The vast territories of the Russian Empire at one time hosted the largest Jewish population in the world. PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut " Who is a Jew? " (Mihu Yehudi? ?מיהו יהודי is a basic question about Jewish identity. This article focuses on the Etymology of the word Jew. Biblical and Middle Eastern origins The Jews in their land The Jewish ethnonym in Secular Jewish culture embraces several related phenomena above all it is the Culture of secular communities of Jewish people but it can also include Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut Although Jews and religious leaders share a core of monotheistic principles Judaism has no formal statement of principles of faith such as a Creed or Catechism In Judaism, the name of God is more than a distinguishing title See also Old testament, Septuagint, Targum, Peshitta The Tanakh (תַּנַ"ךְ (taˈnax or; also Tenakh or Tenak is term " Torah " ( Hebrew: תּוֹרָה "teaching" or "instruction" sometimes translated as "Law" most commonly refers to Nevi'im (נְבִיאִים "Prophets" is the second of the three major sections in the Hebrew Bible, the Tanakh, between the Ketuvim (כְּתוּבִים "writings" is the third and final section of the Tanakh ( Hebrew Bible) after Torah and Nevi'im This article is about commandments in Judaism For the Jewish rite of passage see Bar Mitzvah and Bat Mitzvah Mitzvah ( Hebrew: מצוה See also Mitzvah See also Biblical law in Christianity The 613 Mitzvot ("commandments" (also " 613 Mitzvos The Talmud ( Hebrew: he תַּלְמוּד is a record of Rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs and history Halakha ( הלכה; alternative transliterations include Halocho and Halacha) is the collective body of Jewish Religious law For the Gregorian dates of Jewish Holidays see Jewish holidays 2000-2050. Jewish services ( Hebrew: תפלה, tefillah; plural תפלות, tefillos or tefillot; Yinglish: davening Tzedakah ( צדקה) is a Hebrew word commonly translated as charity, though it is based on a root meaning Justice Jewish ethics stands at the intersection of Judaism and the Western philosophical tradition of Ethics. Kabbalah (קַבָּלָה lit "receiving" is a discipline and school of thought discussing the mystical aspect of Judaism. Minhag ( Hebrew: מנהג "custom" pl minhagim) is an accepted tradition or group of traditions in Judaism. Midrash ( Hebrew: מדרש plural midrashim, lit "to repeat" is a Hebrew term referring to the not exact but comparative ( homiletic See also Judaism by country Jewish ethnic divisions refers to a number of distinct communities within the world's ethnically Jewish population Ashkenazi Jews, also known as Ashkenazic Jews or Ashkenazim ( Hebrew: אַשְׁכֲּנָזִים, ˌaʃkəˈnazim sing Sephardi Jews ( Hebrew: ספרדי, Standard Səfardi Tiberian Səp̄arədî; plural Mizrahi Jews or Mizrahim, ( also referred to as Edot HaMizrach (Communities of the East are Jews descended Jewish population refers to the number of Jews in the world Precise figures are difficult to calculate because the definition of " Who is a Jew " remains a Jewish population centers have shifted tremendously over time due to the constant streams of Jewish refugees created by expulsions persecution and officially sanctioned killing This article deals with the practice of Judaism and the living arrangement of Jewish people in the listed countries The History of the Jews in the Land of Israel begins with the ancient Israelites (also known as Hebrews) who settled in the Land of Israel. The history of the Jews in the United States has been influenced by waves of immigration primarily from Europe inspired by the social and economic opportunities of the United Iraqi Jews are Jews born in Iraq or of Iraqi heritage The history of the Jews in Iraq is documented from the time of the Babylonian captivity c Spanish Jews once constituted one of the largest and most prosperous Jewish communities under Muslim and Christian rule in Spain, before they The history of the Jews in Portugal is directly related to Sephardi history a Jewish ethnic division that represents communities who have originated The history of the Jews in Poland dates back over a Millennium. Jews have lived in Germany, or " Ashkenaz " at least since the early 4th century, through both periods of tolerance and spasms of The Jewish community of Bosnia and Herzegovina has a rich and varied history