The Earth seen from Apollo 17. From a holistic perspective, the universe exists in and forms integrated webs of wholeness, often beyond our direct perception^[1]

Distinguish from the suffix -holism, which describes addictions.

Holism (from ὅλος holos, a Greek word meaning all, entire, total) is the idea that all the properties of a given system (biological, chemical, social, economic, mental, linguistic, etc. The Ancient Greek language is the historical stage in the development of the Hellenic language family spanning the Archaic (c System (from Latin systēma, in turn from Greek systēma is a set of interacting or interdependent Entities, real or abstract Linguistics is the scientific study of Language, encompassing a number of sub-fields ) cannot be determined or explained by its component parts alone. Instead, the system as a whole determines in an important way how the parts behave.

The general principle of holism was concisely summarized by Aristotle in the Metaphysics: "The whole is more than the sum of its parts. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Metaphysics is one of the principal works of Aristotle and the first major work of the branch of philosophy with the same name "

Reductionism is sometimes seen as the opposite of holism. Reductionism can either mean (a an approach to understanding the nature of complex things by reducing them to the interactions of their parts or to simpler or more fundamental things Reductionism in science says that a complex system can be explained by reduction to its fundamental parts. Reductionism essentially claims that chemistry is reducible to physics, biology is reducible to chemistry and psychology and sociology are reducible to biology, etc. Some other proponents of reductionism, however, think that holism is the opposite only of greedy reductionism. Greedy reductionism is a term coined by Daniel Dennett, in the book Darwin's Dangerous Idea, to distinguish between what he considers acceptable and erroneous

On the other hand, holism and reductionism can also be regarded as complementary viewpoints, in which case they both would be needed to get a proper account of a given system.

History

The term holism was introduced by the South African statesman Jan Smuts in his 1926 book, Holism and Evolution. The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa Field Marshal Jan Christiaan Smuts, OM, CH, PC, ED, KC, FRS (24 May 1870 &ndash 11 September 1950 was a prominent ^[2] Smuts defined holism as "The tendency in nature to form wholes that are greater than the sum of the parts through creative evolution. "^[3]

The idea has ancient roots. Examples of holism can be found throughout human history and in the most diverse socio-cultural contexts, as has been confirmed by many ethnological studies. Ethnology (from the Greek ἔθνος, ethnos meaning "habit custom convention" is the branch of Anthropology that compares and The French Protestant missionary, Maurice Leenhardt coined the term cosmomorphism to indicate the state of perfect symbiosis with the surrounding environment which characterized the culture of the Melanesians of New Caledonia. Maurice Leenhardt, (1878 - 1954 was a French pastor and ethnologist specialising in the Kanak people of New Caledonia. This article is about the biological phenomenon for other uses see Symbiosis (disambiguation The term symbiosis (from the Greek Melanesia (from Greek: μέλας black, νῆσος island) means "islands of the black-skinned people" For the former North American fur-trading district see New Caledonia (Canada, and for the Scottish colony in Panama see Darien scheme. For these people, an isolated individual is totally indeterminate, indistinct and featureless until he can find his position within the natural and social world in which he is inserted. The confines between the self and the world are annulled to the point that the material body itself is no guarantee of the sort of recognition of identity which is typical of our own culture.

In science

Main article: Holism in science

In the latter half of the 20th century, holism led to systems thinking and its derivatives, like the sciences of chaos and complexity. Holism in science, or Holistic science, is an approach to Research that emphasizes the study of Complex systems. Systems thinking is a unique approach to problem solving in that it views certain "problems" as parts of an overall system rather than focusing on individual outcomes and contributing Chaos (derived from the Ancient Greek, Chaos) typically refers to Unpredictability, and is the antithesis of Cosmos. In general usage complexity often tends to be used to characterize something with many parts in intricate arrangement Systems in biology, psychology, or sociology are frequently so complex that their behavior appears "new" or "emergent": it cannot be deduced from the properties of the elements alone. In Philosophy, emergentism is the belief in Emergence, particularly as it involves Consciousness and the Philosophy of mind, and as it contrasts ^[4]

Holism has thus been used as a catchword. This contributed to the resistance encountered by the scientific interpretation of holism, which insists that there are ontological reasons that prevent reductive models in principle from providing efficient algorithms for prediction of system behavior in certain classes of systems. In Philosophy, ontology (from the Greek, genitive: of being (part

Further resistance to holism has come from the association of the concept with quantum mysticism. Quantum mysticism is the claim that the laws of Quantum mechanics incorporate mystical ideas similar to those found in certain religious traditions or New Age beliefs Scientists were as a rule discouraged from doing any work which may perpetuate such deception. Recently, however, public understanding has grown over the realities of such concepts, and more scientists are beginning to accept serious research into the concept.

Scientific holism holds that the behavior of a system cannot be perfectly predicted, no matter how much data is available. Natural systems can produce surprisingly unexpected behavior, and it is suspected that behavior of such systems might be computationally irreducible, which means it would not be possible to even approximate the system state without a full simulation of all the events occurring in the system. Computational irreducibility is one of the main ideas proposed by Stephen Wolfram in his book A New Kind of Science. Key properties of the higher level behavior of certain classes of systems may be mediated by rare "surprises" in the behavior of their elements due to the principal of interconnectivity, thus evading predictions except by brute force simulation. Interconnectivity is a concept that is used in numerous fields such as Cybernetics, Biology, Ecology, Network theory, and Non-linear Stephen Wolfram has provided such examples with simple cellular automata, whose behavior is in most cases equally simple, but on rare occasions highly unpredictable. Stephen Wolfram (born August 29, 1959 in London) is a British Physicist, Mathematician and Businessman known for his A cellular automaton (plural cellular automata) is a discrete model studied in computability theory, Mathematics, Theoretical biology ^[5]

Complexity theory (also called "science of complexity"), is a contemporary heir of systems thinking. It comprises both computational and holistic, relational approaches towards understanding complex adaptive systems and, especially in the latter, its methods can be seen as the polar opposite to reductive methods. Complex adaptive systems are special cases of Complex systems They are complex in that they are diverse and made up of multiple interconnected elements and adaptive General theories of complexity have been proposed, and numerous complexity institutes and departments have sprung up around the world. The Santa Fe Institute is arguably the most famous of them. The Santa Fe Institute (SFI is a non-profit research institute located in Santa Fe New Mexico, United States, dedicated to the study of Complex systems

In anthropology

There is an ongoing dispute on the definition of anthropology as holistic and the "four-field" approach. Supporters of this definition,^[6] consider it holistic in two senses: it is concerned with all human beings across times and places, and with all dimensions of humanity (evolutionary, biophysical, sociopolitical, economic, cultural, psychological, etc. ); also many academic programs following this approach take a "four-field" approach to anthropology that encompasses physical anthropology, archeology, linguistics, and cultural anthropology or social anthropology. Biological anthropology, or physical anthropology is a branch of Anthropology that studies the mechanisms of biological Evolution, genetic inheritance Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from Greek grc ἀρχαιολογία archaiologia – grc ἀρχαῖος archaīos Linguistics is the scientific study of Language, encompassing a number of sub-fields Cultural anthropology is one of four fields of Anthropology (the holistic study of humanity) as it developed in the United States. Social anthropology is the branch of Anthropology that studies how currently living human beings behave in social groups The definition of anthropology as holistic and the "four-field" approach are disputed by leading anthropologist,^[7] that consider those as artifacts from 19th century social evolutionary thought that inappropriately impose scientific positivism upon cultural anthropology. Sociocultural evolution(ism is an umbrella term for theories of cultural evolution and Social evolution, describing how Cultures and societies Positivism is the Philosophy that the only authentic knowledge is knowledge that is based on actual sense experience Cultural anthropology is one of four fields of Anthropology (the holistic study of humanity) as it developed in the United States. ^[7]

In ecology

The holistic approach to ecology is exemplified by the field of systems ecology, a cross-disciplinary field influenced by general systems theory. Systems ecology is an Interdisciplinary field of Ecology, taking a holistic approach to the study of ecological systems especially Ecosystems Systems theory is an Interdisciplinary field of Science and the study of the nature of Complex systems in Nature, Society, and

In economics

With roots in Schumpeter, the evolutionary approach might be considered the holist theory in economics. Joseph Alois Schumpeter ( February 8, 1883 &ndash January 8, 1950) was an Economist and Political scientist born in They share certain language from the biological evolutionary approach. They take into account how the innovation system evolves over time. The concept of the innovation system stresses that the flow of technology and information among people enterprises and institutions is key to an innovative process Knowledge and know-how, know-who, know-what and know-why are part of the whole business economics. Knowledge can also be tacit, as described by Michael Polanyi. Michael Polanyi (born Polányi Mihály) ( March 11, 1891, Budapest – February 22, 1976) was a Hungarian – These models are open, and consider that it is hard to predict exactly the impact of a policy measure. They are also less mathematical.

In philosophy

Main articles: Semantic holism and confirmation holism

In philosophy, any doctrine that emphasizes the priority of a whole over its parts is holism. Semantic holism is a doctrine in the Philosophy of language to the effect that a certain part of language be it a term or a complete sentence can only be understood through Confirmation holism, also called epistemological holism is the claim that a single Scientific theory cannot be tested in isolation a test of one theory always depends In the philosophy of language this becomes the claim, called semantic holism, that the meaning of an individual word or sentence can only be understood in terms of its relations to a larger body of language, even a whole theory or a whole language. Philosophy of language is the reasoned inquiry into the nature origins and usage of Language. Semantic holism is a doctrine in the Philosophy of language to the effect that a certain part of language be it a term or a complete sentence can only be understood through In the philosophy of mind, a mental state may be identified only in terms of its relations with others. Philosophy of mind is the branch of Philosophy that studies the nature of the Mind, Mental events Mental functions mental properties This is often referred to as content holism or holism of the mental.

Epistemological and confirmation holism are mainstream ideas in contemporary philosophy. Epistemology (from Greek επιστήμη - episteme, "knowledge" + λόγος, " Logos " or theory of knowledge Confirmation holism, also called epistemological holism is the claim that a single Scientific theory cannot be tested in isolation a test of one theory always depends

In sociology

Main article: Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft

Emile Durkheim developed a concept of holism which he opposed to the notion that a society was nothing more than a simple collection of individuals. Gemeinschaft ( gəˈma͡ɪnʃaft and Gesellschaft are sociological categories introduced by the German sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies for two Émile Durkheim ( April 15, 1858 – November 15, 1917) was a French Sociologist whose contributions were instrumental A society is a Population of Humans characterized by patterns of relationships between individuals that share a distinctive Culture and Institutions In more recent times, Louis Dumont ^[8] has contrasted "holism" to "individualism" as two different forms of societies. Louis Dumont (1911–1998 was a French Anthropologist, associate professor at Oxford University during the 1950s and director at the École des Hautes According to him, modern humans live in an individualist society, whereas ancient Greek society, for example, could be qualified as "holistic", because the individual found identity in the whole society. Thus, the individual was ready to sacrifice himself or herself for his or her community, as his or her life without the polis had no sense whatsoever. In biological terms a community is a group of interacting Organisms sharing an environment. A polis ( πόλις, pronunciation, in English-- plural poleis ( πόλεις, pronunciation, in English --is a City, a

In teleological psychology

Alfred Adler believed that the individual (an integrated whole expressed through a self-consistent unity of thinking, feeling, and action, moving toward an unconscious, fictional final goal), must be understood within the larger wholes of society, from the groups to which he belongs (starting with his face-to-face relationships), to the larger whole of mankind. Alfred Adler ( February 7 1870 &ndash May 28 1937) was an Austrian medical doctor, psychologist and founder of Classical Adlerian Psychology is a values-based fully-integrated theory of personality model of Psychopathology, philosophy of living strategy for preventative education The recognition of our social embeddedness and the need for developing an interest in the welfare of others, as well as a respect for nature, is at the heart of Adler's philosophy of living and principles of psychotherapy.

Edgar Morin, the French philosopher and sociobiologist, can be considered a holist based on the transdisciplinary nature of his work. Edgar Morin is a French Philosopher and Sociologist who was born in Paris on July 8, 1921 under the original name Overview In scientific contexts the term 'transdisciplinarity' is used in various ways

Mel Levine, M.D., author of A Mind at a Time,^[9] and Co-Founder (with Charles R. Schwab) of the not-for-profit organization All Kinds of Minds, can be considered a holist based on his view of the 'whole child' as a product of many systems and his work supporting the educational needs of children through the management of a child's educational profile as a whole rather than isolated weaknesses in that profile.

In theological anthropology

In theological anthropology, which belongs to theology and not to anthropology, holism is the belief that the nature of humans consists of an indivisible union of components such as body, soul and spirit. Theological anthropology is the branch of Theology which is concerned with the study of humankind or Anthropology, in relation to the divine With regard to living things, a body is the integral physical material of an individual The soul, according to many religious and philosophical beliefs is the self-awareness, or Consciousness, unique to a particular living The English word " spirit " comes from the Latin " spiritus " (breath

In theology

Holistic concepts are strongly represented within the thoughts expressed within Logos (per Heraclitus), Panentheism and Pantheism. grc-Latn Logos (ˈloʊːgɒs ( Greek, logos) is an important term in Philosophy, Analytical psychology, Rhetoric and Religion Heraclitus of Ephesus ( Ancient Greek: &mdash grc-Latn ''Hērákleitos ho Ephésios'' English Heraclitus the Ephesian) (ca Panentheism (from Greek (pân "all" (en "in" and (Theós "God" "all-in-God" is a belief system Pantheism ( Greek: πάν ( 'pan') = all and θεός ( 'theos') = God it literally means " God is All

Applications

Architecture and industrial design

Architecture and industrial design are often seen as enterprises, which constitute a whole, or to put it another way, design is often argued to be an holistic enterprise. ^[10] In architecture and industrial design holism tends to imply an all-inclusive design perspective, which is often regarded as somewhat exclusive to the two design professions. Holism is often considered as something that sets architects and industrial designers apart from other professions that participate in design projects. This view is supported and advocated by practising designers and design scholars alike, who often argue that architecture and/or industrial design have a distinct holistic character.

Education reform

The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives identifies many levels of cognitive functioning, which can be used to create a more holistic education. The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, often called Bloom's Taxonomy, is a classification of the different objectives and skills that educators set Holistic education is a philosophy of education based on the premise that each person finds identity meaning and purpose in life through connections to the community to the natural world In authentic assessment, rather than using computers to score multiple choice test, a standards based assessment uses trained scorers to score open-response items using holistic scoring methods. Authentic assessment is an umbrella concept that refers to the measurement of "intellectual accomplishments that are worthwhile significant and meaningful" as compared to multiple A standards based test is one based on the Outcome-based education or performance-based education philosophy ^[11] In projects such as the North Carolina Writing Project, scorers are instructed not to count errors, or count numbers of points or supporting statements. The scorer is instead, instruct to judge holistically whether "as a whole" is it more a "2" or a "3". Critics question whether such a process can be as objective as computer scoring, and the degree to which such scoring methods can result in different scores from different scorers.

Medicine

Holism appears in psychosomatic medicine. Psychosomatic medicine is an interdisciplinary medical field studying psychosomatic illness, now more commonly referred to as psychophysiologic illness or disorder In the 1970s the holistic approach was considered one possible way to conceptualize psychosomatic phenomena. Instead of charting one-way causal links from psyche to soma, or vice-versa, it aimed at a systemic model, where multiple biological, psychological and social factors were seen as interlinked. In Psychoanalysis, the psyche (ˈsaɪki refers to the forces in an individual that influence thought, Behavior and Personality. The soma, or cyton or perikaryon, is the bulbous end of a Neuron, containing the Cell nucleus. Other, alternative approaches at that time were psychosomatic and somatopsychic approaches, which concentrated on causal links only from psyche to soma, or from soma to psyche, respectively. ^[12] At present it is commonplace in psychosomatic medicine to state that psyche and soma cannot really be separated for practical or theoretical purposes. A disturbance on any level - somatic, psychic, or social - will radiate to all the other levels, too. In this sense, psychosomatic thinking is similar to the biopsychosocial model of medicine. The biopsychosocial model is a general model or approach

In alternative medicine, a holistic approach to healing emphasizes the emotional, mental, spiritual, and physical elements of the patient, and claims to treat the whole person in its context. Some examples of holistic approaches include Ayurveda, Chiropractic medicine, Homoeopathy, Traditional Chinese medicine, Naturopathic medicine, Osteopathy, Unani medicine and Reflexology. Ayurveda ( Devanāgarī: आयुर्वॆद the 'science of life' is a system of Traditional medicine native to India, and practiced in other Chiropractic is a Health care profession that focuses on diagnosis treatment and prevention of mechanical disorders of the Musculoskeletal system, with special emphasis This article has been the subject of edit wars and has been placed on probation Traditional Chinese medicine (also known as TCM,) includes a range of traditional medical practices originating in China. Naturopathic medicine (also known as naturopathy, or natural medicine) is a Complementary and alternative medicine which emphasizes the body's intrinsic Osteopathy is an approach to Healthcare that emphasizes the role of the Musculoskeletal system in Health and Disease. Unani IPA: (in Arabic, Hindi, Persian, Pashtu, Urdu, etc means " Greek " Reflexology, or zone therapy, is the practice of massaging squeezing or pushing on parts of the feet, or sometimes the Hands and Ears with Most of these schools do not originate from the medical-scientific tradition, and lack sufficient evidence to verify their claims.

See also

• Confirmation holism
• Emergence
• Buckminster Fuller
• Holistic health
• Holistic science
• Holon
• Holotes
• Gestalt
• Gestalt psychology
• Kurt Goldstein
• Howard T. Odum
• Logical holism
• Organicism
• Synergetics
• Synergy
• Systems theory
• Willard Van Orman Quine

Notes

References

• Ludwig von Bertalanffy, General System Theory. Karl Ludwig von Bertalanffy ( September 19, 1901, Vienna, Austria – June 12, 1972, New York, USA Foundations Development Applications. Allen Lane 1971 (1968)
• Lipowski, Z. J. : "Psychosomatic medicine in seventies". Am. J. Psych. 134:3:233-244
• Jan C. Smuts, Holism and Evolution, 1926 MacMillan, Compass/Viking Press 1961 reprint: ISBN 0-598-63750-8, Greenwood Press 1973 reprint: ISBN 0-8371-6556-3, Sierra Sunrise 1999 (mildly edited): ISBN 1-887263-14-4
• Leenhardt, M. Field Marshal Jan Christiaan Smuts, OM, CH, PC, ED, KC, FRS (24 May 1870 &ndash 11 September 1950 was a prominent Do Kamo. La personne et le mythe dans le monde mélanésien. Gallimard. Paris. 1947.

Further reading

• Hayek, F. A. von. The Counter-revolution of Science. Studies on the abuse of reason. Free Press. New York. 1957.
• Mandelbaum, M. Societal Facts in Gardner 1959.
• Phillips, D. C. Holistic Thought in Social Science. Stanford University Press. Stanford. 1976.
• Dreyfus, H. L. Holism and Hermeneutics in The Review of Metaphysics. 34. pp. 3-23.
• James, S. The Content of Social Explanation. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, 1984.
• Harrington, A. Reenchanted Science: Holism in German Culture from Wilhelm II to Hitler. Princeton University Press. 1996.

External links

• Brief explanation of Koestler's derivation of "holon"
• Holism in nature – and coevolution in ecosystems
• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy article: "Holism and Nonseparability in Physics"
• James Schombert of University of Oregon Physics Dept on quantum holism
• Theory of sociological holism from "World of Wholeness"