| Hittite 𒉈𒅆𒇷 nešili |
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|---|---|---|
| Spoken in: | Anatolia | |
| Language extinction: | around 1100 BC | |
| Language family: | Indo-European Anatolian Hittite |
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| Language codes | ||
| ISO 639-1: | none | |
| ISO 639-2: | hit | |
| ISO 639-3: | hit
|
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Hittite or Nesili is the extinct language once spoken by the Hittites, a people who created an empire centered on ancient Hattusas (modern Boğazkale) in north-central Anatolia (modern Turkey). Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black According to some definitions an extinct language is a Language which no longer has any speakers, whereas a dead language is a language which is no longer spoken List of language familiesA language family is a group of Languages related by descent from a common ancestor called the Proto-language of that family The Anatolian languages are a group of extinct Indo-European languages which were spoken in Asia Minor, the best attested of them being the Hittite language ISO 639-1 is the first part of the ISO 639 international-standard language-code family ISO 639-2 is the second part of the ISO 639 standard, which lists codes for the representation of the names of languages ISO 639 -3 (ISO 639-32007 is an international standard for Language codes The standard describes three‐letter codes for identifying languages According to some definitions an extinct language is a Language which no longer has any speakers, whereas a dead language is a language which is no longer spoken The Hittites were an ancient Anatolian people who spoke a language of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family and established Hattusa (URU Ḫa-at-tu-ša 𒌷𒄩𒀜𒌅𒊭 Unicode cuneiform article to display these cuneiform characters--> Boğazkale is a district of Çorum Province in the Black Sea region of Turkey. Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black The language was spoken from approximately 1800 BC (and probably before) to 1100 BC. The 18th century BC was the Century which lasted from 1800 BC to 1701 BC There is some attestation that Hittite and related languages continued to be spoken in Anatolia and Northern Syria for a few hundred years to around 700 BC following the collapse of the Hittite empire and the last of the Hittite cuneiform texts.
Hittite is the earliest attested Indo-European language, rediscovered only a little more than a century after the Proto-Indo-European hypothesis had been formulated. Because of marked differences in its structure and phonology, some modern linguists, most notably Edgar H. Sturtevant and Warren Cowgill, argued that it should be classified as a sister language to the Indo-European languages, rather than a daughter language, formulating the Indo-Hittite hypothesis. Linguistics is the scientific study of Language, encompassing a number of sub-fields Edgar H Sturtevant (1875–1952 was an American Linguist. Biography Sturtevant was born in Jacksonville, Illinois. Warren Cowgill (1929 — 1985 / ˡkowgɪl/ was a professor of linguistics at Yale University and the Encyclopædia Britannica ’s authority on Indo-European In Indo-European linguistics, the term Indo-Hittite (also Indo-Anatolian) refers to Sturtevant 's 1926 hypothesis that the Anatolian languages Many scholars, however, continue to accept the traditional 19th century view of the primacy of Proto-Indo-European and interpret the unusual features of Hittite as mainly due to later innovations.
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Name
"Hittite" is a modern name, chosen after the (still disputed) identification of the Hatti kingdom with the Hittites mentioned in the Old Testament. In Western Christianity, the Old Testament refers to the books that form the first of the two-part Christian Biblical canon.
In multi-lingual texts found in Hittite locations, passages written in the Hittite language are preceded by the adverb nesili (or nasili, nisili), "in the [speech] of Neša (Kaneš)", an important city before the rise of the Empire. For the village in Azerbaijan see Kültəpə. Kültepe is the name of the modern village near the ancient city of Kaneš in central eastern In one case, the label is Kanisumnili, "in the [speech] of the people of Kaneš".
Although the Hittite empire was composed of people from many diverse ethnic and linguistic backgrounds, the Hittite language was used in most of their secular written texts. In spite of various arguments over the appropriateness of the term, Hittite remains the most current term by convention, although some authors make a point of using Nesite.
Decipherment
The first substantive claim as to the affiliation of the Hittite language was made by Jørgen Alexander Knudtzon (1902) in a book devoted to two letters between the king of Egypt and a Hittite ruler, found at El-Amarna in Egypt. Jørgen Alexander Knudtzon was a Norwegian linguist and Historian. The site of Amarna (commonly known as el-Amarna or incorrectly as Tel el-Amarna; see below ( Arabic: العمارنة al-‘amārnah) is located This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Knudtzon argued that Hittite was Indo-European, largely on the basis of the morphology. Morphology is the field of Linguistics that studies the internal structure of words Although he had no bilingual texts, he was able to give a partial interpretation to the two letters because of the formulaic nature of the diplomatic correspondence of the period. His argument was not generally accepted, partly because the morphological similarities he observed between Hittite and Indo-European can be found outside of Indo-European, and partly because the interpretation of the letters was justifiably regarded as uncertain.
Knudtzon was shown definitively to have been correct when a large quantity of tablets written in the familiar Akkadian cuneiform script but in an unknown language was discovered by Hugo Winckler at the modern village of Boğazköy, the former site of Hattusas, the capital of the Hittite Empire. Hugo Winckler ( July 4, 1863, Gräfenhainchen, Saxony &mdash April 19, 1913, Berlin) was a German Boğazkale is a district of Çorum Province in the Black Sea region of Turkey. Hattusa (URU Ḫa-at-tu-ša 𒌷𒄩𒀜𒌅𒊭 Unicode cuneiform article to display these cuneiform characters--> Based on a study of this extensive material, Bedřich Hrozný succeeded in analyzing the language. Bedřich (Friedrich Hrozný (ˈbɛdr̝ɪx He presented his argument that the language is Indo-European in a paper published in 1915 (Hrozný 1915), which was soon followed by a grammar of the language (Hrozný 1917). Year 1915 ( MCMXV) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Hrozný's argument for the Indo-European affiliation of Hittite was thoroughly modern, though poorly substantiated. He focused on the striking similarities in idiosyncratic aspects of the morphology, unlikely to occur independently by chance and unlikely to be borrowed. These included the r/n alternation (see rhotacism) in some noun stems and vocalic ablaut, both seen in the stunning alternation in the word for water between nominative singular, wadar and genitive singular, wedenas. In Linguistics, an alternation is the phenomenon of a Phoneme or Morpheme exhibiting variation in its phonological realization Rhotacism may refer to several phenomena related to the usage of the Consonant R (whether as an Alveolar tap, Alveolar trill, or He also presented a set of regular sound correspondences. After a brief initial delay due to the disruption caused by the First World War, Hrozný's decipherment, tentative grammatical analysis, and demonstration of the Indo-European affiliation of Hittite were rapidly accepted and more broadly substantiated by contemporary scholars such as Edgar H. Sturtevant who authored the first scientifically acceptable Hittite grammar with a chrestomathy and a glossary. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Edgar H Sturtevant (1875–1952 was an American Linguist. Biography Sturtevant was born in Jacksonville, Illinois. The 1951 revised edition of the Sturtevant grammar is still authoritative today.
Classification
Hittite is one of the Anatolian languages. The Anatolian languages are a group of extinct Indo-European languages which were spoken in Asia Minor, the best attested of them being the Hittite language Hittite proper is known from cuneiform tablets and inscriptions erected by the Hittite kings. The script known as "Hieroglyphic Hittite" has now been shown to have been used for writing the closely related Luwian language, rather than Hittite proper. Luwian (sometimes spelled Luvian) is an extinct language of the Anatolian branch of the The later languages Lycian and Lydian are also attested in Hittite territory. Lydian was an Indo-European language spoken in the region of Lydia in western Anatolia (present-day Turkey) Palaic, also spoken in Hittite territory, is attested only in ritual texts quoted in Hittite documents. Palaic is an extinct Indo-European language attested in Cuneiform tablets in Bronze Age Hattusa. The Anatolian branch also includes Carian, Pisidian, and Sidetic. The Carian language was the language of the Carians. It was an Anatolian language, apparently closer to Lycian than to Lydian. The Pisidian language is a member of the extinct Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family spoken in Pisidia, a region of ancient The Sidetic language is a member of the extinct Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family known from legends of coins dating to the period of approx
In the Hittite and Luwian languages there are many loan words, particularly religious vocabulary, from the non-Indo-European Hurrian and Hattic languages. Hurrian is a conventional name for the language of the Hurrians (Khurrites a people who entered northern Mesopotamia around 2300 BC and had mostly Hattic was a language spoken by the Hattians in Asia Minor between the 3rd and the 2nd millennia BC Hattic was the language of the Hattians, the local inhabitants of the land of Hatti before being absorbed or displaced by the Hittites. Hattic was a language spoken by the Hattians in Asia Minor between the 3rd and the 2nd millennia BC The Hattians were an ancient people who inhabited the land of Hatti in present-day central and southeastern parts of Anatolia, Turkey. The Hittites were an ancient Anatolian people who spoke a language of the Anatolian branch of the Indo-European language family and established Sacred and magical Hittite texts were often written in Hattic, Hurrian, and Akkadian, even after Hittite became the norm for other writings. The Hurrians (also Khurrites; cuneiform Ḫu-ur-ri 𒄷𒌨𒊑 were a people of the Ancient Near East, who lived in northern Mesopotamia
The Hittite language has traditionally been stratified into Old Hittite (OH), Middle Hittite (MH) and New or Neo-Hittite (NH; not to be confused with the "Neo-Hittite" period which is actually post-Hittite), corresponding to the Old, Middle and New Kingdoms of the Hittite Empire (ca. The states that are called Neo-Hittite, or more recently Syro-Hittite, were Luwian, Aramaic and Phoenician -speaking political entities of 1750–1500 BC, 1500–1430 BC and 1430–1180 BC, respectively). These stages are differentiated partly on linguistic and partly on paleographic grounds. Just as the notion of a Middle Kingdom has been largely discredited, Melchert (Middle Hittite revisited) argues that MH as a linguistic term is not clearly delineated and should be understood as referring to a period of transition between OH and NH.
Orthography
Hittite was written in an adapted form of Old Assyrian cuneiform orthography. Hittite cuneiform refers to the implementation of Cuneiform script used in writing the Hittite language. Owing to the predominantly syllabic nature of the script, it is difficult to ascertain the precise phonetic qualities of a portion of the Hittite sound inventory.
The syllabary distinguishes the following consonants (notably dropping the Akkadian s series),
- b, p, d, t, g, k, ḫ, r, l, m, n, š, z,
combined with the vowels a, e, i, u. Additional ya (=I. A 𒄿𒀀), wa (=PI 𒉿) and wi (=wi5=GEŠTIN 𒃾) signs are introduced.
The Assyrian voiced/unvoiced series (k/g, p/b, t/d) are not used to express the voiced/unvoiced contrast in Hittite though double spellings in intervocalic positions represent voiceless consonants in Indo-European (Sturtevant's law).
Phonology
The limitations of the syllabic script have been more or less overcome by means of comparative etymology and an examination of Hittite spelling conventions, and accordingly, scholars have surmised that Hittite possessed the following phonemes.
Vowels
| VOWELS | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Front | Central | Back | |
| Close | i | u | |
| Mid | e | ||
| Open | a |
- Long vowels appear as alternates to their corresponding short vowels when they are so conditioned by the accent. In Phonetics, a vowel is a Sound in spoken Language, such as English ah! or oh!, pronounced with an open Vocal tract A front vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The defining characteristic of a front vowel is that the tongue is positioned as far forward A central vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The defining characteristic of a central vowel is that the tongue is positioned halfway between A back vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The defining characteristic of a back vowel is that the tongue is positioned as far back as A close vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in many spoken Languages The defining characteristic of a close vowel is that the tongue is positioned as close as A mid vowel is a Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The defining characteristic of a mid vowel is that the tongue is positioned mid-way between an An open vowel is a Vowel sound of a type used in most spoken Languages The defining characteristic of an open vowel is that the tongue is positioned as far as
- Phonemically distinct long vowels occur infrequently.
- All vowels may occur word-initially and word-finally, except /e/.
Consonants
| CONSONANTS | Bilabial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Labialized Velar |
Laryngeal |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Plosives | p b | t d | k g | kʷ gʷ | ||
| Nasals | m | n | ||||
| Fricatives | s | h₂, h₃ | ||||
| Affricate | ʦ | |||||
| Liquids, Glides | w | r, l | j |
- All voiceless obstruents and all sonorants except /r/ appear word-initially. In Articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a Speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the upper Vocal tract, the upper vocal In Phonetics, a bilabial consonant is a Consonant articulated with both Lips The bilabial consonants identified by the International Phonetic Alphabet Alveolar consonants are articulated with the tongue against or close to the superior Alveolar ridge, which is called that because it contains the alveoli (the sockets Palatal consonants are Consonants articulated with the body of the tongue raised against the Hard palate (the middle part of the roof of the mouth The term labiovelar is ambiguous It may mean labial-velar (a Consonant made at two places of articulation, one at the lips and the other at the soft The laryngeal theory is a generally accepted theory of Historical linguistics which proposes the existence of a set of three (or more Consonant sounds that appear A stop, plosive, or occlusive is a Consonant sound produced by stopping the airflow in the Vocal tract. A nasal consonant (also called nasal stop or nasal continuant) is produced with a lowered velum in the mouth allowing air to escape freely through the Fricatives are Consonants produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together Affricate Consonants begin as stops (most often an alveolar, such as or) but release as a fricative (such as or or occasionally into Liquid consonants, or liquids, are Approximant Consonants that are not classified as Semivowels (glides because they do not correspond phonetically Semivowels — also known as glides or non-syllabic vowels —are Vowels that form Diphthongs with full syllabic vowels This is true of all Anatolian languages.
- Word-finally, the following tendencies emerge:
- Among the stops, only voiced appear word-finally. /-d/, /-g/ are common, /-b/ rare.
- /-s/ occurs frequently; /-h₂/, /-h₃/, /-r/, /-l/, /-n/ less often; and /-m/ never.
- The glides /w/, /j/ appear in diphthongs with /a/, /aː/.
- The voiced/unvoiced series are inferred from the fact that doubling consonants in intervocalic positions represents voiceless consonants in Indo-European (Sturtevant's law, cf. Sturtevant 1932, Puhvel 1974): i. e. voiced stops are represented by single consonants (*yugom = i-ú-kán), voiceless stops with double consonants (*k'eyto > ki-it-ta).
Laryngeals
Hittite preserves some very archaic features lost in other Indo-European languages. For example, Hittite has retained two of three laryngeals (h2 and h3 word-initially). The laryngeal theory is a generally accepted theory of Historical linguistics which proposes the existence of a set of three (or more Consonant sounds that appear These sounds, whose existence had been hypothesized by Ferdinand de Saussure on the basis of vowel quality in other Indo-European languages in 1879, were not preserved as separate sounds in any attested Indo-European language until the discovery of Hittite. Ferdinand de Saussure (fɛʁdinɑ̃ də soˈsyːʁ ( November 26, 1857 – February 22, 1913) was a Swiss linguist Year 1879 ( MDCCCLXXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common In Hittite, this phoneme is written as ḫ. Hittite, as well as most other Anatolian languages, differs in this respect from any other Indo-European language, and the discovery of laryngeals in Hittite was a remarkable confirmation of Saussure's hypothesis.
The preservation of the laryngeals, and the lack of any evidence that Hittite shared grammatical features possessed by the other early Indo-European languages, has led some philologists to believe that the Anatolian languages split from the rest of Proto-Indo-European much earlier than the other divisions of the proto-language. Grammar is the field of Linguistics that covers the Rules governing the use of any given natural language. A proto-language is a Language which was the common ancestor of related languages that form a Language family. Some have proposed an "Indo-Hittite" language family or superfamily, that includes the rest of Indo-European on one side of a dividing line and Anatolian on the other. In Indo-European linguistics, the term Indo-Hittite (also Indo-Anatolian) refers to Sturtevant 's 1926 hypothesis that the Anatolian languages The vast majority of scholars continue to reconstruct a Proto-Indo-European, but all believe that Anatolian was the first branch of Indo-European to leave the fold.
Diffusion of Satem features in Indo-European
Sturtevant (1940), the father of the Indo-Hittite hypothesis, was the first scholar to note the lack of u after k representing earlier IE palatal *k or *g. Edgar H Sturtevant (1875–1952 was an American Linguist. Biography Sturtevant was born in Jacksonville, Illinois. In Indo-European linguistics, the term Indo-Hittite (also Indo-Anatolian) refers to Sturtevant 's 1926 hypothesis that the Anatolian languages Goetze (1954) and Wittmann (1969) posited in these positions a K to S shift incipient of the later Kentum-Satem shift distinctive of the IE Satem group of languages. Albrecht Goetze (1897-1971 was a German - American Hittitologist. Henri Wittmann (born 1937 is a Canadian linguist from Quebec. The diffusion hypothesis of the Satem features (spirantization of palatal stops before u as the focal origin of the Centum-Satem isogloss) has the advantage to motivate the existence of marginal Satem features in Greek, Albanian and Tocharian and of marginal Kentum features in Armenian.
Grammar
As the oldest attested Indo-European language, Hittite is interesting largely because it lacks several grammatical features exhibited by other "old" Indo-European languages such as Sanskrit, Latin and Ancient Greek. Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. The Ancient Greek language is the historical stage in the development of the Hellenic language family spanning the Archaic (c Notably, Hittite doesn't have the IE gender system opposing masculine : feminine; instead we have a rudimentary noun class system based on an older animate : inanimate opposition reminiscent of noun class systems in non-Bantu Niger-Congo languages. The Niger-Congo languages constitute one of the world's major language families, and Africa 's largest in terms of geographical area number of speakers and number
Morphology
The Hittite nominal system consists of the following cases: Nominative, Vocative, Accusative, Genitive, Allative, Dative-Locative, Instrumental and Ablative. In Linguistics, declension (or declination) is the occurrence of Inflection in Nouns Pronouns and Adjectives indicating The nominative case is a Grammatical case for a Noun, which generally marks the subject of a Verb, as opposed to its object or other The vocative case is the case used for a Noun identifying the person (animal object etc The accusative case ( abbreviated ACC) of a Noun is the Grammatical case used to mark the Direct object of a Transitive In Grammar, the genitive case or possessive case (also called the second case) is the case that marks a Noun as modifying another Allative case ( abbreviated ALL, from Latin allāt-, afferre "to bring to" is a type of the locative The dative case is a Grammatical case generally used to indicate the Noun to whom something is given Locative (also called the seventh case) is a Grammatical case which indicates a location The instrumental case (also called the eighth case) is a Grammatical case used to indicate that a noun is the instrument or means by or with which the In Linguistics, ablative case ( abbreviated ABL) is a name given to cases in various languages whose common characteristic However, the recorded history attests to fewer cases in the plural than in the singular, and later stages of the language indicate a loss of certain cases in the singular as well. It has two grammatical genders, common and neuter, and two grammatical numbers, singular and plural. In Linguistics, grammatical genders, sometimes also called Noun classes are classes of nouns reflected in the behavior of associated words every noun must belong In linguistics grammatical number is a Grammatical category of nouns pronouns and adjective and verb agreement that expresses count distinctions (such as "one"
Hittite verbs are inflected according to two general verbal classes, the mi-conjugation and the hi-conjugation. In Linguistics, conjugation is the creation of derived forms of a Verb, Noun or Adjective from its Principal parts by Inflection There are two voices (active and medio-passive), two moods (indicative and imperative), and two tenses (present and preterite). In Grammar, the voice (also called gender or diathesis of a verb describes the relationship between the action (or state that the verb expresses and the participants identified Grammatical mood is one of a set of distinctive Verb forms that are used to signal modality. Grammatical tense is a temporal linguistic quality expressing the time at during or over which a state or action denoted by a verb occurs This article is about the grammatical term To see the article relating to Eschatology and the Book of Revelation, see Preterism. Additionally, the verbal system displays two infinitive forms, one verbal substantive, a supine, and a participle. In Grammar, infinitive is the name for certain verb forms that exist in many languages A verbal noun is a Noun formed directly as an Inflexion of a Verb or a verb stem, sharing at least in part its constructions In Grammar a supine is a form of Verbal noun used in some languages In Linguistics, a participle (from Latin participium, a Calque of Greek μετοχη "partaking" is a derivative of a non-finite Rose (2006) lists 132 hi-verbs and interprets the hi/mi oppositions as vestiges of a system of grammatical voice ("centripetal voice" vs. "centrifugal voice").
Syntax
Hittite syntax exhibits one noteworthy feature typical of Anatolian languages. Commonly, the beginning of a sentence or clause is composed of either a sentence connecting particle or otherwise a fronted or topicalized form, to which a "chain" of fixed-order clitics are appended. In Linguistics, a clitic is a grammatically independent and phonologically dependent Word.
Corpus
References
Literature
- Introductions and overviews
- Bryce, Trevor (1998). The corpus of texts written in the Hittite language is indexed by the Catalogue des Textes Hittites (CTH since 1971, edited by Emmanuel The Kingdom of the Hittites. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-924010-8.
- Bryce, Trevor (2002). Life and Society in the Hittite World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-924170-8.
- Fortson, Benjamin W. (2004). Indo-European Language and Culture : an Introduction. Malden: Blackwell. ISBN 1-4051-0316-7.
- Dictionaries
- Goetze, Albrecht (1954). Review of: Johannes Friedrich, Hethitisches Wörterbuch (Heidelberg: Winter). Language 30. 401-405. [1]
- Surtevant, Edgar H. (1931). Hittite glossary: words of known or conjectured meaning, with Sumerian ideograms and Accadian words common in Hittite texts. Language, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 3-82. , Language Monograph No. 9.
- Jaan Puhvel, Hittite Etymological Dictionary, Baltimore (1984-). Jaan Puhvel (b 1932 is an Estonian - American Indo-Europeanist.
- Sturtevant, Edgar H. (1932). "The Development of the Stops in Hittite". Journal of the American Oriental Society 52: 1-12. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.
- Grammar
- Hrozný, Bedřich (1917). Die Sprache der Hethiter: ihr Bau und ihre Zugehörigkeit zum indogermanischen Sprachstamm. Leipzig: Hinrichs.
- Jasanoff, Jay H. (2003). Hittite and the Indo-European Verb. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-924905-9.
- Melchert, H. Craig (1994). Anatolian Historical Phonology. Amsterdam: Rodopi. ISBN 90-5183-697-X.
- Patri, Sylvain (2007). L'alignement syntaxique dans les langues indo-européennes d'Anatolie. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 978-3-447-05612-0.
- Rose, S. R. (2006). The Hittite -hi/-mi conjucations. ISBN 3851247043.
- Sturtevant, Edgar H. A. (1933, 1951). Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language. Rev. ed. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1951. First edition: 1933.
- Sturtevant, Edgar H. A. (1940). The Indo-Hittite laryngeals. Baltimore: Linguistic Society of America.
- Text editions
- Further information: Hittite texts
- Goetze, Albrecht & Edgar H. The corpus of texts written in the Hittite language is indexed by the Catalogue des Textes Hittites (CTH since 1971, edited by Emmanuel Sturtevant (1938). The Hittite Ritual of Tunnawi. New Haven: American Oriental Society.
- Sturtevant, Edgar H. A. , & George Bechtel (1935). A Hittite Chrestomathy. Baltimore: Linguistic Society of America.
- Knudtzon, J. A. (1902). Die Zwei Arzawa-Briefe: Die ältesten Urkunden in indogermanischer Sprache. Leipzig: Hinrichs.
- Journal articles
- Hrozný, Bedřich (1915). "Die Lösung des hethitischen Problems". Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft 56: 17-50.
- Sturtevant, Edgar H. (1940). "Evidence for voicing in Hittite g". Language 16: 81-87. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. [2]
- Wittmann, Henri (1969). "A note on the linguistic form of Hittite sheep". Revue hittite et asianique 22: 117-118. [3]
- Wittmann, Henri (1964, 1973). "Some Hittite etymologies". Die Sprache 10, 19: 144-148, 39-43. [4][5]
- Wittmann, Henri (1969). "The development of K in Hittite". Glossa 3: 22-26. [6]
- Wittmann, Henri (1969). "A lexico-statistic inquiry into the diachrony of Hittite". Indogermanische Forschungen 74: 1-10. [7]
- Wittmann, Henri (1969). "The Indo-European drift and the position of Hittite". International Journal of American Linguistics 35: 266-268. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. [8]
See also
External links
- Hittite online - The University of Texas at Austin
- The Hittite Grammar Homepage
- Hethitologie Portal Mainz (in German)
- ABZU - a guide to information related to the study of the Ancient Near East on the Web
- Hittite Dictionary
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