surviving World War II and the Yugoslav Wars, after having The history of the Jews in the Americas dates back to Christopher Columbus and his first cross- Atlantic voyage on August 3, 1492 The history of the Jews of Argentina harks back to the days of the Spanish Inquisition and Portuguese Inquisition when Jews fleeing persecution settled in what A Brazilian Jew ( Portuguese: Judeu Brasileiro) is a Brazilian person of full partial or predominantly Jew ancestry or a Jew-born person residing in Brazil Jewish immigration to Latin America began with seven sailors arriving in Christopher Columbus 's crew Jewish Cubans, Cuban Jews, or Cubans of Jewish heritage, have lived on the island of Cuba for centuries Jews have been present in El Salvador since the early 19th Century. Jews have lived in Mexico since the times of the Inquisition. Jewish Nicaraguans or Nicaraguan Jews (Judío Nicaragüense are Nicaraguans of Jewish Ancestry who were born in or have immigrated to Nicaragua The History of the Jews in Venezuela dates to the middle of the 17th century when records suggest that groups of Marranos (Spanish and Portuguese descendants of baptized The Jewish community in France presently numbers around 600000 according to the World Jewish Congress and 500000 according to the Appel Unifié Juif de France and is The first written records of Jewish settlement in England date from the time of the Norman Conquest, mentioning Jews who arrived with William the Conqueror Canada has the world's fourth-largest Jewish population According to the Canada 2001 Census, there are an estimated 351000 Jews currently living in Canada The history of the Jews in Australia began with the transportation of a number of Jewish Convicts aboard the First Fleet in 1788 when History of the Jews in Hungary concerns the Jews of Hungary and of Hungarian origins Indian Jews are a religious minority of India. Judaism was one of the first non- Dharmic religions to arrive in India in recorded history Jews {ref|name|§}} have lived in the geographic area of Asia Minor (modern Turkey) for more than 2400 years There have been organized Jewish communities in Greece for more than two thousand years Since Biblical times the Jewish people have had close ties with Africa beginning with Abraham 's sojourns in Egypt, and later the Israelite captivity under The beginnings of Jewish history in Iran date back to late biblical times Jews and Judaism in China' have had a long history Jewish settlers are documented in China as early as the 7th or 8th century CE, but may The history of Jews in the territory of the present-day Republic of Macedonia began in Roman times when Jews first arrived in the region in the The history of Jews in Romania concerns the Jews of Romania and of Romanian origins from their first mention on what is nowadays Romanian territory By type List of Jewish historians List of Jewish scientists and philosophers List of Jewish nobility Crypto-Judaism is the secret adherence to Judaism while publicly professing to be of another faith people who practice crypto-Judaism are referred to as "crypto-Jews" Rabbi (pronunciation, although in English usually) in Judaism, means a religious ‘teacher’ or more literally ‘my great one’ when addressing any master Orthodox Judaism is the formulation of Judaism that adheres to a relatively strict interpretation and application of the laws and ethics first canonized Conservative Judaism (also known as Masorti Judaism in Israel and Europe) is a modern stream of Judaism that arose out Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently subjected to vandalism and the insertion of personal opinions Reconstructionist Judaism is a modern American-based Jewish movement based on the ideas of the late Mordecai Kaplan (1881 – 1983 Karaite Judaism or Karaism (ˈkærəˌaɪt ˈkærəˌɪzəm) is a Jewish movement NOTE The word sect should not be used without defining it first and Humanistic Judaism is a movement within Judaism that emphasizes Jewish culture and history—rather than belief in God—as the sources of Jewish identity Jewish Renewal is a recent movement in Judaism which endeavors to reinvigorate modern Judaism with mystical, Hasidic, Musical and Alternative Judaism or Agnostic Judaism refers to a variety of groups whose members while identifying as Jews in some fashion nevertheless do not practice Rabbinical The Jewish languages are a set of Languages that developed in various Jewish communities around the world more notably in Europe, West Asia, and Yiddish (yi [[wiktייִדיש ייִדיש]] yidish or yi [[wiktאידיש אידיש]] idish, literally "Jewish" is a nonterritorial High Judæo-Persian dialects are a subgroup of Persian dialects spoken by the Jews of Iran Judæo-Aramaic is a collective term used to describe several Hebrew -influenced Aramaic and Neo-Aramaic Languages History The Judæo-Arabic languages are a collection of Arabic dialects spoken by Jews living or formerly living in the Arab world; the term also refers to Jewish history is the History of the Jewish people, faith, and culture. This is a timeline of the development of Judaism and the Jewish people. Jewish leadership has evolved over time Since the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem in 70 CE there has been no single body that has a leadership The history of Ancient Israel and Judah is known to us from classical sources including Judaism 's Tanakh or Hebrew Bible (known Etymology The Hebrew name given in Scripture for the building is Beit HaMikdash or "The Holy House" and only the Temple in Jerusalem is referred to by this name The Babylonian captivity, Babylonian exile, is the name typically given to the deportation and exile of the Jews of the ancient Kingdom of Judah to Jerusalem (יְרוּשָׁלַיִם, he-Latn Yerushaláyim; Arabic: ar القُدس, ar-Latn al-Quds) is the See also Religious significance of Jerusalem Since the 10th century BCE Jerusalem in Judaism has been the holiest city, focus and spiritual centre of This is a partial timeline of major events in the History of Jerusalem:; 1800 BCE: The Jebusites build the wall Jebus ( Jerusalem The Hasmoneans (/hæzməˡniən/ חשמונאים Hashmonaiym, Audio were the ruling dynasty of the Hasmonean Kingdom ( 140 &ndash 37 BCE The Sanhedrin (סנהדרין συνέδριον ''synedrion'', "sitting together" hence " assembly " or "council" was an assembly Schisms among the Jews are cultural as well as religious They have happened as a product of historical accident geography and Theology. The word Pharisees ( lat. pharisæ|us, - i) comes from the Hebrew פרושים perushim from פרוש parush, meaning "separated" This article discusses the traditional views of the two religions and may not be applicable all adherents of each The historical interaction of Judaism and Islam started in the 7th century CE with the origin and spread of Islam in the Arabian peninsula. The Jewish diaspora ( Hebrew: Tefutzah, "scattered" or Galut גלות "exile" Yiddish: tfutses) the presence The History of Jews in the Middle Ages (approximately 500 CE to 1750 CE can be divided into two categories Also not to be confused with Subbotniks or Sabbatarians. Note Most Sabbateans during and after Sabbatai Zevi were Jews Hasidic Judaism (also Chasidic, etc from the Hebrew: he '''''חסידות''''', Chassidus, meaning "piety" from the Hebrew Haskalah ( Hebrew: השכלה "enlightenment" "education" from sekhel " Intellect " "mind") the Jewish Enlightenment Jewish question Jewish emancipation was the abolition of discriminatory laws as applied especially to Jews in Europe in the nineteenth century the recognition of Jews The Holocaust (from the Greek el ''ὁλόκαυστον'' (el-Latn holókauston holos, "completely" and kaustos, "burnt" also known as Aliyah ( refers to Jewish Immigration to the Land of Israel (and since its establishment in 1948 the State of Israel) For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. The State of Israel (מדינת ישראל Medinat Yisrael) was established in 1948 after nearly two thousand For other uses see Israel (disambiguation The Land of Israel ( Hebrew: אֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל Eretz Yisrael) is Note This article is about the movement See Orthodox outreach, Reform outreach, and Conservative outreach for more information about the rabbis See also Antisemitism, History of antisemitism, New antisemitism The persecution of Jews has occurred many times in Jewish history. Antisemitism (alternatively spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism; also rarely known as judeophobia) is the Prejudice against or hostility The history of antisemitism, hostile actions or discrimination against Jews as a religious or ethnic group goes back many centuries Jewish political movements refer to the organized efforts of Jews to build their own political parties or otherwise represent their interest in politics outside of History of Zionism|Timeline of Zionism|World Zionist Organization|Zionist political violence Zionism is an international political movement that originally supported the Labor Zionism ( Labour Zionism, ציונות סוציאליסטית tsionut sotsialistit) can be described as the major stream of the Left wing of the Revisionist Zionism is a nationalist faction within the Zionist movement Religious Zionism, or the Religious Zionist Movement (a branch of which is also called Mizrachi) is an ideology that combines Zionism and religious The General Zionists (ציונים כלליים Tzionim Klalim) were centrists within the Zionist movement and a political party in Israel World Agudath Israel (The World Jewish Union usually known as the Aguda, was established in the early twentieth century as the political arm of Ashkenazi Torah Judaism Jewish feminism is a movement that seeks to improve the religious legal and social status of women within Judaism and to open up new opportunities for religious experience Politics of Israel takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic Republic, whereby the Prime Minister of Israel is The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya The Jewish diaspora ( Hebrew: Tefutzah, "scattered" or Galut גלות "exile" Yiddish: tfutses) the presence Within these territories the Jewish community flourished and developed many of modern Judaism's most distinctive theological and cultural traditions, while also facing periods of intense antisemitic discriminatory policies and persecutions. Antisemitism (alternatively spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism; also rarely known as judeophobia) is the Prejudice against or hostility In the late 1980s and early 1990s, many Soviet Jews took advantage of liberalized emigration policies, with over half their population leaving, most for Israel, the United States and Germany. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. Despite this, the Jews in Russia and the nations of the former Soviet Union constitute one of the larger Jewish populations in Europe.
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Early history
Tradition places Jews in contemporary southern Russia, Ukraine, Armenia, and Georgia since the Babylonian captivity, and records exist from the 4th century showing that there were Armenian cities possessing Jewish populations ranging from 10,000 to 30,000 along with substantial Jewish settlements in the Crimea. Jewish history is the History of the Jewish people, faith, and culture. Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. Armenia (Հայաստան transliterated: Hayastan,) officially the Republic of Armenia (Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն Hayastani Georgia ( საქართველო, Sakartvelo) is a Transcontinental country in the Caucasus region situated at the dividing line between The Babylonian captivity, Babylonian exile, is the name typically given to the deportation and exile of the Jews of the ancient Kingdom of Judah to Crimea (kraɪˈmiːə or the Autonomous Republic of Crimea (Крим Автономна Республіка Крим Avtonomna Respublika Krym; Крым Under the influence of these Jewish communities, Bulan, the Khagan Bek of the Khazars, and the ruling classes of Khazaria (located in what is now Ukraine, Southern Russia and Kazakhstan), adopted Judaism at some point in the mid-to-late 8th or early 9th centuries. Bulan was a Khazar king who led the conversion of the Khazars to Judaism. Khagan Bek is the title used by the Bek (generalissimo of the Khazars. "Kazar" redirects here for the Marvel Comics character see Ka-Zar; for the village in Azerbaijan see Xəzər. "Kazar" redirects here for the Marvel Comics character see Ka-Zar; for the village in Azerbaijan see Xəzər. Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. Southern Federal District ( Russian: Ю́жный федера́льный о́круг tr Kazakhstan, also Kazakstan ( Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, qɑzɑqˈstɑn Казахстан, Kazakhstán,) officially the After the overthrow of the Khazarian kingdom by Sviatoslav I of Kiev (969), Khazar Jews may have fled in large numbers to the Crimea, the Caucasus, and the Russian principality of Kiev which was formerly a part of the Khazar territory. Sviatoslav I of Kiev ( Old East Slavic: С~тославъ (Свąтославъ Игорєвичь ( Sventoslavