech Republic, Slovenia, Belgium, as well as large parts of modern France, Italy and Poland. The Kingdom of Germany grew out of East Francia in the tenth century The Kingdom of Arles ( Arelat) was a Frankish dominion surrounding Arles, established in 933 by combining Upper and Lower Burgundy Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands The Principality of Liechtenstein (Fürstentum Liechtenstein) is a tiny doubly landlocked Alpine country in Western Europe, bordered by Switzerland Luxembourg (Groussherzogtum Lëtzebuerg Grand-Duché de Luxembourg Großherzogtum Luxemburg is a small Landlocked country in Western Europe, bordered by The Czech Republic ( ˈt͡ʃɛskaː ˈrɛpuˌblɪka short form in Česko ˈt͡ʃɛskɔ also called Czechia, Slovenia, officially the Republic of Slovenia (Republika Slovenija) is a Country in southern Central Europe bordering Italy to the west The Kingdom of Belgium is a Country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters as well as those This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland For much of its history the Empire consisted of hundreds of smaller principalities, duchies, counties, Free Imperial Cities, as well as several kingdoms and other domains. A principality (or princedom) is a monarchical feudatory or Sovereign state, ruled or reigned over by a monarch with the title of Prince A duchy is a territory fief, or domain ruled by a Duke or Duchess. A county is a Land area of Regional Government within a larger State. In the Holy Roman Empire, a free imperial city (in German: freie Reichsstadt) was a City formally ruled by the Emperor only &mdash A monarchy is a Form of government in which supreme power is actually or nominally lodged in an individual who is the Head of state, often for life or Despite its name, for most of its existence the Holy Roman Empire did not include Rome within its borders. Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2
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Nomenclature
H. R Emperors were formal theoretical political leaders of medieval catholic west. They were on the top of medieval european catholic feudal hierarchy.
"Charlemagne's claim that his empire was the successor to the Roman Empire and that this temporal power was augmented by his status as God's principal vicar in the temporal realm (parallel to the pope's in the spiritual realm). The empire's core consisted of Germany, Austria, Bohemia, and Moravia. Switzerland, the Netherlands, and northern Italy sometimes formed part of it; France, Poland, Hungary, and Denmark were initially included, and Britain and Spain were nominal components. " http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9367257
The Holy Roman Empire was a conscious attempt to revive the Western Roman Empire, considered to have ended with the abdication of Romulus Augustulus in 476. The Western Roman Empire refers to the western half of the Roman Empire, from its division by Diocletian in 285 the other half of the Roman Empire was the Eastern Romulus Augustus (c 461/463 &ndash after 476 sometimes known as Romulus Augustulus ( Little Augustus) was the last Western Roman Emperor reigning from Although Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne as Imperator Augustus on 25 December 800, and his son, Louis the Pious, was also crowned as Emperor by the Pope, the Empire and the imperial office did not become formalized for some decades, due largely to the Frankish tendency to divide realms between heirs after a ruler's death. Pope Leo III (died June 12, 816) was Pope from 795 to 816 Protected by Charlemagne from his enemies in Rome he subsequently strengthened Charlemagne (ˈʃɑrlɨmeɪn Carolus Magnus or Karolus Magnus meaning Charles the Great) (747 – 28 January 814 was King of the Franks from 768 to his The Latin word Imperator was a title originally roughly equivalent to commander during the period of the Roman Republic. Augustus (plural augusti) Latin for "majestic" "the increaser" or "venerable" was an Ancient Roman Events 274 - Roman Emperor Aurelian Events By Place Europe September 15 - Oldest known mention of Monkey. Louis the Pious (778 &ndash 20 June 840) also called the Fair, and the Debonaire, was the King of Aquitaine from 781 and co-Emperor It is notable that Louis first crowned himself in 814, upon his father's death, but in 816, Pope Stephen V, who had succeeded Leo III, visited Rheims and again crowned Louis. Pope Stephen V, (885-891 succeeded Pope Adrian III, and was in turn succeeded by Pope Formosus. By that act, the emperor strengthened the papacy by instituting the essential role of the pope in imperial coronations. History See also History of the Papacy Catholics recognize the Pope as a successor to Saint Peter, who Jesus named as the "shepherd" and
Contemporary terminology for the Empire varied greatly over the centuries. Under Otto I the area of his reign was called "Regnum Francorum Orientalium" or "Regnum Francorum" meaning "Kingdom of the East Franks" or simply "Kingdom of the Franks". Otto I the Great ( 23 November 912 &ndash 7 May 973) son of Henry I the Fowler and Matilda of Ringelheim, was Duke The term Roman Empire was used in 1034 to denote the lands under Conrad II, and Holy Empire in 1157. Conrad II (c 990&ndash June 4, 1039) was the son of a mid-level nobleman in Franconia, Count Henry of Speyer and Adelaide of Alsace who inherited The use of the term Roman Emperor to refer to Northern European rulers started earlier with Otto II (Emperor 973–983). Northern Europe is a term for the northern part of Europe. The United Nations defines Northern Europe as (Finland Emperors from Charlemagne (Emperor 800–814) to Otto I the Great (Emperor 962–973) had simply used the phrase Imperator Augustus (both of which, without "Roman", were the preferred titles of Roman Emperors). Charlemagne (ˈʃɑrlɨmeɪn Carolus Magnus or Karolus Magnus meaning Charles the Great) (747 – 28 January 814 was King of the Franks from 768 to his Otto I the Great ( 23 November 912 &ndash 7 May 973) son of Henry I the Fowler and Matilda of Ringelheim, was Duke The Latin word Imperator was a title originally roughly equivalent to commander during the period of the Roman Republic. The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period (starting at about 27 BC The precise term Holy Roman Empire (German: Heiliges Römisches Reich listen ; Latin: Sacrum Romanum Imperium) dates from 1254; the final version Holy Roman Empire of German Nation (German Heiliges Römisches Reich deutscher Nation; Latin: Sacrum Romanum Imperium Nationis Germanicæ) appears in 1512, after several variations in the late 15th century. The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. [3]
Contemporaries did not quite know how to describe this entity. In his famous 1667 description De statu imperii Germanici, published under the alias Severinus de Monzambano, Samuel Pufendorf wrote: "Nihil ergo aliud restat, quam ut dicamus Germaniam esse irregulare aliquod corpus et monstro simile . Baron Samuel von Pufendorf ( January 8, 1632 &ndash October 13, 1694) was a German Jurist, political Philosopher . . " ("We are therefore left with calling Germany a body that conforms to no rule and resembles a monster").
