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Hmong/Mong
Flower Hmong in traditional dress at the market in Sa Pa, Vietnam
Total population

4 to 5 million
Regions with significant populations
Flag of the People's Republic of China China 3 million
Flag of Vietnam Vietnam 790,000
Flag of Laos Laos 450,000
Flag of the United States United States 275,000
Flag of Thailand Thailand 150,000
Flag of France France 15,000
Flag of French Guiana French Guiana 1,500
Languages
Hmong/Mong
Religions
Shamanism, Buddhism, Christianity, others

The terms Hmong (pronounced [m̥ɔ̃ŋ]) and Mong ([mɔ̃ŋ]) both refer to an Asian ethnic group in the mountainous regions of southern China. Sa Pa or Sapa (Westernized spelling is a frontier town and district in the Lào Cai province in northwest Vietnam. Vietnam (ˌviːɛtˈnɑːm Việt Nam) officially Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES Vietnam (ˌviːɛtˈnɑːm Việt Nam) officially Laos (ˈlɑːoʊs or /ˈlaʊs/ officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic, is a Landlocked country in Southeast Asia, bordered by Burma The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The Kingdom of Thailand (ˈtaɪlænd ราชอาณาจักรไทย, râːtɕʰa-ʔaːnaːtɕɑ̀k-tʰɑj This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. French Guiana (Guyane française officially fr ''Guyane'' is an Overseas department (French département d'outre-mer, or DOM) of France Hmong ( RPA: Hmoob) or Mong ( RPA: Moob) is the common name for a group of dialects of the West Hmongic (Chuanqiandian branch Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National There, they remain one of the largest sub-groups in the Miao (Chinese:苗族) minzu. The Miao ( Vietnamese: Mèo or H'Mông Thai: แม้ว (Maew or ม้ง (Mong Burmese: mun lu-myo) are a linguistically and culturally Ethnic minorities in China refer to the non- Han Chinese population in Mainland China and Taiwan. Beginning in the 18th-century, Hmong groups began a gradual mass migration to Southeast Asia for reasons both political and economic. As a result, Hmong currently live in several countries in Southeast Asia, including northern Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, and Myanmar-Burma. Vietnam (ˌviːɛtˈnɑːm Việt Nam) officially Laos (ˈlɑːoʊs or /ˈlaʊs/ officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic, is a Landlocked country in Southeast Asia, bordered by Burma The Kingdom of Thailand (ˈtaɪlænd ราชอาณาจักรไทย, râːtɕʰa-ʔaːnaːtɕɑ̀k-tʰɑj Burma, officially the Union of Myanmar ( pjìdàunzṵ mjàmmà nàinŋàndɔ̀ is the largest country by geographical area in mainland Southeast Asia.

In Laos, a significant number of Hmong/Mong people fought against the communist-nationalist Pathet Lao during the Secret War. The Pathet Lao ( Lao ປະເທດລາວ, "Land of Laos" was a communist, Nationalist Political movement and The Laotian Civil War ( 1962 - 1975) was an internal fight between the Communist Pathet Lao and the Royal Lao Government in which When the Pathet Lao took over the government in 1975, Hmong/Mong people were singled out for retribution, resulting in many fleeing to Thailand. Thousands of these refugees were resettled in Western countries, including the United States, Australia, France, French Guiana, and Canada. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. French Guiana (Guyane française officially fr ''Guyane'' is an Overseas department (French département d'outre-mer, or DOM) of France Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page Others were returned to Laos under United Nations-sponsored repatriation programs. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security Repatriation (from late Latin repatriare - to restore someone to his homeland is the process of return of Refugees or Soldiers to their homes Around 8,000 Hmong/Mong refugees remain in Thailand.

Contents

Nomenclature

Hmong people have their own terms for their subcultural divisions, "White Hmong" (Hmong Der) and "Green" or "Blue Mong" (Mong Leng) being the terms for two of the largest groups. In the Romanized Popular Alphabet, developed in the 1950s in Laos, these terms are written Hmoob Dawb (White Hmong) and Moob Leeg (Green Mong). The Romanized Popular Alphabet (RPA or Hmong RPA (also Roman Popular Alphabet is a system of Romanization for the various dialects of the Hmong language The doubled vowels indicate nasalization, and the final consonants indicate with which of the eight lexical tones the word is pronounced. Tone is the use of pitch in Language to distinguish lexical or grammatical meaning—that is to distinguish or inflect words White Hmong and Green Mong people speak mutually intelligible dialects of the Hmong language with some differences in pronunciation and vocabulary. Hmong ( RPA: Hmoob) or Mong ( RPA: Moob) is the common name for a group of dialects of the West Hmongic (Chuanqiandian branch One of the most obvious differences is the use of the aspirated /m/ in White Hmong (indicated by the letter "h") not found in the Green Mong dialect. Other groups of Hmong/Mong people include the Black Hmong (Hmoob Dub), Striped Hmong (Hmoob Txaij/Hmoob Quas Npab), Hmong Shi, Hmong Pe, Hmong Pua, and Hmong Xau. [1]

Since 1949, Miao has been an official term for one of the 55 official minority groups recognized by the government of the People's Republic of China. The Miao ( Vietnamese: Mèo or H'Mông Thai: แม้ว (Maew or ม้ง (Mong Burmese: mun lu-myo) are a linguistically and culturally The following is a list of ethnic groups in China where "China" is taken to mean areas controlled by either of the two states using "China" in their formal Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES The Miao live mainly in southern China, in the provinces of Guizhou, Hunan, Yunnan, Sichuan, Guangxi, Hainan, Guangdong, Hubei, and elsewhere in China. ( also spelled Kweichow) is a province of the People's Republic of China located in the southwestern part of the country ( is a province of China, located in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River and south of Lake Dongting (hence the name Hunan, meaning ( Postal map spelling: Szechwan and Szechuan) is a province in western China with its capital in Chengdu. Guangxi (or Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region;) is a Zhuang autonomous region of the People's Republic of China. Hainan ( POJ: Hai-lam Pinyin:, Jyutping: hoi2 naam4 literal meaning "South of the Sea" is the smallest province of the People's Guangdong ( EFEO: Kouangtong; Pinyin Guǎngdōng; Postal map spelling: Kwangtung) is a province on the ( Postal map spelling: Hupeh) is a central province of the People's Republic of China. According to the 2000 census, the number of 'Miao' in China was estimated to be about 9. 6 million. The Miao nationality includes Hmong/Mong people as well as other culturally- and linguistically-related ethnic groups who do not call themselves either Hmong or Mong. These include the Hmu, Kho (Qho) Xiong, and A Hmao. The White Miao (Bai Miao) and Green Miao (Qing Miao) are both Hmong/Mong groups.

Usage of the term "Miao" in Chinese documents dates back to the Shi Ji (1st century BC) and the Zhan Guo Ce (late Western Han Dynasty). The Records of the Grand Historian, also known in English by the Chinese name 史記 or Shiji, written from 109 BC to 91 BC The Zhan Guo Ce ( was a renowned ancient Chinese historical work and compilation of sporadic materials on the Warring States Period compiled between 3rd century The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. During this time, it was generally applied to people of the southern regions thought to be descendants of the San Miao kingdom (dated to around the 3rd century BC. ) The term does not appear again until the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), as by then it had taken on the connotation of "barbarian. The Ming Dynasty ( or Empire of the Great Ming ( was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol -led ". Interchangeable with "man" and "yi," it was used to refer to the indigenous people of the south-western frontier who refused to submit to imperial rule. During this time, references to Raw (Sheng) and Cooked (Shu) Miao appear, referring to level of assimilation and political cooperation of the two groups. Not until the Qing dynasty (1644–1911) do more finely grained distinctions appear in writing. Not to be confused with Qin Dynasty, the first dynasty of Imperial China Even then, discerning which ethnic groups are included in various classifications can be problematic. [2] This inconsistent usage of "Miao" makes it difficult to say for sure if Hmong/Mong people are always included in these historical writings. Linguistic evidence, however, places Hmong/Mong people in the same regions of southern China that they inhabit today for at least the past 2,000 years. [3] By the mid-18th century, classifications become specific enough that it is easier to identify references to Hmong/Mong people.

In Southeast Asia, Hmong/Mong people are referred to by other names, including: Vietnamese: Mèo or H'Mông; Thai: แม้ว (Maew) or ม้ง (Mong); Burmese: mun lu-myo. Vietnamese ( tiếng Việt, or less commonly Việt ngữ) formerly known under French colonization as Annamese ( see Annam) The Thai Alphabet (อักษรไทย àksŏn thai) is used to write the Thai language and other minority languages in Thailand The Burmese language (မြန်မာဘာသာ myà̃mà bàθà MLCTS: myanma bhasa) is the official Language of Burma. "Mèo", or variants thereof, is considered highly derogatory by many Hmong/Mong people and is infrequently used today outside of Southeast Asia. The Miao ( Vietnamese: Mèo or H'Mông Thai: แม้ว (Maew or ม้ง (Mong Burmese: mun lu-myo) are a linguistically and culturally [4]

Because the Hmong lived mainly in the highland areas of Southeast Asia and China, the French occupiers of Southeast Asia gave them the name Montagnards or "mountain people", but this should not be confused with the Degar people of Vietnam, who were also referred to as Montagnards. The Degar (referred to by French colonists as Montagnard) are the Indigenous peoples of the Central Highlands of Vietnam.


Controversy over nomenclature

Hmong and Mong

When Western authors came in contact with Hmong and Mong people, beginning in the eighteenth-century, they referred to them in writing by ethnonyms assigned by the Chinese (i. e. Miao, or variants). This practice continued into the twentieth century. Even ethnographers studying the Hmong/Mong people in Southeast Asia often referred to them as Mèo, a corruption of Miao applied by Thai and Lao people to the Hmong/Mong. Ethnography ( Greek ethnos = people and graphein = writing is a genre of writing that uses Fieldwork to provide a descriptive (As noted above, this term is considered to be highly derogatory by many Hmong/Mong people. ) In the middle of the twentieth century, a concerted effort was made to refer to Hmong/Mong by their own ethnonyms in scholarly literature. By the 1970s, it became standard to refer to the entire ethnic group as "Hmong. " This was reinforced during the influx of Hmong/Mong immigrants to the United States after 1975. Research proliferated, much of it being directed toward the American Hmong Der community. Several states with Hmong/Mong populations issued official translations only in the Hmong Der dialect. At the same time, more Mong Leng people voiced concerns that the supposed inclusive term "Hmong" only served to exclude them from the national discourse.

The issue came to a head during the passage of California State Assembly Bill (AB) 78, in the 2003–2004 season. [5] Introduced by Doua Vu and Assembly Member Sarah Reyes, District 31 (Fresno), the bill encouraged changes in secondary education curriculum to include information about the Secret War and the role of Hmong/Mong people in the war. The Laotian Civil War ( 1962 - 1975) was an internal fight between the Communist Pathet Lao and the Royal Lao Government in which Furthermore, the bill called for the use of oral histories and first hand accounts from Hmong/Mong people who had participated in the war and who were caught up in the aftermath. Originally, the language of the bill mentioned only "Hmong" people, intending to include the entire community. A number of Mong Leng activists, led by Dr. Paoze Thao (Professor of Linguistics and Education at California State University, Monterey Bay), drew attention to the problems associated with omitting "Mong" from the language of the bill. California State University Monterey Bay ( CSUMB) is a small Public university in the California State University system on the site of the former They noted that despite nearly equal numbers of Hmong Der and Mong Leng in the United States, resources are disproportionately directed toward the Hmong Der community. This includes not only scholarly research, but also the translation of materials, potentially including curriculum proposed by the bill. [6] Despite these arguments, "Mong" was not added to the bill. In the version that passed the assembly, "Hmong" was replaced by "Southeast Asians", a more broadly inclusive term.

Dr. Paoze Thao and others feel strongly that "Hmong" can refer only to Hmong Der people and does not include Mong Leng people. He feels that the usage of "Hmong" in reference to both groups perpetuates the marginalization of Mong Leng language and culture. Thus, he advocates the usage of both "Hmong" and "Mong" when referring to the entire ethnic group. [7] Other scholars, including anthropologist Dr. Gary Yia Lee (a Hmong Der person), suggest that "Hmong" has been used for the past 30 years to refer to the entire community and that the inclusion of Mong Leng people is understood. Gary Yia Lee (born 1949 is a Hmong anthropologist and author based in Australia [8] Some argue that such distinctions create unnecessary divisions within the global community and will only confuse non-Hmong/Mong people trying to learn more about Hmong/Mong history and culture. [9]

Hmong, Mong, and Miao

Some non-Chinese Hmong advocate that the term Hmong or Mong be used not only for designating their dialect group, but also for the other Miao groups living in China. They generally claim that the word "Miao" is a derogatory term, with connotations of barbarism, that probably should not be used at all. The term was later adapted by Tai-speaking groups in Southeast Asia where it took on especially insulting associations for Hmong people despite its official status. [10] In modern China, the term "Miao" does not carry these negative associations and people of the various sub-groups that constitute this officially recognized nationality freely identify themselves as Miao or Chinese, typically reserving more specific ethnonyms for intra-ethnic communication. During the struggle for political recognition after 1949, it was actually members of these ethnic minorities who campaigned for identification under the umbrella term "Miao" — taking advantage of its familiarity and associations of historical political oppression. [11]

Contemporary transnational interactions between Hmong in the West and Miao groups in China, following the 1975 Hmong diaspora, have led to the development of a global Hmong identity that includes linguistically and culturally related minorities in China that previously had no ethnic affiliation. [12] Scholarly and commercial exchanges, increasingly communicated via the Internet, have also resulted in an exchange of terminology, including Hmu and A Hmao people identifying as Hmong and, to a lesser extent, Hmong people accepting the designation "Miao," within the context of China. Such realignments of identity, while largely the concern of economically elite community leaders, reflect a trend towards the interchangeability of the terms "Hmong" and "Miao. "[13]

History

The early history of the Hmong has proven difficult to trace, but theories that place the origin of the Hmong/Mong people in Mesopotamia, Siberia, or Mongolia have been disputed by recent studies. Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding Siberia (Сиби́рь Sibir) is the name given to the vast region constituting almost all of Northern Asia and for the most part currently serving Mongolia (mɒŋˈɡoʊliə, literally Mongol country/nation,) is a Landlocked Country in East According to Ratliff, there is linguistic evidence to suggest that they have occupied the same areas of southern China for at least the past 2,000 years[14]. Evidence from mitochondrial DNA in Hmong-Mien/Miao-Yao language speaking populations supports the southern origins of maternal lineages even further back in time, although Hmong/Miao speaking populations show more contact with northeast Asians (i. The Hmong-Mien or Miao-Yao languages are a small Language family of southern China and Southeast Asia. e. northern Han) than Mien/Yao populations. [15] Historical Chinese documents describe that area being inhabited by 'Miao' people, a group with whom Hmong people are often identified.

Yet, the history of the 'Miao' cannot be equated with the history of the Hmong. Although the term 'Miao' is used today by the Chinese government to denote a group of linguistically and culturally related people (including the Hmong, Hmu, Kho Xiong, and A Hmao), it has been used inconsistently in the past. Throughout the written history of China, it was applied to a variety of peoples considered to be marginal to Han society, including many who are unrelated to contemporary Hmong/Mong people. Christian Culas and Jean Michaud note: "In all these early accounts, then, until roughly the middle of the nineteenth century, there is perpetual confusion about the exact identity of the population groups designated by the term Miao. We should therefore be cautious with respect to the historical value of any early associations. "[16]

Conflict between Miao groups and newly arrived settlers increased during the eighteenth-century under repressive economic and cultural reforms imposed by the Qing Dynasty. Not to be confused with Qin Dynasty, the first dynasty of Imperial China This led to armed conflict and large-scale migrations continuing into the late nineteenth-century, the period during which most Hmong people emigrated to Southeast Asia. The process began as early as the late-seventeenth-century, before the time of major social unrest, when small groups went in search of better agricultural opportunities. [17]

From July 1919 to March 1921 the Hmong of French Indochina revolted against the colonial authorities in what the French called the War of the Insane ("La Guerre des Fous") and what the Hmongs call Rog Paj Cai (named after the leader Paj Cai, but literally means The War of the flowering of the Law). Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Year 1921 ( MCMXXI) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1921 calendar of the Gregorian calendar First French interventions See also France-Vietnam relations France-Vietnam relations started as early as the 17th century with the mission of the Jesuit See Colony and Colonization for examples of colonialism which do not refer to Western colonialism The War of the Insane ( Guerre du Fou) was the name given by the French colonial administration in Indochina to the revolt by the Hmong

Geography

While China has the largest population of Hmong people, an exact figure is hard to determine. According to the 1990 census, of the 7. 4 million Miao people, 5. 4 million were recorded as speaking a Miao language. Of these, around 2 million spoke a dialect of the Hmong language. Currently, based on projected growth rates, along with the inclusion of previously overlooked dialects, the number of speakers of the Hmong language in China has been estimated to be around 2. 8 million. [18]

Black Hmong women in Sa Pa, Vietnam.
Black Hmong women in Sa Pa, Vietnam. Sa Pa or Sapa (Westernized spelling is a frontier town and district in the Lào Cai province in northwest Vietnam. Vietnam (ˌviːɛtˈnɑːm Việt Nam) officially

Figures for Indochina are more concrete:

There is also small population of Hmong people in Myanmar, but no exact figure is available. Vietnam (ˌviːɛtˈnɑːm Việt Nam) officially Laos (ˈlɑːoʊs or /ˈlaʊs/ officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic, is a Landlocked country in Southeast Asia, bordered by Burma The Kingdom of Thailand (ˈtaɪlænd ราชอาณาจักรไทย, râːtɕʰa-ʔaːnaːtɕɑ̀k-tʰɑj Burma, officially the Union of Myanmar ( pjìdàunzṵ mjàmmà nàinŋàndɔ̀ is the largest country by geographical area in mainland Southeast Asia.

Outside of Asia, the United States is home to the largest Hmong population. The 2000 census counted 186,310 persons of Hmong ancestry. This number has been criticized for seriously undercounting the actual population, which has been estimated to be anywhere between 250,000 and 300,000. [20] Other countries with significant populations include[21]:

Within the United States, California, Minnesota, Rhode Island, Wisconsin, Michigan, and North Carolina have the highest concentrations of Hmong people. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. French Guiana (Guyane française officially fr ''Guyane'' is an Overseas department (French département d'outre-mer, or DOM) of France Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Argentina topics. [22]

Laos

The "Secret War"

Main article: Laotian Civil War

In the early 1960s, the U. The Laotian Civil War ( 1962 - 1975) was an internal fight between the Communist Pathet Lao and the Royal Lao Government in which The 1960s decade refers to the years from the beginning of 1960 to the end of 1969 S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) began to recruit the indigenous Hmong people in Laos to join fighting the Vietnam War, named as a Special Guerrilla Unit led by General Vang Pao. near as long as it used to be several months ago It has been actively summarized and split into sub-articles and there is a dynamic talk page discussion of all The Vietnam War, also known as the Second Indochina War, or the Vietnam Conflict, occurred in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia Vang Pao (born ca 1931 is a former Major General in the Royal Lao Government 's Royal Lao Army. Over 80% of the Hmong men in Laos were recruited by the CIA to join fighting for the "Secret War" in Laos. The Laotian Civil War ( 1962 - 1975) was an internal fight between the Communist Pathet Lao and the Royal Lao Government in which The CIA used the Special Guerrilla Unit as the counter attack unit to block the Ho Chi Minh Trail, the main military supply route from the north to the south. The Ho Chi Minh trail was a logistical system that ran from the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam to the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam through Hmong soldiers put their lives at risk in the frontline fighting for the United States to block the supply line and to rescue downed American pilots. As a result, the Hmong suffered a very high casualty rate; more than 40,000 Hmong were killed in the frontline, countless men were missing in action, thousands more were injured and disabled.

General Vang Pao led the Region II (MR2) defense against NVA incursion from his headquarters in Long Cheng, also known as Lima Site 20 Alternate (LS 20A). The Vietnam People's Army ( VPA) (Quân Đội Nhân Dân Việt Nam is the official name of the Armed forces of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. [23] At the height of its activity, Long Cheng became the second largest city in Laos, estimated at 300,000, with 200,000 ethnic Hmong and 100,000 people of other ethnic backgrounds. Long Cheng was a micro-nation operational site with its own bank, airport, school system, officials, and many other facilities and services in addition to its military units. Before the end of the Secret War, Long Cheng would fall in and out of General Vang Pao's control.

The Secret War began around the time that the U. S. became officially involved in the Vietnam War. Following the U. S. withdrawal from Vietnam in 1975, the Lao kingdom was overthrown by the communists and the Hmong people became targets of retaliation and persecution. While some Hmong people returned to their villages and attempted to resume life under the new regime, thousands more made the trek to and across the Mekong River into Thailand, often under attack. The Mekong is one of the world’s major Rivers It is the 11th-longest river in the world and 7th longest in Asia This marked the beginning of a mass exodus of Hmong people from Laos. Those who did make it to Thailand generally were held in squalid United Nations refugee camps. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security Nearly 20 years later, in the 1990s, a major international debate ensued over whether the Hmong should be returned to Laos, where opponents of their return argued they were being subjected to persecution, or afforded the right to immigrate to the U. S. and other Western nations.

Laos: Hmong girls meet possible suitors while playing a ball-throwing game.
Laos: Hmong girls meet possible suitors while playing a ball-throwing game. Laos (ˈlɑːoʊs or /ˈlaʊs/ officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic, is a Landlocked country in Southeast Asia, bordered by Burma

Of those Hmong who did not flee Laos, somewhere between two and three thousand were sent to re-education camps where political prisoners served terms of 3-5 years. Many Hmong died in these camps, after being subjected to hard physical labor and harsh conditions. [24] Thousands more Hmong people, mainly former soldiers and their families, escaped to remote mountain regions - particularly Phou Bia, the highest (and thus least accessible) mountain peak in Laos. Phou Bia is the highest mountain in Laos and is located in the Annamese Cordillera, in the Phou Ane Plateau in Xiangkhouang Province. Initially, some Hmong groups staged attacks against Pathet Lao and Vietnamese troops while others remained in hiding to avoid military retaliation and persecution. Spiritual leader Zong Zoua Her rallied his followers in a guerilla resistance movement called Chao Fa (RPA: Cauj Fab). Zong Zoua Her (alternate spelling Tsong Zua Heu) ( RPA: Zoov Zuag Hawj) is currently the leader of the Hmong Chao Fa movement in Laos The Romanized Popular Alphabet (RPA or Hmong RPA (also Roman Popular Alphabet is a system of Romanization for the various dialects of the Hmong language Initial military successes by these small bands led to military counter-attacks by government forces, including aerial bombing and heavy artillery, as well as the use of defoliants and chemical weapons. [25]

Small groups of Hmong people, many of them second or third generation descendants of former CIA soldiers, remain internally displaced in remote parts of Laos, in fear of government reprisals. Faced with continuing military operations against them by the government and a scarcity of food, some groups have begun coming out of hiding, while others have sought asylum in Thailand and other countries. [26]

Throughout the Vietnam War, and for two decades following it, the U. S. government stated that there was no "Secret War" in Laos and that the U. S. was not engaged in air or ground combat operations in Laos. In the late 1990s, however, several U. S. conservatives, alleging that the Clinton administration was using the denial of this covert war to justify a repatriation of Thailand-based Hmong war veterans to Laos, urged the U. Repatriation (from late Latin repatriare - to restore someone to his homeland is the process of return of Refugees or Soldiers to their homes S. government to acknowledge the existence of the Secret War and to honor the Hmong and U. S. veterans from the war. On May 15, 1997, in a total reversal of U. Events 1252 - Pope Innocent IV issues the Papal bull Ad exstirpanda, which authorizes but also limits the Year 1997 ( MCMXCVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1997 Gregorian calendar S. policy, the U. S. government acknowledged that it had supported a prolonged air and ground campaign against the NVA and VietCong. It simultaneously dedicated the Laos Memorial on the grounds of Arlington National Cemetery in honor of the Hmong and other combat veterans from the Secret War. The Laos Memorial is a small memorial in Arlington National Cemetery, located between the path to the JFK memorial and the Tomb of the Unknowns, in Arlington National Cemetery, in Arlington Virginia, is a military cemetery in the United States, established during the American Civil War

Controversy over repatriation

In 1989, the UNHCR, with the support of the United States government, instituted the Comprehensive Plan of Action, a program to stem the tide of Indochinese refugees from Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia. Headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR (established December 14, 1950) is a The Comprehensive Plan of Action (CPA is a program adopted in June 1989 at a conference in Geneva held by The Steering Committee of the International Conference on Indo-Chinese Boat people is a term that usually refers to Illegal immigrants or Asylum seekers who emigrate en masse in boats that are sometimes old and crudely made rendering Under the plan, the status of the refugees was to be evaluated through a screening process. Recognized asylum seekers were to be given resettlement opportunities, while the remaining refugees were to be repatriated under guarantee of safety.

After talks with the UNHCR and the Thai government, Laos agreed to repatriate the 60,000 Lao refugees living in Thailand, including several thousand Hmong people. Very few of the Lao refugees, however, were willing to return voluntarily. [27] Pressure to resettle the refugees grew as the Thai government worked to close its remaining refugee camps. While some Hmong people returned to Laos voluntarily, with development assistance from UNHCR, allegations of forced repatriation surfaced. [28] Of those Hmong who did return to Laos, some quickly escaped back to Thailand, describing discrimination and brutal treatment at the hands of Lao authorities. [29]

In 1993, Vue Mai, a former Hmong soldier who had been recruited by the U. S. Embassy in Bangkok to return to Laos as proof of the repatriation program's success, disappeared in Vientiane. Bangkok, known in Thai as Krung Thep Maha Nakhon (krūŋtʰêːp máhǎːnákʰɔn) or Krung Thep ( for short is the Capital, largest Vientiane (vjɛnˈtjɑːn Lao ວຽງຈັນ Viang-chan) is the Capital city of Laos According to the U. S. Committee for Refugees, he was arrested by Lao security forces and was never seen again.

Following the Vue Mai incident, debate over the Hmong's planned repatriation to Laos intensified greatly, especially in the U. S. , where it drew strong opposition from many American conservatives and some human rights advocates. Conservatism in the United States includes a variety of political ideologies including Fiscal conservatism, Supply-side economics, Social conservatism Human rights refers to the "basic Rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled In an October 23, 1995 National Review article, Michael Johns, the former Heritage Foundation foreign policy expert and Republican White House aide, labeled the Hmong's repatriation a Clinton administration "betrayal," describing the Hmong as a people "who have spilled their blood in defense of American geopolitical interests. National Review ( NR) is a biweekly Magazine and Web site, founded by the late author William F Michael Johns (born September 8, 1964 in Allentown Pennsylvania) is an American Health care executive former Federal government The Heritage Foundation is an American conservative Think tank. See also Executive Office of the President of the United States The White House, formerly known as the Executive Mansion, is the Official residence William Jefferson "Bill" Clinton (born William Jefferson Blythe III, August 19 1946 served as the forty-second President of the United States "[30] Debate on the issue escalated quickly. In an effort to hault the planned repatriation, the Republican-led U.S. Senate and U.S. House of Representatives both appropriated funds for the remaining Thailand-based Hmong to be immediately resettled in the U. The United States Senate is the Upper house of the bicameral United States Congress, the Lower house being the House of Representatives The United States House of Representatives is one of the two chambers of the United States Congress; the other is the Senate. S. ; Clinton, however, responded by promising a veto of the legislation.

In the 1990s, many Flower Hmong switched from their traditional colourful dress to western clothing.
In the 1990s, many Flower Hmong switched from their traditional colourful dress to western clothing.

In their opposition of the repatriation plans, Republicans also challenged the Clinton administration's position that the Laotian government was not systematically violating Hmong human rights. U. S. Representative Steve Gunderson (R-WI), for instance, told a Hmong gathering: "I do not enjoy standing up and saying to my government that you are not telling the truth, but if that is necessary to defend truth and justice, I will do that. Steven Craig "Steve" Gunderson (born May 10, 1951, in Eau Claire Wisconsin) is the President and CEO of the Council on Foundations "[31] Republicans also called several Congressional hearings on alleged persecution of the Hmong in Laos in an apparent attempt to generate further support for their opposition to the Hmong's repatriation to Laos.

Although some accusations of forced repatriation were eventually disproven,[32] thousands of Hmong people refused to return to Laos. In 1996, as the deadline for the closure of Thai refugee camps approached, and under mounting political pressure,[33] the U. S. agreed to resettle Hmong refugees who passed a new screening process. [34] Around 5,000 Hmong people who were not resettled at the time of the camp closures sought asylum at Wat Tham Krabok, a Buddhist monastery in central Thailand where more than 10,000 Hmong refugees were already living. Wat Tham Krabok (วัดถ้ำกระบอก literally Temple of the Bamboo Cave) is a Buddhist Temple ( Wat) in Thailand The Thai government attempted to repatriate these refugees, but the Wat Tham Krabok Hmong refused to leave and the Lao government refused to accept them, claiming they were involved in the illegal drug trade and were of non-Lao origin. The illegal drug trade or drug trafficking is a global Black market consisting of the cultivation manufacture distribution and sale of illegal Drugs [35]

In 2003, following threats of forceable removal by the Thai government, the U. S. , in a significant victory for the Hmong, agreed to accept 15,000 of the refugees. [36] Several thousand Hmong people, fearing forced repatriation to Laos if they were not accepted for resettlement in the U. S. , fled the camp to live elsewhere within Thailand where a sizable Hmong population has been present since the 19th-century. [37]

In 2004 and 2005, thousands of Hmong fled from the jungles of Laos to a temporary refugee camp in the Thai province of Phetchabun. Phetchabun (เพชรบูรณ์ is one of the northern provinces ( changwat) of Thailand. [38] These Hmong refugees, many of whom are descendants of the former-CIA Secret Army and their relatives, claim that they have been attacked by both the Lao and Vietnamese military forces operating inside Laos as recently as June 2006. The refugees claim that attacks against them have continued almost unabated since the war officially ended in 1975, and have become more intense in recent years.

Lending further support to earlier claims that the government of Laos was persecuting the Hmong, filmmaker Rebecca Sommer documented first-hand accounts in her documentary, Hunted Like Animals[39], and in a comprehensive report which includes summaries of claims made by the refugees and was submitted to the U. Rebecca Sommer is a German artist journalist photographerdocumentary filmmaker and human rights activist N. in May 2006. [40]

The European Union ,[41] UNHCHR, UNHCR, and international groups have since spoken out about the forced repatriation. The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights ( OHCHR) is a United Nations agency that works to promote and protect the human Headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR (established December 14, 1950) is a [42] [43] [44] The Thai foreign ministry has said that it will halt deportation of Hmong refugees held in Detention Centers Nong Khai, while talks are underway to resettle them in Australia, Canada, the Netherlands and the United States. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands [45]

For the time being, countries willing to resettle the refugees are hindered to proceed with immigration and settlement procedures because the Thai administration does not grant them access to the refugees. Plans to resettle additional Hmong refugees in the U. S. have been complicated by provisions of President Bush's Patriot Act and Real ID Act, under which Hmong veterans of the Secret War, who fought on the side of the United States, are classified as terrorists because of their historical involvement in armed conflict. The USA PATRIOT Act, commonly known as the Patriot Act, is a controversial Act of Congress that U The REAL ID Act of 2005 is US federal law which imposes certain security authentication and issuance procedures standards for the state driver's licenses and state ID cards [46]

Alleged plot to overthrow government of Laos

Main article: 2007 Laotian coup d'état attempt

On June 4, 2007, as part of a lengthy and still ongoing federal investigation labeled "Operation Flawed Eagle," warrants were issued by U. S. federal courts ordering the arrest of Vang Pao and nine others for plotting to overthrow the government of Laos in violation of the federal Neutrality Acts and for multiple weapons charges. The Neutrality Acts were a series of laws that were passed by the United States Congress in the 1930s in response to the growing turmoil in Europe and Asia [47] The federal charges allege that members of the group inspected weapons, including AK-47s, smoke grenades, and Stinger missiles, with the intent of purchasing them and smuggling them into Thailand in June 2007 where they were intended to be used by Hmong resistance forces in Laos. The AK-47 (contraction of Russian Автомат Калашникова образца 1947 года; Avtomat Kalashnikova obraztsa 1947 goda; "Kalashnikov's A missile (see also pronunciation differences) is a self-propelled explosive Projectile used as a weapon towards a target The one non-Hmong person of the nine arrested, Harrison Jack, a 1968 West Point graduate and retired Army infantry officer, allegedly attempted to recruit Special Operations veterans to act as mercenaries. In most countries special forces (SF is a generic term for highly-trained Military teams/units that conduct specialized operations such as Reconnaissance

In an effort to obtain the weapons, Jack allegedly met unknowingly with undercover U. S. federal agents posing as weapons dealers, which prompted the issuance of the warrants as part of a long-running investigation into the activities of the U. S. -based Hmong leadership and its supporters.

On June 15, the defendants were indicted by a grand jury and a warrant was also issued for the arrest of an 11th man, allegedly involved in the plot. Simultaneous raids of the defendants homes and work locations, involving over 200 federal, state and local law enforcement officials, were conducted in approximately 15 cities in central and southern California.

The defendants face possible life prison terms for violation of the Neutrality Acts and various weapons charges. They initially were denied bail, with a federal court ruling that they were likely flight risks, given their extensive connections, access to private aircraft, and resources.

Multiple protest rallies in support of the suspects, designed to raise awareness of the genocide of Hmong peoples in the jungles of Laos, have taken place in California, Minnesota, and Wisconsin, and several of Vang Pao's high-level supporters in the U. S. have criticized the California court that issued the arrest warrants, arguing that Vang is an historically important American ally and a currently valued leader of U. S. and foreign-based Hmong. However, calls for Californian Republican Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and President George W. Bush to pardon the defendants have yet to be answered, presumably pending a conclusion of the large and still-ongoing federal investigation. Arnold Alois Schwarzenegger ( German ˌaɐnɔlt aloʏs ˈʃvaɐtsənɛɡɐ born July 30 1947 is an Austrian American Bodybuilder, Actor George Walker Bush ( born July 6 1946 is the forty-third and current President of the United States. [48]

The Americas

Main article: Hmong American

Many Hmong/Mong war refugees resettled in the United States after the Vietnam War. A Hmong American is a resident of the United States who is of ethnic Hmong descent The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The Vietnam War, also known as the Second Indochina War, or the Vietnam Conflict, occurred in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia Beginning in December 1975, the first Hmong/Mong refugees arrived in the U. S. , mainly from refugee camps in Thailand; however, only 3,466 were granted asylum at this time under the Refugee Assistance Act of 1975. In May of 1976, another 11,000 were allowed to enter the United States, and by 1978 some 30,000 Hmong/Mong people had immigrated. This first wave was made up predominantly of men directly associated with General Vang Pao's secret army. Vang Pao (born ca 1931 is a former Major General in the Royal Lao Government 's Royal Lao Army. It was not until the passage of the Refugee Act of 1980 that families were able to come in the U. S. , becoming the second-wave of Hmong/Mong immigrants. Today, approximately 270,000 Hmong/Mong people reside in the United States, the majority of whom live in California (65,095 according to the 2000 U. California ( is a US state on the West Coast of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean. S. census), Minnesota (41,800), and Wisconsin (33,791). Minnesota ( Native Americans demonstrated the name to early settlers Wisconsin ( or wɪˈskɑnsɨn (French Ouisconsin) is one of the fifty United States of America, located in the north central part of the United States Fresno, California, Eureka, California, Stockton, California, Sacramento, California, Minneapolis-Saint Paul, Minnesota, Lowell, Massachusetts, Madison, Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and Wausau, Wisconsin have especially high concentrations of Hmong/Mong people. Eureka is the County seat and principal city in Humboldt County, California, United States. Stockton is a City in California and the seat of San Joaquin County (the fifth largest agricultural county in the United States Saint Paul ( abbreviated St Paul) is the capital and second most populous city in the U Lowell is a city in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, USA. As of the 2000 census the city had a total population of 105167 Madison is the capital of the US state of Wisconsin and the County seat of Dane County. Wausau (pronounced /wô'sô/ is a city in and the County seat of Marathon County, Wisconsin,

There are smaller Hmong/Mong populations scattered across the country, including Western North Carolina (Hickory, North Carolina, Morganton, North Carolina, and Charlotte, North Carolina); Northeastern Georgia (Winder, Georgia, Auburn, Georgia, Monroe, Georgia, and Duluth, Georgia), Linda Vista, California, Eau Claire, Wisconsin, La Crosse, Wisconsin, Sheboygan, Wisconsin, Winooski, Vermont, and Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, centered around the towns of Ephrata, Pennsylvania and Denver, Pennsylvania. Hickory is a city in Burke, Caldwell, and Catawba counties in the U Morganton is a city in Burke County, North Carolina, United States. Winder is a city in Barrow County, Georgia, United States. The population was 10201 at the 2000 census Auburn is a city in Barrow and Gwinnett Counties, Georgia. The population was 6904 at the 2000 census Monroe is a city in Walton County, Georgia, United States. The population was 11409 at the 2000 census Duluth is a city in Gwinnett County Georgia, and a suburb of Atlanta located in the Metro Atlanta area Linda Vista ( Spanish for "Pretty View" is a community in San Diego California, United States. Eau Claire is a city located in the west-central part of the U La Crosse is a city in and the County seat of La Crosse County, Wisconsin, United States. Sheboygan is a city in and the County seat of Sheboygan County, Wisconsin, United States. Winooski is a city in Chittenden County, Vermont, in the United States. Lancaster County Pennsylvania, known as the Garden Spot of America since the 18th century is located in the southeastern part of the state of Pennsylvania Ephrata is a borough in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, United States, 38 miles (61 km south east of Harrisburg and about 57 miles (91 Denver is a borough in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, United States. There is also a small community of several thousand Hmong who migrated to French Guiana in the late 1970s and early 1980s. French Guiana (Guyane française officially fr ''Guyane'' is an Overseas department (French département d'outre-mer, or DOM) of France [49]

Hmong/Mong leaders

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Tapp, Nicholas "Cultural Accommodations in Southwest China: the "Han Miao" and Problems in the Ethnography of the Hmong. Cy Thao is a Laotian-born Hmong American state representative ( DFL) in Minnesota. Mee Moua (born June 30, 1969) is a Hmong American Politician and member of the Minnesota Democratic-Farmer-Labor Party. Pa Chay Vue, ( RPA: Paj Cai Vwj or Puas Cai Vue) commonly referred to as Pa Chay or Batchai, led the Hmong Pa Kao Her ( Paj Kaub Hawj) was the leader of the Hmong Chao Fa movement in Laos after the communist Lao People's Revolutionary Party took power Touby Lyfoung (1917 - 1979 was a Hmong political and military leader Vang Pao (born ca 1931 is a former Major General in the Royal Lao Government 's Royal Lao Army. Zong Zoua Her (alternate spelling Tsong Zua Heu) ( RPA: Zoov Zuag Hawj) is currently the leader of the Hmong Chao Fa movement in Laos The following are the Ethnic groups in Chinese history. Any non clear-cut connection is denoted by a question mark beside the equivalences Chinese civilization originated in various city-states along the Yellow River ( valley in the Neolithic era A Hmong American is a resident of the United States who is of ethnic Hmong descent The Hmong people are a minority Ethnic group in several countries believed by some researchers to be from the Yellow Basin area in China. Hmong ( RPA: Hmoob) or Mong ( RPA: Moob) is the common name for a group of dialects of the West Hmongic (Chuanqiandian branch China's many different ethnic groups speak many different Languages collectively called Zhōngguó Yǔwén (中国语文 literally " speech and writing The Laos Memorial is a small memorial in Arlington National Cemetery, located between the path to the JFK memorial and the Tomb of the Unknowns, in Vietnam is a multi-ethnic country with over fifty distinct groups (54 are recognized by the Vietnamese government each with its own language lifestyle and cultural heritage The Sheboygan Hmong Memorial (or Lao Hmong and American Veterans Memorial) was dedicated on July 15 2006 in Sheboygan, Wisconsin in Deland Park " Asian Folklore Studies, Vol. 61, 2002: 78.
  2. ^ Diamond, Norma "Defining the Miao: Ming, Qing, and Contemporary Views" in Cultural Encounters on China's Ethnic Frontiers, ed. Stevan Harrell. Univ. of Washington Press, Seattle, 1995 (99–101).
  3. ^ Ratliff, Martha. "Vocabulary of environment and subsistence in the Hmong-Mien Proto-Language. " in Hmong/Miao in Asia. p: 160.
  4. ^ For example: Dao Yang, Hmong At the Turning Point (Minneapolis: WorldBridge Associates, Ltd. , 1993), footnote 1, p. xvi.
  5. ^ History of the Assembly Bill AB78 by Kao-Ly Yang
  6. ^ Romney, Lee. "Bill spurs bitter debate over Hmong identity. " L. A. Times, May 24, 2003.
  7. ^ Thao, Paoze and Chimeng Yang. "The Mong and the Hmong". Mong Journal, vol. 1 (June 2004).
  8. ^ Lee, Gary and Nicholas Tapp. "Current Hmong Issues: 12-point Statement".
  9. ^ Duffy, John, Roger Harmon, Donald A. Ranard, Bo Thao, and Kou Yang. "People". In The Hmong: An Introduction to their history and culture. The Center for Applied Linguistics, Culture Profile No. 18 (June 2004): 3.
  10. ^ Tapp. Nicholas. "Cultural Accommodations in Southwest China: the "Han Miao" and Problems in the Ethnography of the Hmong. " Asian Folklore Studies, Vol. 61, 2002: 97.
  11. ^ Cheung Siu-Woo "Miao Identity in Western Guizhou: Indigenism and the politics of appropriation in the southwest china during the republican period" in Hmong/Miao in Asia. 237-240.
  12. ^ Schien, Louisa. "Hmong/Miao Transnationality: Identity Beyond Culture. " in Hmong/Miao in Asia. 274-5.
  13. ^ Lee, Gary Y. Dreaming Across the Oceans: Globalization and Cultural Reinvention in the Hmong Diaspora. Hmong Studies Journal, 7:1-33.
  14. ^ Ratliff, Martha. "Vocabulary of Environment and Subsistence in Proto-language," p. 160.
  15. ^ Bo Wen, et al. "Genetic Structure of Hmong-Mien Speaking Populations in East Asia as Revealed by mtDNA Lineages. " Molecular Biology and Evolution 2005 22(3):725–734.
  16. ^ Culas, Christian and Jean Michaud. "A Contribution to the Study of Hmong (Miao). " In: Hmong/Miao in Asia. Ed. Nicholas Tapp, et al. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books, 2004: 64.
  17. ^ Culas & Michaud, 68–74.
  18. ^ Lemoine, Jacques. ""What is the actual number of the (H)mong in the World. " Hmong Studies Journal, Vol 6, 2005. http://hmongstudies.org/LemoineHSJ6.pdf
  19. ^ "Results from the Population and Housing Census 2005," Lao Government Steering Committee for Census of Population and Housing, March 2006. Quoted in [http://web.amnesty.org/library/pdf/ASA260032007ENGLISH/$File/ASA2600307.pdf "Hiding in the jungle: Hmong under threat. "] Amnesty International, 2007.
  20. ^ Carroll, Wayne and Victoria Udalova. "Who is Hmong? Questions and Evidence from the U. S. Census. " Hmong Studies Journal, Vol 6, 2005. http://hmongstudies.org/CarrollandUdalovaHSJ6.pdf
  21. ^ Lemoine. "What is the number of the (H)mong in the world. "
  22. ^ Pfeifer, Mark (compiler). "50 States by Rank in Hmong Population: U. S. Census 2000. " Hmong Cultural Center. http://www.hmongcenter.org/hmonpopinall.html
  23. ^ Hamilton-Merritt, Jane (1993). Tragic Mountains. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 130-139. ISBN 0253327318.  
  24. ^ The Hmong: An Introduction to their History and Culture. [1]
  25. ^ Minority Policies and the Hmong in Laos(Published in Stuart-Fox, M. ed. Contemporary Laos: Studies in the Politics and Society of the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (St. Lucia: Queensland University Press, 1982), pp. 199 - 219)[2]
  26. ^ Kinchen, David. "438 former "Cob Fab" removed by helicopter after they came out of hiding", Hmong Today, 2006-11-17. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 284 - Diocletian is proclaimed emperor by his soldiers Retrieved on 2007-03-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 238 - Gordian I and his son Gordian II are proclaimed Roman emperor.  
  27. ^ “Laos agrees to voluntary repatriation of refugees in Thailand,” U. P. I. , June 5, 1991.
  28. ^ “Lao Refugees Return Home Under European Union Repatriation Program,” Associated Press Worldstream, 22 11, 1994. Karen J, “HOUSE PANEL HEARS CONCERNS ABOUT HMONG,” States News Service, April 26, 1994.
  29. ^ Hamilton-Merritt, Jane. Tragic Mountains. p. xix-xxi.
  30. ^ Johns, Michael. "Acts of betrayal - persecution of Hmong", National Review, 1995-10-23. Year 1995 ( MCMXCV) was a Common year starting on Sunday. Events of 1995 Events 4004 BC - Creation of the world begins according to the calculations of Archbishop James Ussher 42 BC - Retrieved on 2007-07-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1214 - Battle of Bouvines: In France, Philip II of France defeats John of England.  
  31. ^ Johns, Michael. "Acts of betrayal - persecution of Hmong", National Review, 1995-10-23. Year 1995 ( MCMXCV) was a Common year starting on Sunday. Events of 1995 Events 4004 BC - Creation of the world begins according to the calculations of Archbishop James Ussher 42 BC - Retrieved on 2007-07-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1214 - Battle of Bouvines: In France, Philip II of France defeats John of England.  
  32. ^ 1. United States. Embassy (Thailand). Refugee and Migration Affairs Unit, Reports on results of investigations of allegations concerning the welfare of Hmong refugees and asylum seekers in Thailand and Laos (1992), http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/view?docId=hb909nb5j8&brand=calisphere&doc.view=entire_text (accessed July 27, 2007).
  33. ^ Johns, Michael. "Acts of betrayal - persecution of Hmong", National Review, 1995-10-23. Year 1995 ( MCMXCV) was a Common year starting on Sunday. Events of 1995 Events 4004 BC - Creation of the world begins according to the calculations of Archbishop James Ussher 42 BC - Retrieved on 2007-07-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1214 - Battle of Bouvines: In France, Philip II of France defeats John of England.  
  34. ^ STEVE GUNDERSON, “STATE DEPARTMENT OUTLINES RESETTLEMENT GUIDELINES FOR HMONG REFUGEES,” Congressional Press Releases, May 18, 1996.
  35. ^ “Laos refuses to take back Thai-based Hmong refugees,” Deutsche Presse-Agentur, August 20, 1998.
  36. ^ “Refugee Admissions Program for East Asia,” January 16, 2004, http://www.state.gov/g/prm/rls/fs/2004/28212.htm (accessed July 27, 2007).
  37. ^ “HMONG RESETTLEMENT TASK FORCE - HISTORY,” http://www.centralcallegal.org/hrtf/history/index.html (accessed July 28, 2007).
  38. ^ BBC NEWS | Asia-Pacific | Hmong refugees pleading to stay
  39. ^ [3]
  40. ^ http://www.earthpeoples.org/new/report-download/REPORT-Hmong-Rebecca_Sommer.pdf
  41. ^ EU@UN - Thailand: EU Presidency Declaration on the situation of Hmong refugees
  42. ^ Amnesty International
  43. ^ Deportation of Hmong Lao refugees stopped in last minute
  44. ^ http://www.unpo.org/article.php?id=6250 http://www.europa-eu-un.org/articles/en/article_6732_en.htm
  45. ^ BBC NEWS | Asia-Pacific | Thailand halts Hmong repatriation
  46. ^ http://www.philly.com/mld/inquirer/news/nation/16736791.htm?source=rss&channel=inquirer_nation
  47. ^ Walsh, Denny. 2007. Ten accused of conspiring to oust government of Laos. The Sacramento Bee, June 5. http://www.sacbee.com/292/story/206120.html (accessed June 5, 2007).
  48. ^ Magagnini, Stephen, and Denny Walsh. "Hmong Rally for 'The General'," The Sacramento Bee, June 19, 2007. http://www.sacbee.com/291/story/229794.html (accessed July 4, 2007).
  49. ^ Hmongcenter.Org

References

Earlier books

External links

Hmong articles and essays

Hmong web sites


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