In his Essai sur l'histoire generale et sur les moeurs et l'esprit des nations (1756), the French essayist and philosopher Voltaire described the Holy Roman Empire as an "agglomeration" which was "neither holy, nor Roman, nor an empire". Year 1756 ( MDCCLVI) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a François-Marie Arouet ( 21 November 1694 30 May 1778) better known by the Pen name Voltaire, was a French
In Faust I, in a scene written in 1775, the German author Goethe has one of the drinkers in Auerbach's Cellar in Leipzig ask "Our Holy Roman Empire, lads, what still holds it together?" Goethe also has a longer, not very favourable essay about his personal experiences as a trainee at the Reichskammergericht in his autobiographical work Dichtung und Wahrheit. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 's Faust is a tragic play. It was published in two parts de Faust der Tragödie erster Teil (translated Year 1775 ( MDCCLXXV) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a ˈjoːhan ˈvɔlfgaŋ fɔn ˈgøːtə (in English generally ˈgɝːtə 28 August 1749 22 March 1832 was a German writer Auerbachs Keller ( Auerbach's Cellar in English is the best known and second oldest restaurant in Leipzig. This sort of fix restores section edit linkpoints to where they belong The Reichskammergericht (Imperial Chamber Court was one of two highest judicial institutions in the Holy Roman Empire, the other one being the Reichshofrat Aus meinem Leben Dichtung und Wahrheit ("Out of my Life Poetry and Truth" ( 1811 - 1833) is Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 's autobiography
History
Origins
- Further information: Carolingian Empire, Ottonian Renaissance
Following the Frankish custom, Charlemagne had intended to divide the territories of the Carolingian Empire between his sons, but as it happened he was survived by only one son, Louis the Pious. Carolingian Empire is a historiographical term sometimes used to refer to the realm of the Franks under the Carolingian dynasty. Ottonian Renaissance was a limited Renaissance that accompanied the reigns of the first three emperors of the Saxon Dynasty, all named Otto Otto I Charlemagne (ˈʃɑrlɨmeɪn Carolus Magnus or Karolus Magnus meaning Charles the Great) (747 – 28 January 814 was King of the Franks from 768 to his Carolingian Empire is a historiographical term sometimes used to refer to the realm of the Franks under the Carolingian dynasty. Louis the Pious (778 &ndash 20 June 840) also called the Fair, and the Debonaire, was the King of Aquitaine from 781 and co-Emperor Louis accordingly inherited all his father's dominions and the imperial title. Louis's resolution to break with tradition and pass on his lands inviolate to only one of his sons led to the series of civil wars which were ended by the partition of 843. Events By Place Europe The Treaty of Verdun divides the Carolingian Empire between the 3 sons of Louis the It is important to distinguish (in theory if not always in fact) between the Eastern Frankish Kingdom created by the partition of Charlemagne’s territories in 843 and the Empire itself. Charlemagne (ˈʃɑrlɨmeɪn Carolus Magnus or Karolus Magnus meaning Charles the Great) (747 – 28 January 814 was King of the Franks from 768 to his Events By Place Europe The Treaty of Verdun divides the Carolingian Empire between the 3 sons of Louis the This distinction is not aided by the fact that the German word Reich is so lacking in specificity. (ˈraɪk German ˈʁaɪç is a German Loanword cognate with the English Reign, Region, and Rich, but used most to designate The imperial title was initially conceded to Lothar I the eldest son of Louis the Pious and thereafter passed around various branches of the Carolingian dynasty, often being held by no more than minor northern Italian potentates. Lothair I ( German: Lothar, French: Lothaire, Italian: Lotario) (795 &ndash 29 September 855) Louis the Pious (778 &ndash 20 June 840) also called the Fair, and the Debonaire, was the King of Aquitaine from 781 and co-Emperor The Eastern Frankish Kingdom developed as a separate entity until a non-Carolingian, Henry I the Fowler was elected as its king at the beginning of the 10th century. The subsequent coronation of his son and successor Otto I as Emperor marks the beginning of the association of the Eastern Frankish Kingdom with the Imperial title, an association which then continued unbroken down to the abdication of Francis II in 1806. Otto I the Great ( 23 November 912 &ndash 7 May 973) son of Henry I the Fowler and Matilda of Ringelheim, was Duke Francis II (Franz II Heiliger Römischer Kaiser ( 12 February 1768 &ndash 2 March 1835) was the last Holy Roman Emperor, ruling Year 1806 ( MDCCCVI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common
With the split of the Frankish realm in the Treaty of Verdun in 843, the Carolingian dynasty continued independently in all three sections. In the Treaty of Verdun of 843 the three surviving sons of Louis the Pious, Charlemagne 's grandsons divided his territories the Carolingian Events By Place Europe The Treaty of Verdun divides the Carolingian Empire between the 3 sons of Louis the The Carolingian dynasty (known variously as the Carlovingians, Carolings, or Karlings) was a Frankish noble family with its origins in the The eastern part fell to Louis the German, who was followed by several leaders until the death of Louis the Child, the last Carolingian in the eastern part. Louis (also Ludwig or Lewis) the German (also known as Louis II or Louis the Bavarian) (806 &ndash August 28, 876 Louis the Child (893 &ndash 20/ 24 September 911) sometimes called Louis IV or Louis III, was the last Carolingian ruler of
The leaders of Alemannia, Bavaria, Francia and Saxonia elected Conrad I of the Franks, not a Carolingian, as their leader in 911. Conrad I (Konrad c 890&ndash December 23 918) called the Younger, was duke of Franconia from 906 and King of Germany from Events By Place Europe Autumn — Charles the Simple agrees to the Treaty of St His successor, Henry (Heinrich) I the Fowler (r. 919–936), a Saxon elected at the Reichstag of Fritzlar in 919, achieved the acceptance of a separate Eastern Empire by the West Frankish (still ruled by the Carolingians) in 921, calling himself Rex Francorum Orientalum (King of the East Franks). Fritzlar is a small German town (pop 15000 in the Schwalm-Eder district in northern Hesse, 160 km (100 miles north of Frankfurt West Francia or the West Frankish Kingdom was a short-lived kingdom encompassing the lands of the western part of the Carolingian Empire that came under the undisputed He founded the Ottonian dynasty. The Ottonian dynasty was a dynasty of Germanic Kings (919-1024 named after its first emperor but also known as the Saxon dynasty after the family's origin
Henry designated his son Otto, who was elected King in Aachen in 936, to be his successor. ( Ripuarian: Oche, Dutch: Aken, Spanish: Aquisgrán, Italian: Aquisgrana, French, Events By Place Asia King Taejo of Goryeo (Wanggeon defeats Hubaekje. A marriage alliance with the widowed queen of Italy gave Otto control over that nation as well. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest His later crowning as Emperor Otto I (later called "the Great") in 962 would mark an important step, since from then on the Eastern-Frankish realm – and not the West-Frankish kingdom that was the other remainder of the Frankish kingdoms – would have the blessing of the Pope. Otto I the Great ( 23 November 912 &ndash 7 May 973) son of Henry I the Fowler and Matilda of Ringelheim, was Duke Events By Place Europe February 2 — Pope John XII crowns Otto I the Great Holy Roman Emperor. Otto had gained much of his power earlier, when, in 955, the Magyars were defeated in the Battle of Lechfeld. Events By Place Europe August 10 — Battle of Lechfeld: Otto I the Great defeats the Magyars, halting Hungarians (or Magyars, magyarok are an Ethnic group primarily associated with Hungary. The Battle of Lechfeld ( 10 August 955) perhaps the defining event for holding off the incursions of the Magyars into Central Europe, was a decisive
In contemporary and later writings, this crowning would also be referred to as translatio imperii, the transfer of the Empire from the Romans to a new Empire. Translatio imperii, Latin for "transfer of rule" is a concept invented in the Middle Ages for describing History as a Linear The German Emperors thus thought of themselves as being in direct succession of those of the Roman Empire; this is why they initially called themselves Augustus. Still, they did not call themselves "Roman" Emperors at first, probably in order not to provoke conflict with the Roman Emperor who still existed in Constantinople. Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS The term imperator Romanorum only became common under Conrad II later (than his crowning in 1027, thus in the early-middle 11th century) after the Great Schism. Conrad II (c 990&ndash June 4, 1039) was the son of a mid-level nobleman in Franconia, Count Henry of Speyer and Adelaide of Alsace who inherited
At this time, the eastern kingdom was a "confederation" of the old Germanic tribes of the Bavarians, Alemanns, Franks and Saxons. The Empire as a political union probably only survived because of the strong personal influence of King Henry the Saxon and his son, Otto. Although formally elected by the leaders of the Germanic tribes, they were actually able to designate their successors.
This changed after Henry II died in 1024 without any children. Saint Henry II ( May 6, 973 &ndash July 13, 1024) called the Holy or the Saint, was the fifth and last Holy Conrad II, first of the Salian Dynasty, was then elected king in 1024 only after some debate. Conrad II (c 990&ndash June 4, 1039) was the son of a mid-level nobleman in Franconia, Count Henry of Speyer and Adelaide of Alsace who inherited See also Salian Franks, Salic law The Salian dynasty was a Dynasty in the High Middle Ages of four German Kings (1024-1125 How exactly the king was chosen thus seems to be a complicated conglomeration of personal influence, tribal quarrels, inheritance, and acclamation by those leaders that would eventually become the collegiate of Electors. The Prince-Electors (or simply Electors) of the Holy Roman Empire ( German: Kurfürst ( pl
Already at this time the dualism between the "territories", then those of the old tribes rooted in the Frankish lands, and the King/Emperor, became apparent. Each king preferred to spend most time in his own homelands; the Saxons, for example, spent much time in palatinates around the Harz mountains, among them Goslar. The Harz is a mountain range in central Germany It is the highest mountain chain in northern Germany occupying parts of the German states of Lower Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt Goslar is a historic Town in Lower Saxony, Germany. It is the administrative centre of the district of Goslar and located on the northwestern This practice had only changed under Otto III (king 983, Emperor 996–1002), who began to utilize bishoprics all over the Empire as temporary seats of government. Otto III (980 &ndash January 23, 1002) was the fourth ruler of the Saxon or Ottonian dynasty of the Holy Roman Empire. Also, his successors, Henry II, Conrad II, and Henry III, apparently managed to appoint the dukes of the territories. Saint Henry II ( May 6, 973 &ndash July 13, 1024) called the Holy or the Saint, was the fifth and last Holy Conrad II (c 990&ndash June 4, 1039) was the son of a mid-level nobleman in Franconia, Count Henry of Speyer and Adelaide of Alsace who inherited Henry III ( 29 October 1017 &ndash 5 October 1056) called the Black or the Pious, was a member of the Salian Dynasty It is thus no coincidence that at this time, the terminology changes and the first occurrences of a regnum Teutonicum (German Kingdom) are found.
The Empire almost collapsed in the Investiture Controversy, in which Pope Gregory VII declared a ban on King Henry IV (king 1056, Emperor 1084–1106). The Investiture Controversy or Investiture Contest was an 11th century dispute between Henry IV Holy Roman Emperor and Pope Gregory VII over Pope Henry IV ( November 11, 1050 &ndash August 7, 1106) was King of Germany from 1056 and Holy Roman Emperor from 1084 until Although this was taken back after the 1077 Walk to Canossa, the ban had wide-reaching consequences. The Walk to Canossa (sometimes called the Way to Canossa; German, Gang nach Canossa; Italian, l'umiliazione di Canossa) refers to Meanwhile, the German dukes had elected a second king, Rudolf of Swabia, whom Henry IV could only defeat after a three-year war in 1080. Rudolf of Rheinfelden (Rudolf von Rheinfelden c 1025 &ndash 15 October 1080) was Duke of Swabia (1057&ndash1079 and German Antiking The mythical roots of the Empire were permanently damaged; the German king was humiliated. Most importantly though, the church was clearly an independent player in the political system of the Empire, not subject to imperial authority.
Under the Hohenstaufen
Conrad III came to the throne in 1138, the first of the Hohenstaufen dynasty which restored the Empire, even under the new conditions of the 1122 Concordat of Worms. Conrad III may refer to Conrad III of Germany Conrad III of Provence (Conrad I of Burgundy Conrad III of Dachau The Concordat of Worms, sometimes called the Pactum Calixtinum by papal historians was an agreement between Pope Calixtus II and Holy Roman Emperor Henry V It was Frederick I "Barbarossa" (king 1152, Emperor 1155–1190) who first called the Empire "holy", with which he intended to address mainly law and legislation. Frederick I Barbarossa (1122 &ndash 10 June 1190) was elected King of Germany at Frankfurt on 4 March 1152 and crowned
Also, under Barbarossa, the idea of the "Romanness" of the Empire culminated again, which seemed to be an attempt to justify the Emperor's power independently of the (now strengthened) Pope. An imperial assembly at the fields of Roncaglia in 1158 explicitly reclaimed imperial rights at the advice of quattuor doctores of the emerging judicial facility of the University of Bologna, citing phrases such as princeps legibus solutus ("the emperor [princeps] is not bound by law") from the Digestae of the Corpus Juris Civilis. Bologna (boloɲa from Latin Bononia, Bulåggna in Bolognese dialect is the capital city of Emilia-Romagna in northern Italy The Corpus Juris Civilis ("Body of Civil Law" is the modern name for a collection of fundamental works in Jurisprudence, issued from 529 That the Roman laws were created for an entirely different system and didn't fit the structure of the Empire was obviously secondary; the point here was that the court of the Emperor made an attempt to establish a legal constitution.
Imperial rights had been referred to as regalia since the Investiture Controversy, but were enumerated for the first time at Roncaglia as well. This comprehensive list included public roads, tariffs, coining, collecting punitive fees, and the investiture, the seating and unseating of office holders. These rights were now explicitly rooted in Roman Law, a far-reaching constitutional act; north of the Alps, the system was also now connected to feudal law, a change most visible in the withdrawal of the feuds of Henry the Lion in 1180 which led to his public banning. Feudalism, a term first used in the early modern period (17th century in its most classic sense refers to a Medieval Europe Political system composed Henry the Lion ( German: Heinrich der Löwe; 1129 &ndash 6 August 1195) was a member of the Guelph dynasty and Duke of Saxony Barbarossa thus managed for a time to more closely bind the stubborn Germanic dukes to the Empire as a whole.
Another important constitutional move at Roncaglia was the establishment of a new peace (Landfrieden) for all of the Empire, an attempt to (on the one hand) abolish private vendettas not only between the many local dukes, but on the other hand a means to tie the Emperor's subordinates to a legal system of jurisdiction and public prosecution of criminal acts – a predecessor concept of "rule of law", in modern terms, that was, at this time, not yet universally accepted. The rule of law, in its most basic form is the principle that no one is above the law
In order to solve the problem that the emperor was (after the Investiture Controversy) no longer as able to use the church as a mechanism to maintain power, the Staufer increasingly lent land to ministerialia, formerly unfree service men, which Frederick hoped would be more reliable than local dukes. Ministerialis (plural ministeriales) a post-classical Latin word used in English, meaning originally servitor, agent, in a Initially used mainly for war services, this new class of people would form the basis for the later knights, another basis of imperial power. Knight is the English term for a social position originating in the Middle Ages.
Another new concept of the time was the systematic foundation of new cities, both by the emperor and the local dukes. These were partly due to the explosion in population, but also to concentrate economic power at strategic locations, while formerly cities only existed in the shape of either old Roman foundations or older bishoprics. Cities that were founded in the 12th century include Freiburg, possibly the economic model for many later cities, and Munich. Munich (München; Minga is the capital city of Bavaria, Germany.
The later reign of the last Staufer Emperor, Frederick II, was in many ways different from that of earlier Emperors. Frederick II ( December 26, 1194 &ndash December 13, 1250) of the Hohenstaufen dynasty was a Pretender to the title Still a child, he first reigned in Sicily, while in Germany, Barbarossa's second son Philip of Swabia and Henry the Lion's son Otto IV competed with him for the title of King of the Germans. Sicily ( Italian and Sicilian: Sicilia) is an autonomous region of Italy. Philip of Swabia (1177 &ndash June 21, 1208) was king of Germany and duke of Swabia, the rival of the emperor Otto IV. Otto IV of Brunswick (1175 or 1176 – May 19, 1218) was one of two rival kings of the Holy Roman Empire from 1198 on sole king from 1208 on and emperor After finally having been crowned emperor in 1220, he risked conflict with the pope when he claimed power over Rome; astonishingly to many, he managed to claim Jerusalem in a crusade in 1228 while still under the pope's ban. The Sixth Crusade started in 1228 as an attempt to reconquer Jerusalem.
While Frederick brought the mythical idea of the Empire to a last high point, he was also the one to initiate the major steps that led to its disintegration. On the one hand, he concentrated on establishing an innovative state in Sicily, with public services, finances, and other reforms. On the other hand, Frederick was the emperor who granted major powers to the German dukes in the form of two far-reaching privileges that would never be reclaimed by the central power. In the 1220 Confoederatio cum principibus ecclesiasticis, Frederick gave up a number of regalia in favour of the bishops, among them tariffs, coining, and fortification. The Confoederatio cum principibus ecclesiasticis (or Treaty with the Princes of the Church) of 26 April 1220 counts as one of the most important sources The 1232 Statutum in favorem principum mostly extended these privileges to the other (non-clerical) territories (Frederick II was forced to give those privileges by a rebellion of his son, Henry). The Statutum in favorem principum ( Statute in favour of the Princes) of May 1232 counts as one of the most important sources of law of the Holy Roman Empire Although many of these privileges had existed earlier, they were now granted globally, and once and for all, to allow the German dukes to maintain order north of the Alps while Frederick wanted to concentrate on his homelands in Italy. The 1232 document marked the first time that the German dukes were called domini terræ, owners of their lands, a remarkable change in terminology as well.
The Teutonic Knights were invited to Prussia by Duke Konrad of Masovia to Christianize the Prussians in 1226. The Teutonic Order is a German Roman Catholic religious order. Prussia is a historical region in Central Europe extending from the south-eastern coast of the Baltic Sea to the Masurian Lake District. Attempted conquests of Prussia Konrad unsuccessfully attempted to conquer pagan Prussia in a 1209 crusade and several times after, 1219 1222 Pg 45 "Prussians" redirects here "Prussians" may also refer to citizens of the former German state of Prussia.
During the long stays of the Hohenstaufen emperors (1138–1254) in Italy, the German princes became stronger and began a systematic colonisation of West Slavic lands, so that the empire's influence increased to eventually include Pomerania and Silesia. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest This article covers the medieval eastward migrations of Germans Etymology One theory claims that the name Silesia is derived from the Silingi, who were most likely a Vandalic (East Germanic people
Rise of the territories after the Staufen
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After the death of Frederick II in 1250, none of the dynasties worthy of producing the king proved able to do so, and the leading dukes elected several competing kings. The time from 1246 (beginning with the election of Heinrich Raspe and William of Holland) to 1273, when Rudolph I of Habsburg was elected king, is commonly referred to as the Interregnum. Henry Raspe (Heinrich Raspe 1204 &ndash February 16, 1247) succeeded Hermann II as Landgrave of Thuringia in central Germany William II of Holland, (February 1228 - 28 January 1256) was a Count of Holland and Zeeland (1235-1256 Rudolph I, also known as Rudolph of Habsburg ( German: Rudolf von Habsburg, Latin Rudolfus) May 1, 1218 &ndash An interregnum (plural interregna or interregnums) is a period of discontinuity of a government organization or social order During the Interregnum, much of what was left of imperial authority was lost, as the princes were given time to consolidate their holdings and become even more independent rulers.
In 1257, there occurred a double election which produced a situation that guaranteed a long interregnum. The Prince-Electors (or simply Electors) of the Holy Roman Empire ( German: Kurfürst ( pl William of Holland had fallen the previous year, and Conrad of Swabia had died three years earlier. First, three electors (Palatinate, Cologne and Mainz) (being mostly of the Guelph persuasion) cast their votes for Richard of Cornwall who became the successor of William of Holland as king. The Palatinate of the Rhine (Pfalzgrafschaft bei Rhein later the Electoral Palatinate (Kurpfalz was a historical territory of the Holy Roman Empire The Electorate of Cologne (Kurfürstentum Köln or Kurköln) was an ecclesiastical principality of the Holy Roman Empire and existed from the 10th to the early 19th The Archbishopric of Mainz (Erzbistum Mainz or Electorate of Mainz (Kurfürstentum Mainz or Kurmainz) was an influential ecclesiastic and secular Prince-bishopric Richard of Cornwall ( 5 January 1209 – 2 April 1272) was Count of Poitou (from 1225 to 1243 Earl of Cornwall (from After a delay, a fourth elector, Bohemia, joined this choice. Bohemia (Čechy; Bohemia Czechy is a historical region in central Europe, occupying the western two-thirds of the traditional Czech Lands, currently the However, a couple of months later, Bohemia and the three other electors Trier, Brandenburg and Saxony voted for Alfonso X of Castile, this being based on Ghibelline party. The Electorate of Trier (Kurfürstentum Trier or Kurtrier) was an ecclesiastical principality of the Holy Roman Empire and existed from the end of the 9th to The Margraviate of Brandenburg (Markgrafschaft Brandenburg was a major Principality of the Holy Roman Empire from 1157 to 1806 The Electorate of Saxony (Kurfürstentum Sachsen or Duchy of Upper Saxony was an independent hereditary electorate of the Holy Roman Empire from 1356–1806 Alfonso X (November 23 1221 Toledo Spain &ndash April 4 1284 Seville Spain) was a Spanish monarch who ruled as the King of Castile, The Guelphs and Ghibellines were factions supporting respectively the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire in central and northern Italy The realm now had two kings. Was the King of Bohemia entitled to change his vote, or was the election complete when four electors had chosen a king? Were the four electors together entitled to depose Richard a couple of months later, if his election had been valid?
The difficulties in electing the king eventually led to the emergence of a fixed college of electors, the Kurfürsten, whose composition and procedures were set forth in the Golden Bull of 1356. The Prince-Electors (or simply Electors) of the Holy Roman Empire ( German: Kurfürst ( pl The Golden Bull of 1356 was a decree issued by a Reichstag in Nuremberg headed by Emperor Charles IV Holy Roman Emperor (see Diet This development probably best symbolizes the emerging duality between Kaiser und Reich, emperor and realm, which were no longer considered identical. This is also revealed in the way the post-Staufen kings attempted to sustain their power. Earlier, the Empire's strength (and finances) greatly relied on the Empire's own lands, the so-called Reichsgut, which always belonged to the respective king (and included many Imperial Cities). After the 13th century, its relevance faded (even though some parts of it did remain until the Empire's end in 1806). Instead, the Reichsgut was increasingly pawned to local dukes, sometimes to raise money for the Empire but, more frequently, to reward faithful duty or as an attempt to civilize stubborn dukes. The direct governance of the Reichsgut no longer matched the needs of either the king or the dukes.
Instead, the kings, beginning with Rudolph I of Habsburg, increasingly relied on the lands of their respective dynasties to support their power. Rudolph I, also known as Rudolph of Habsburg ( German: Rudolf von Habsburg, Latin Rudolfus) May 1, 1218 &ndash In contrast with the Reichsgut, which was mostly scattered and difficult to administer, these territories were comparably compact and thus easier to control. In 1282, Rudolph I thus lent Austria and Styria to his own sons. The Duchy of Styria (Herzogtum Steiermark Vojvodina Štajerska Stájerország was a duchy located in modern-day southern Austria and northern Slovenia.
With Henry VII, the House of Luxembourg entered the stage. Henry VII ( Heinrich; c 1275 (or 1279 &ndash 24 August 1313) was the King of Germany (or Rex Romanorum) from 1308 and The House of Luxembourg was a mediæval Luxembourgian noble family In 1312, he was crowned as the first Holy Roman Emperor since Frederick II. After him all kings and emperors relied on the lands of their own family (Hausmacht): Louis IV of Wittelsbach (king 1314, emperor 1328–1347) relied on his lands in Bavaria; Charles IV of Luxembourg, the grandson of Henry VII, drew strength from his own lands in Bohemia. Louis IV ( 1 April[[ 282]] &ndash 11 October 1347) called the Bavarian, of the house of Wittelsbach, was the Duke of Bavaria The Wittelsbach family is a European Royal family and a German dynasty from Bavaria. Charles IV ( Czech: Karel IV, German: Karl IV, Hungarian: IV Károly; 14 May 1316 &ndash Interestingly, it was thus increasingly in the king's own interest to strengthen the power of the territories, since the king profited from such a benefit in his own lands as well.
The 13th century also saw a general structural change in how land was administered. Instead of personal duties, money increasingly became the common means to represent economic value in agriculture. Money is anything that is generally accepted as Payment for Goods and services and repayment of Debts. Peasants were increasingly required to pay tribute for their lands. The concept of "property" more and more replaced more ancient forms of jurisdiction, although they were still very much tied together. In the territories (not at the level of the Empire), power became increasingly bundled: Whoever owned the land had jurisdiction, from which other powers derived. It is important to note, however, that jurisdiction at this time did not include legislation, which virtually did not exist until well into the 15th century. Court practice heavily relied on traditional customs or rules described as customary.
It is during this time that the territories began to transform themselves into predecessors of modern states. The process varied greatly among the various lands and was most advanced in those territories that were most identical to the lands of the old Germanic tribes, e. g. Bavaria. It was slower in those scattered territories that were founded through imperial privileges.
Imperial Reform
The "constitution" of the Empire was still largely unsettled at the beginning of the 15th century. Although some procedures and institutions had been fixed, for example by the Golden Bull of 1356, the rules of how the king, the electors, and the other dukes should cooperate in the Empire much depended on the personality of the respective king. The Golden Bull of 1356 was a decree issued by a Reichstag in Nuremberg headed by Emperor Charles IV Holy Roman Emperor (see Diet It therefore proved somewhat fatal that Sigismund of Luxemburg (king 1410, emperor 1433–1437) and Frederick III of Habsburg (king 1440, emperor 1452–1493) neglected the old core lands of the empire and mostly resided in their own lands. For other nobles of the same name please see Sigismund. Sigismund ( February 14, 1368 – December 9, Frederick III of Habsburg ( September 21 1415 &ndash August 19, 1493) was elected as German King as the successor of Without the presence of the king, the old institution of the Hoftag, the assembly of the realm's leading men, deteriorated. The Reichstag as a legislative organ of the Empire did not exist yet. The Reichstag ( German for "Imperial Diet " was the Parliament of the Holy Roman Empire, the North German Confederation, Even worse, dukes often went into feuds against each other that, more often than not, escalated into local wars.
At the same time, the church was in crisis too. The conflict between several competing popes was only resolved at the Council of Constance (1414–1418); after 1419, much energy was spent on fighting the heresy of the Hussites. In the Roman Catholic Church, the Council of Constance is the 16th Ecumenical council. Heresy, as a blanket term describes a practice or belief that is labeled as unorthodox The Hussites were a Christian movement following the teachings of Czech reformer Jan Hus or John Huss (c The medieval idea of a unified Corpus christianum, of which the papacy and the Empire were the leading institutions, began to decline. Christendom usually refers to Christianity as a territorial phenomenon
With these drastic changes, much discussion emerged in the 15th century about the Empire itself. Rules from the past no longer adequately described the structure of the time, and a reinforcement of earlier Landfrieden was urgently called for. During this time, the concept of "reform" emerged, in the original sense of the Latin verb re-formare, to regain an earlier shape that had been lost.
When Frederick III needed the dukes to finance war against Hungary in 1486 and at the same time had his son, later Maximilian I elected king, he was presented with the dukes' united demand to participate in an Imperial Court. Frederick III of Habsburg ( September 21 1415 &ndash August 19, 1493) was elected as German King as the successor of For the first time, the assembly of the electors and other dukes was now called Reichstag (to be joined by the Imperial Free Cities later). In the Holy Roman Empire, a free imperial city (in German: freie Reichsstadt) was a City formally ruled by the Emperor only &mdash While Frederick refused, his more conciliatory son finally convened the Reichstag at Worms in 1495, after his father's death in 1493. Worms (voɐms is a City in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany, on the Rhine River Here, the king and the dukes agreed on four bills, commonly referred to as the Reichsreform (Imperial Reform): a set of legal acts to give the disintegrating Empire back some structure. In 1495, an attempt was made at a Reichstag in the city of Worms to give the disintegrating Holy Roman Empire a new structure commonly referred Among others, this act produced the Imperial Circle Estates and the Reichskammergericht (Imperial Chamber Court); structures that would — to a degree — persist until the end of the Empire in 1806. An Imperial Circle (Reichskreis, plural Reichskreise was a regional grouping of territories of the Holy Roman Empire, primarily for the purpose of organizing The Reichskammergericht (Imperial Chamber Court was one of two highest judicial institutions in the Holy Roman Empire, the other one being the Reichshofrat
However, it took a few more decades until the new regulation was universally accepted and the new court began to actually function; only in 1512 would the Imperial Circles be finalized. An Imperial Circle (Reichskreis, plural Reichskreise was a regional grouping of territories of the Holy Roman Empire, primarily for the purpose of organizing The King also made sure that his own court, the Reichshofrat, continued to function in parallel to the Reichskammergericht. It is interesting to note that in this year, the Empire also received its new title, the Heiliges Römisches Reich Deutscher Nation ("Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation").
Crisis after Reformation
- See also: Thirty Years' War
In 1517, Martin Luther initiated what would later be known as the Reformation. For the Mauritanian Thirty Years' War see Char Bouba war. For the band see The 30 Years War. Martin Luther (November 10 1483 February 18 1546 was a German Monk, theologian, university professor Father of Protestantism, and church reformer The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time At this time, many local dukes saw a chance to oppose the hegemony of Emperor Charles V. Charles V (24 February 1500 &ndash 21 September 1558 was The empire became then fatally divided along religious lines, with the North, the East, and many of the major cities—Strasbourg, Frankfurt and Nuremberg—becoming Protestant while the southern and western regions largely remained Catholic. Strasbourg (Strasbourg stʁazbuʁ Alsatian: Strossburi,; Straßburg) is the capital and principal City of the Alsace région Protestantism refers to the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated in the 16th century Protestant Reformation. Religious conflicts were waged in various parts of Europe for a century, though in German regions there was relative quiet from the Peace of Augsburg in 1555 until the Defenestration of Prague in 1618. The Peace of Augsburg was a treaty between Ferdinand I, who replaced his brother Charles V as Holy Roman Emperor, and the forces of the Schmalkaldic The Defenestrations of Prague were two incidents in the history of Bohemia. When Bohemians rebelled against the emperor, the immediate result was the series of conflicts known as the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), which devastated the Empire. For the Mauritanian Thirty Years' War see Char Bouba war. For the band see The 30 Years War. [4] The population of the German lands was reduced by about 30%. [5] Foreign powers, including France and Sweden intervened in the conflict and strengthened those fighting Imperial power, but they also seized considerable chunks of territory for themselves. The long conflict bled the Empire to such a degree that it would never recover its former strength.
The long decline
The actual end of the empire came in several steps. The term Peace of Westphalia refers to the two peace treaties of Osnabrück and Münster, signed on May 15 and October 24 of The Peace of Westphalia in 1648, which ended the Thirty Years' War, gave the territories almost complete sovereignty. The term Peace of Westphalia refers to the two peace treaties of Osnabrück and Münster, signed on May 15 and October 24 of For the Mauritanian Thirty Years' War see Char Bouba war. For the band see The 30 Years War. Sovereignty is the exclusive Right to control a Government, a country, a people or oneself The Swiss Confederation, which had already established quasi-independence in 1499, and the Northern Netherlands left the empire. Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands Although its constituent states still had some restrictions — in particular, they could not form alliances against the Emperor — the Empire from this point was a powerless entity, existing in name only. The Habsburg Emperors instead focused on consolidating their own estates in Austria and elsewhere. Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich
By the rise of Louis XIV, the Habsburgs were dependent on the position as Archdukes of Austria to counter the rise of Prussia, some of whose territories lay inside the Empire. Early years Birth and ancestry Louis XIV was born in the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye on September 5 1638 and bore the Heir apparent This is a list of Margraves Dukes Archdukes and Emperors of Austria. Prussia ( Latin: Borussia, Prutenia; Prūsija Prūsija Prusy Old Prussian: Prūsa) was most recently a historic state Throughout the 18th century, the Habsburgs were embroiled in various European conflicts, such as the War of the Spanish Succession, the War of the Polish Succession and the War of the Austrian Succession. The 18th century lasted from 1701 to 1800 in the Gregorian calendar, in accordance with the Anno Domini / Common Era numbering system In the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714 several European powers combined to stop French succession to the Spanish throne and what would likely have been a resulting The War of the Polish Succession ( 1733 - 1738) was sparked by a Polish Civil war over the succession to Augustus II, King of Poland The War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748 involved nearly all the powers of Europe The German dualism between Austria and Prussia dominated the empire's history after 1740. The term German dualism describes the long conflict between the two largest German states Austria and Prussia from 1740 to 1866 when Austria From 1792 onwards, revolutionary France was at war with various parts of the Empire intermittently. The French Revolutionary Wars were a series of major conflicts from 1792 until 1802 fought between the French Revolutionary government and several European states The Empire was formally dissolved on August 6, 1806 when the last Holy Roman Emperor Francis II (from 1804, Emperor Francis I of Austria) abdicated, following a military defeat by the French under Napoleon (see Treaty of Pressburg). Events 1538 - Bogotá, Colombia, is founded by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada. Year 1806 ( MDCCCVI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Francis II (Franz II Heiliger Römischer Kaiser ( 12 February 1768 &ndash 2 March 1835) was the last Holy Roman Emperor, ruling Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. The Peace of Pressburg refers to four peace treaties concluded in Pressburg (today Bratislava, Slovakia) Napoleon reorganized much of the empire into the Confederation of the Rhine, a French satellite. The Confederation of the Rhine or Rhine Confederation (Rheinbund États confédérés du Rhin officially and Confédération du Rhin in practice) lasted Satellite state is a political term that refers to a country which is formally independent but under heavy influence or control by another country Francis' House of Habsburg-Lorraine survived the demise of the Empire, continuing to reign as Emperors of Austria and Kings of Hungary until the Habsburg empire's final dissolution in 1918 in the aftermath of World War I. The phrase Emperor of Austria describes an Hereditary Imperial title and position proclaimed in 1804 by the Austrian Habsburg The King of Hungary (magyar király was the Head of state of the Kingdom of Hungary from 1000 (or 1001 to 1918 Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The fighting in World War I ended when an Armistice took effect at 1100 am GMT on November 11 1918 Meanwhile, the Napoleonic Confederation of the Rhine was replaced by the German Confederation and the North German Confederation in succession, until the German-speaking territories outside of Austria were united under Prussian leadership in 1871, as the German Empire, the predecessor-state of modern Germany. The German Confederation (Deutscher Bund was the association of Central European states created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to serve as the successor to The North German Confederation (Norddeutscher Bund came into existence in August 1866 as a military alliance of 22 states of northern Germany with the Kingdom of Year 1871 ( MDCCCLXXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The German Empire is the name commonly used in English to describe Germany from 1871 to 1918 when it was a semi- Constitutional monarchy: beginning with the Unification
Successor German empires
After the end of the Napoleonic Wars a new German Confederation was established in 1815. The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815 involved Napoleon's French Empire and a shifting set of European allies and opposing coalitions The German Confederation (Deutscher Bund was the association of Central European states created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to serve as the successor to It lasted until 1866 when Prussia—accompanied by other German states—dissolved the German Confederation to form the North German Confederation which became a nation state in 1871 (see German Empire). Prussia ( Latin: Borussia, Prutenia; Prūsija Prūsija Prusy Old Prussian: Prūsa) was most recently a historic state The North German Confederation (Norddeutscher Bund came into existence in August 1866 as a military alliance of 22 states of northern Germany with the Kingdom of For the online game see Jennifer Government NationStates. The nation-state is a certain form of State that derives its legitimacy Year 1871 ( MDCCCLXXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The German Empire is the name commonly used in English to describe Germany from 1871 to 1918 when it was a semi- Constitutional monarchy: beginning with the Unification
Present-day remnants
It is sometimes claimed that the only surviving fragment of the Empire is the tiny, independent Principality of Liechtenstein, located between Switzerland and Austria. The Principality of Liechtenstein (Fürstentum Liechtenstein) is a tiny doubly landlocked Alpine country in Western Europe, bordered by Switzerland
There is still a Habsburg claimant to the Imperial throne, Otto von Habsburg. Otto von Habsburg (born 20 November, 1912 as Archduke Franz Joseph Otto Robert Maria Anton Karl Max Heinrich Sixtus Xaver Felix Renatus Ludwig Gaetan Pius Ignatius However, the throne of the Empire was never merely hereditary, and titles of nobility no longer have official standing in Germany and the other central European republics.
Institutions
From the High Middle Ages onwards, the Empire was stamped by an uneasy coexistence with the struggle of the dukes of the local territories to take power away from it. The High Middle Ages was the period of European history in the 11th 12th and 13th centuries (AD 1000&ndash1299 A duke is a member of the Nobility, historically of highest rank below the Sovereign, and historically controlled a Duchy or a Dukedom Power is a measure of a person's ability to control the environment around them including the behavior of other people To a greater extent than in other medieval kingdoms such as France and England, the Emperors were unable to gain much control over the lands that they formally owned. The Kingdom of England was a State (927-1707 located in Western Europe dating from the ninth or tenth century to the early eighteenth century when it was legally Instead, to secure their own position from the threat of deposition, Emperors were forced to grant more and more autonomy to local rulers, both nobles and bishops. A bishop is an ordained or consecrated member of the Christian clergy who is generally entrusted with a position of authority and oversight This process began in the 11th century with the Investiture Controversy and was more or less concluded with the 1648 Peace of Westphalia. The Investiture Controversy or Investiture Contest was an 11th century dispute between Henry IV Holy Roman Emperor and Pope Gregory VII over The term Peace of Westphalia refers to the two peace treaties of Osnabrück and Münster, signed on May 15 and October 24 of Several Emperors attempted to reverse this steady dissemination of their authority, but were thwarted both by the papacy and by the princes of the Empire. History See also History of the Papacy Catholics recognize the Pope as a successor to Saint Peter, who Jesus named as the "shepherd" and
King of the Romans
A prospective Emperor had first to be elected King of the Romans (Rex romanorum/römischer König). King of the Romans ( Latin: Rex Romanorum) was the title used by the elected ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, the Imperator futurus The Imperial Crown (Reichskrone is the crown of the King of the Romans, the rulers of the German Kingdom since the High Middle Ages. Vienna ( in Wien; see also other names) is the Capital of Austria, and is also one of the nine States of Austria. Schatzkammer in German translates as Treasury (Chamber/Vault. King of the Romans ( Latin: Rex Romanorum) was the title used by the elected ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, the Imperator futurus Kings had been elected since time immemorial: in the 9th century by the leaders of the five most important tribes: (the Salian Franks of Lorraine, the Ripuarian Franks of Franconia, and the Saxons, Bavarians, and Swabians); later by the main dukes and bishops of the kingdom; finally only by the so-called Kurfürsten (electing dukes, electors). Time immemorial is a phrase meaning time extending beyond the reach of Memory, record or Tradition. The 9th century is the period from 801 to 900 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. Salians redirects here for the eleventh-century dynasty see Salian dynasty, for Roman priests see Salii. The Ripuarian Franks (Latin Ripuari) were Franks that lived in along the middle-Rhine River during the Roman Era The Saxons or Saxon people were a Confederation of Old Germanic tribes. Bavaria ( German:, with an area of 70553 Km² (27241 square miles and almost 12 Swabia, Suabia, or Svebia ( German: Schwaben, Schwabenland or Ländle) is both a historic and linguistic The Prince-Electors (or simply Electors) of the Holy Roman Empire ( German: Kurfürst ( pl This electoral college was formally established in 1356 by the King of Bohemia Charles IV, through a decree known as the Golden Bull. The Golden Bull of 1356 was a decree issued by a Reichstag in Nuremberg headed by Emperor Charles IV Holy Roman Emperor (see Diet Initially, there were seven electors: the Count Palatine of the Rhine, the King of Bohemia, the Duke of Saxony, the Margrave of Brandenburg, and the Archbishops of Cologne, Mainz, and Trier. The Palatinate of the Rhine (Pfalzgrafschaft bei Rhein later the Electoral Palatinate (Kurpfalz was a historical territory of the Holy Roman Empire This is a list of rulers of Bohemia. Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, and Lusatia are territories which are or have This article lists Dukes Electors and Kings ruling over territories named Saxony from the beginning of the Saxon Duchy in the 9th century to the end of the Saxon Kingdom in 1918 This article lists the Margraves and Electors of Brandenburg during the period of time that Brandenburg was a constituent state of the Holy Roman Empire The Electorate of Cologne (Kurfürstentum Köln or Kurköln) was an ecclesiastical principality of the Holy Roman Empire and existed from the 10th to the early 19th Mainz (ˈmaɪ̯nʦ (Mayence is a City in Germany and the capital of the German federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate. Trier (Trèves Luxembourgish: Tréier; Augusta Treverorum is a City in Germany on the banks of the Moselle River. During the Thirty Years' War, the Duke of Bavaria was given the right to vote as the eighth elector. For the Mauritanian Thirty Years' War see Char Bouba war. For the band see The 30 Years War. The following is a list of rulers during the History of Bavaria. A candidate for election would be expected to offer concessions of land or money to the electors in order to secure their vote.
The newly elected king then travelled to Rome to be crowned Emperor by the Pope. In many cases, this took several years while the King was held up by other tasks: frequently he first had to resolve conflicts in rebellious northern Italy, or was in quarrel with the Pope himself. Later Emperors dispensed with the papal coronation altogether, being content with the styling Emperor-Elect: the last Emperor to be crowned by the Pope was Charles V in 1530. Charles V (24 February 1500 &ndash 21 September 1558 was
The Emperor had to be a man of good character over 18 years. All four of his grandparents were expected to be of noble blood. No law required him to be a Catholic, though imperial law assumed that he was. He did not need to be a German (Charles V and Alfonso of Castille were not, and Henry VIII of England was a candidate in the election of 1519). Charles V (24 February 1500 &ndash 21 September 1558 was Alfonso X (November 23 1221 Toledo Spain &ndash April 4 1284 Seville Spain) was a Spanish monarch who ruled as the King of Castile, Henry VIII (28 June 1491 &ndash 28 January 1547 was King of England and Lord of Ireland, later King of Ireland and claimant to the Kingdom of By the 17th century candidates generally possessed estates within the Empire. Louis XIV, King of France, considered allowing Alsace-Lorraine, a recently acquired French territory, to remain within the Empire in order to allow him to be a candidate for the throne. Early years Birth and ancestry Louis XIV was born in the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye on September 5 1638 and bore the Heir apparent Alsace-Lorraine (Reichsland Elsaß-Lothringen generally Elsass - Lothringen) was a territorial entity created by the German Empire in 1871
At no time could the Emperor simply issue decrees and govern autonomously over the Empire. His power was severely restricted by the various local leaders: after the late 15th century, the Reichstag established itself as the legislative body of the Empire, a complicated assembly that convened irregularly at the request of the Emperor at varying locations. The Reichstag ( German for "Imperial Diet " was the Parliament of the Holy Roman Empire, the North German Confederation, Only after 1663 would the Reichstag become a permanent assembly.
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Imperial estates
An entity was considered Reichsstand (imperial estate) if, according to feudal law, it had no authority above it except the Holy Roman Emperor himself. The medieval history of Armenia (Միջնադարյան Հայաստան covers the history of Armenia during the Middle Ages. The Byzantines restored control over Bosnia at the end of 10th century but not for long as it was soon taken by Emperor Samuil of Bulgaria. Great Britain during the Middle Ages (from the 5th century withdrawal of Roman forces from the province of Britannia The Croatian people trace their origins to Slavic peoples which moved into the territory of the former Roman provinces Pannonia and Dalmatia The Crusader states were a number of mostly 12th- and 13th-century feudal states created by Western European Crusaders in Asia Minor, Greece and This article describes the history of the Czech lands in the Middle Ages France in the Middle Ages covers an area roughly corresponding to modern day France, from the death of Charlemagne in 814 to the middle of the 15th This article deals with the history of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10th century to c The Early Medieval era in Ireland from 800 to 1166 is characterised by Viking raids then settlement in what had become a stable and wealthy country This is the History of Italy during the Middle Ages. Late Antiquity Gothic Wars and the Lombard conquest Italy was invaded by the Visigoths Kievan Rus′ (Ки́евская Русь romanised: Kievskaya Rus', rusʲ also written as Kyivan Rus′ (Ки́ївська Русь or Kievan In the first centuries of its existence the Polish nation was led by a series of strong rulers who converted the Poles to Christendom, created a strong Central European Context See also Romania in the Dark Ages The Dark Ages in what is now Romania ended around the 11th century, following The history of Scotland in the High Middle Ages covers Scotland in the era between the death of Domnall II in 900 AD and the death of king Alexander III Тhe medieval history of Serbia begins in the 5th century AD with the arrival of the Slavs in the Balkans and ends with the occupation of Serbia by the Ottoman Empire in 1459 After the disorders of the passage of the Vandals and Alans down the Mediterranean coast of Hispania from 408, the history of Medieval Spain The Swedish pre-history ended around 800 CE when the Viking Age began Medieval art covers a vast scope of time and place over 1000 years of Art history in Europe, the Middle East and North Africa. Medieval literature is a broad subject encompassing essentially all written works available in Europe beyond and during the Middle Ages (encompassing the one thousand Because most of what we have was written down by clerics much of extant medieval poetry is religious. The term medieval music encompasses European music written during the Middle Ages. Medieval architecture is a term used to represent various forms of Architecture popular in Medieval Europe. Medieval philosophy is the Philosophy of Europe and the Middle East in the era now known as Medieval or the Middle Ages, the period roughly extending from This article is about Western European institutions See also Medieval university (Asia and Byzantine university Medieval university In the Middle Ages, Science progressed dramatically from the time of antiquity in areas as diverse as Astronomy, Medicine, and Mathematics Medieval technology refers to the technology used in medieval Europe, which generally does not include the parts of Europe under Arab rule, such as Islamic Medieval Warfare is the warfare of the Middle Ages. In Europe technological cultural and social developments had forced a dramatic transformation in the character Feudalism, a term first used in the early modern period (17th century in its most classic sense refers to a Medieval Europe Political system composed They included:
- Territories governed by a prince or duke, and in some cases kings. (Rulers of the Holy Roman Empire, with the exception of the King of Bohemia (an elector), were not allowed to become King within the Empire, but some had kingdoms outside the Empire, as was, for instance, the case in the Kingdom of Great Britain, where the ruler was also the Prince-elector of Hanover from 1714 until the dissolution of the Empire. This is a list of rulers of Bohemia. Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, and Lusatia are territories which are or have The Kingdom of Great Britain, also known as the United Kingdom of Great Britain, was a State in northwest Europe, in existence from 1707 to 1800 The Prince-Electors (or simply Electors) of the Holy Roman Empire ( German: Kurfürst ( pl The Electorate of Hanover (or more formally the Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg; Kurfürstentum Hannover Kurfürstentum Braunschweig-Lüneburg became the ninth Electorate )
- Feudal territories led by a clerical dignitary, who was then considered a prince of the church. The term Prince of the Church is nowadays used nearly exclusively for Catholic Cardinals However the term is historically more important as a generic term for clergymen In the common case of a Prince-Bishop, this temporal territory (called a prince-bishopric) frequently overlapped his—often larger—ecclesiastical diocese (bishopric), giving the bishop both worldly and clerical powers. A Prince-Bishop is a Bishop who is a territorial Prince of the Church on account of one or more Secular principalities usually pre-existent titles of nobility Ecclesiology (from Greek grc ἐκκλησίᾱ ekklēsiā, "congregation church" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the Examples include the three prince-archbishoprics: Cologne, Trier, and Mainz. The Electorate of Cologne (Kurfürstentum Köln or Kurköln) was an ecclesiastical principality of the Holy Roman Empire and existed from the 10th to the early 19th The Archbishopric of Trier (Erzbistum Trier was a Roman Catholic Diocese in Germany, that existed from Carolingian times until the end of the The Archbishopric of Mainz (Erzbistum Mainz or Electorate of Mainz (Kurfürstentum Mainz or Kurmainz) was an influential ecclesiastic and secular Prince-bishopric
- Imperial Free Cities
The number of territories was amazingly large, rising to approximately 300 at the time of the Peace of Westphalia. In the Holy Roman Empire, a free imperial city (in German: freie Reichsstadt) was a City formally ruled by the Emperor only &mdash The term Peace of Westphalia refers to the two peace treaties of Osnabrück and Münster, signed on May 15 and October 24 of Many of these comprised no more than a few square miles, so the Empire is aptly described as a "patchwork carpet" (Flickenteppich) by many (see Kleinstaaterei). de Kleinstaaterei is a German word mainly used for the political situation in Germany and neighbouring regions during the Holy Roman Empire. For a list of Reichsstands in 1792, see List of Reichstag participants (1792). The Holy Roman Empire was one of the strangest political structures in the world
Reichstag
The Reichstag was the legislative body of the Holy Roman Empire. The Reichstag ( German for "Imperial Diet " was the Parliament of the Holy Roman Empire, the North German Confederation, The Reichstag ( German for "Imperial Diet " was the Parliament of the Holy Roman Empire, the North German Confederation, It was divided into three distinct classes:
- The Council of Electors, which included the Electors of the Holy Roman Empire. The Prince-Electors (or simply Electors) of the Holy Roman Empire ( German: Kurfürst ( pl The Prince-Electors (or simply Electors) of the Holy Roman Empire ( German: Kurfürst ( pl
- The Council of Princes, which included both laypersons and clerics. The Reichstag ( German for "Imperial Diet " was the Parliament of the Holy Roman Empire, the North German Confederation,
- The Secular Bench: Princes (those with the title of Prince, Grand Duke, Duke, Count Palatine, Margrave, or Landgrave) held individual votes; some held more than one vote on the basis of ruling several territories. Prince, from the Latin root Princeps, is a general term for a Monarch, for a member of a monarch's or former monarch's family and is a The Title grand duke (in Latin, magnus dux; in Spanish, gran duque; in Russian, Великий Герцог A duke is a member of the Nobility, historically of highest rank below the Sovereign, and historically controlled a Duchy or a Dukedom This article gives details on the history of the Count Palatine in Mediaeval European Palatinate regions and social structure Margrave (marchio is the English and French form (recorded since 1551 of the German Title Markgraf (from Mark " Landgrave ( Dutch landgraaf, German Landgraf; French landgrave; Latin comes magnus, comes patriae Also, the Council included Counts or Grafs, who were grouped into four Colleges: Wetterau, Swabia, Franconia, and Westphalia. A count is a Nobleman in European countries The word count comes from French comte, itself from Latin Graf is a historical German noble title equal in rank to a Count (derived from the Latin Comes, with a history of its own or a British The Wetterau is a fertile undulating tract watered by the Wetter, a tributary of the Nidda River, in the western German region of Hesse, between the Swabia, Suabia, or Svebia ( German: Schwaben, Schwabenland or Ländle) is both a historic and linguistic Franconia (Franken is a historic region of Germany comprising the northern parts of the modern state of Bavaria and the area to its immediate west Westphalia (Westfalen) is a region in Germany, centred on the cities of Bielefeld, Bochum, Dortmund, Gelsenkirchen, Münster Each College could cast one vote as a whole.
- The Ecclesiastical Bench: Bishops, certain Abbots, and the two Grand Masters of the Teutonic Order and the Order of St John had individual votes. The Teutonic Order is a German Roman Catholic religious order. The Knights Hospitaller (also known as the Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of St Certain other Abbots were grouped into two Colleges: Swabia and the Rhine. Each College held one collective vote.
- The Council of Imperial Cities, which included representatives from Imperial Cities grouped into two Colleges: Swabia and the Rhine. Each College had one collective vote. The Council of Imperial Cities was not fully equal to the others; it could not vote on several matters such as the admission of new territories. The representation of the Free Cities at the Reichstag had become common since the late Middle Ages. Nevertheless, their participation was formally acknowledged only as late as in 1648 with the peace of Westphalia ending the Thirty Years' War. The term Peace of Westphalia refers to the two peace treaties of Osnabrück and Münster, signed on May 15 and October 24 of For the Mauritanian Thirty Years' War see Char Bouba war. For the band see The 30 Years War.
Imperial courts
The Empire also had two courts: the Reichshofrat (also known in English as the Aulic Council) at the court of the King/Emperor (that is, later in Vienna), and the Reichskammergericht (Imperial Chamber Court), established with the Imperial Reform of 1495. The Aulic Council (from the Latin aula, court in feudal language in antiquity a Hellenistic type of grand residence usually private was originally an Vienna ( in Wien; see also other names) is the Capital of Austria, and is also one of the nine States of Austria. The Reichskammergericht (Imperial Chamber Court was one of two highest judicial institutions in the Holy Roman Empire, the other one being the Reichshofrat In 1495, an attempt was made at a Reichstag in the city of Worms to give the disintegrating Holy Roman Empire a new structure commonly referred
Imperial circles
As part of the Reichsreform, six Imperial Circles (Reichskreise) were established in 1500 and extended to ten in 1512. In 1495, an attempt was made at a Reichstag in the city of Worms to give the disintegrating Holy Roman Empire a new structure commonly referred An Imperial Circle (Reichskreis, plural Reichskreise was a regional grouping of territories of the Holy Roman Empire, primarily for the purpose of organizing These were regional groupings of most (though not all) of the various states of the Empire for the purposes of defence, imperial taxation, supervising of coining, peace keeping functions and public security. Each circle had its own Circle Diet (Kreistag).
Analysis
It has been said that modern history of Germany was primarily predetermined by three factors: the Reich, the Reformation, and the later dualism between Austria and Prussia. (ˈraɪk German ˈʁaɪç is a German Loanword cognate with the English Reign, Region, and Rich, but used most to designate The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich Prussia ( Latin: Borussia, Prutenia; Prūsija Prūsija Prusy Old Prussian: Prūsa) was most recently a historic state [1] Many attempts have been made to explain why the Reich never managed to gain a strong centralized power over its territories, as opposed to neighbouring France. Some reasons include:
- The Empire had been a very federal body from the beginning: again, as opposed to France, which had mostly been part of the Roman Empire, in the eastern parts of the Frankish kingdom, the Germanic tribes later comprising the German nation (Saxons, Thuringians, Franks, Bavarians, Alamanni or Swabians) were much more independent and reluctant to cede power to a central authority. The Saxons or Saxon people were a Confederation of Old Germanic tribes. The Thuringii or Toringi were a Germanic tribe which appeared late during the Völkerwanderung in the Harz Mountains of central The Franks or Frankish people (Franci or gens Francorum) were West Germanic tribes first identified in the 3rd century as an Ethnic group The Bavarians are a German people from Bavaria, Germany. They are the inheritors of the Bavarii, which occupied modern-day Bavaria and its surroundings The Alamanni, Allemanni, or Alemanni were originally an alliance of Germanic tribes located around the upper Main river ( Germany Swabia, Suabia, or Svebia ( German: Schwaben, Schwabenland or Ländle) is both a historic and linguistic All attempts to make the kingdom hereditary failed; instead, the king was always elected. Later, every candidate for the king had to make promises to his electorate, the so-called Wahlkapitulationen (election capitulations), thus granting the territories more and more power over the centuries.
- Due to its religious connotations, the Empire as an institution was severely damaged by the contest between the Pope and the German Kings over their respective coronations as Emperor. It was never entirely clear under which conditions the pope would crown the emperor and especially whether the worldly power of the emperor was dependent on the clerical power of the pope. Much debate occurred over this, especially during the 11th century, eventually leading to the Investiture Controversy and the Concordat of Worms in 1122. The Investiture Controversy or Investiture Contest was an 11th century dispute between Henry IV Holy Roman Emperor and Pope Gregory VII over The Concordat of Worms, sometimes called the Pactum Calixtinum by papal historians was an agreement between Pope Calixtus II and Holy Roman Emperor Henry V
- Whether the feudal system of the Empire, where the King formally was the top of the so-called "feudal pyramid", was a cause of or a symptom of the Empire's weakness is unclear. Feudalism, a term first used in the early modern period (17th century in its most classic sense refers to a Medieval Europe Political system composed In any case, military obedience, which – according to Germanic tradition – was closely tied to the giving of land to tributaries, was always a problem: when the Empire had to go to war, decisions were slow and brittle.
- Until the sixteenth century, the economic interests of the south and west diverged from those of the north where the Hanseatic League operated. The Hanseatic League (also known as the Hansa) was an alliance of trading cities and their Guilds that established and maintained trade The Hanseatic League was far more closely allied to Scandinavia and the Baltic than the rest of Germany.
- The Reformation fatally damaged the Empire. The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time Princes and the Councils of free cities successfully defied Imperial authority in adopting and enforcing their various protestant religious changes, and in banning the operation of the Catholic Church within their territories. Protestantism refers to the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated in the 16th century Protestant Reformation. The bitter divisions thus engendered between Protestant and Catholic regions, and their jockeying for control within the empire, led inevitably to civil war. The disaster of the Thirty Years War involved extensive foreign military interventions within the empire, and eventually established the right of foreign powers to make independent alliances with individual imperial states. For the Mauritanian Thirty Years' War see Char Bouba war. For the band see The 30 Years War.
- German historiography nowadays often views the Holy Roman Empire as a well balanced system of organizing a multitude of (effectively independent) states under a complex system of legal regulations. Smaller estates like the Lordships or the Imperial Free cities survived for centuries as independent entities, although they had no effective military strength. The supreme courts, the Reichshofrat and the Reichskammergericht helped to settle conflicts, or at least keep them as wars of words rather than shooting wars. The Aulic Council (from the Latin aula, court in feudal language in antiquity a Hellenistic type of grand residence usually private was originally an The Reichskammergericht (Imperial Chamber Court was one of two highest judicial institutions in the Holy Roman Empire, the other one being the Reichshofrat
- The multitude of different territories with different languages (German, French, Italian, Czech, Slovene etc. ), religious denominations and different forms of government led to a great variety of cultural diversification, which can be felt even in present day Germany with regional cultures, patterns of behaviour and dialects changing sometimes within the range of kilometres.
See also
Institutions
- Holy Roman Emperor
- List of Holy Roman Emperors and Holy Roman Emperors family tree. The Holy Roman Emperor (Römischer Kaiser or Römisch-Deutscher Kaiser Romanorum Imperator was the elected monarch ruling over the many varying numbers of states The Holy Roman Emperor (Römischer Kaiser or Römisch-Deutscher Kaiser Romanorum Imperator was the elected monarch ruling over the many varying numbers of states The following image is a Family tree of every king monarch confederation president and emperor of Germany, from Louis the German in 843 through to
- List of German monarchs
- Reichstag (institution)
- Imperial Circle
History
- History of Germany
- History of Austria
- History of Liechtenstein
- History of the Netherlands
- History of Switzerland
- History of the Czech lands
- History of Italy
- History of Poland
- History of Slovenia
Component states
- List of states in the Holy Roman Empire
- Margraviate of Brandenburg (Brandenburg-Prussia)
- Electorate of Bavaria
- Electorate of Saxony
- Electorate of Hanover
- Electoral Palatinate
- Papal States
- Silesia
- Pomerania
- Bohemia
Other
Notes
- ^ The Holy Roman Empire
- Latin: Sacrum Romanum Imperium
- German: Heiliges Römisches Reich
- Italian: Sacro Romano Impero
- Dutch: Heilige Roomse Rijk
- Czech: Svatá říše Římská
- Polish: Święte Cesarstwo Rzymskie
- Slovene: Sveto rimsko cesarstvo
- French: Saint-Empire Romain
- ^ For the full list of Holy Roman Emperors see: Holy Roman Emperor
- ^ The term for the Empire, in other languages that historically were spoken within its confines are: Czech: Svatá říše římská, later Svatá říše římská národa německého; Dutch: Heilige Roomse Rijk, later; Heilige Roomse Rijk der Duitse Naties/Volkeren; French: Saint Empire Romain Germanique; Italian: Sacro Romano Impero; Slovene: Sveto rimsko cesarstvo, later Sveto rimsko cesarstvo nemške narodnosti
- ^ The Thirty-Years-War, Gerhard Rempel, Western New England College. The Holy Roman Emperor (Römischer Kaiser or Römisch-Deutscher Kaiser Romanorum Imperator was the elected monarch ruling over the many varying numbers of states Czech (ˈʧɛk čeština ˈʧɛʃcɪna in Czech is a West Slavic language with about 12 million native speakers it is the majority language in the Dutch ( is a West Germanic language spoken by around 24 million people 22 million of which are from the Netherlands, Belgium and Suriname French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people Italian ( or lingua italiana) is a Romance language spoken by about 63 million people as a First language, primarily in Italy. Slovene or Slovenian ( slovenski jezik or slovenščina, not to be confused with Slovenčina) is a South Slavic language
- ^ The Thirty Years War (1618-48), Alan McFarlane, The Savage Wars of Peace: England, Japan and the Malthusian Trap (2003)
References
- Heinz Angermeier, Das Alte Reich in der deutschen Geschichte. Studien über Kontinuitäten und Zäsuren, München 1991
- Karl Otmar Freiherr von Aretin, Das Alte Reich 1648–1806. 4 vols. Stuttgart, 1993–2000
- Peter Claus Hartmann, Kulturgeschichte des Heiligen Römischen Reiches 1648 bis 1806. Wien, 2001
- Georg Schmidt, Geschichte des Alten Reiches. München, 1999
- James Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire. James Bryce 1st Viscount Bryce, OM, GCVO, FRS, PC, FBA ( May 10, 1838 &ndash January 22, 1922 ISBN 0-333-03609-3
- Jonathan W. Zophy (ed. ), The Holy Roman Empire: A Dictionary Handbook. Greenwood Press, 1980
- Deutsche Reichstagsakten
- George Donaldson, Germany: A Complete History. Gotham Books, New York 1985
External links
- Stollberg-Rilinger, Barbara (2003). heiliges römisches Reich der deutsches Nation (html). Einfürung in die frühe Neuzeit. Stollberg-Rilinger. Retrieved on 2008-05-08. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 589 - Reccared summons the Third Council of Toledo 1450 - Jack Cade's Rebellion: Kentishmen (German).
- Das Heilige Reich (German Museum of History, Berlin)
- List of Wars of the Holy Roman Empire
- Deutschland beim Tode Kaiser Karls IV. 1378 (Germany at the death of emperor Charles IV.) taken from "Meyers Kleines Konversationslexikon in sechs Bänden. Bd. 2. Leipzig u. Wien : Bibliogr. Institut 1908", map inserted after page 342
- Books and articles on the Reich
- Velde, François R (2008). The Holy Roman Empire (html). Heraldica. Velde. Retrieved on 2008-05-08. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 589 - Reccared summons the Third Council of Toledo 1450 - Jack Cade's Rebellion: Kentishmen (English).
Maps
- The Holy Roman Empire, 1138–1254
- The Holy Roman Empire in 1398
- The Holy Roman Empire in 1547
- The Holy Roman Empire in 1648
- The Holy Roman Empire in 1789 (Interactive map)
Dictionary
Holy Roman Empire
-proper noun
- A political conglomeration of lands in Central Europe from at least 962 CE until 1806.
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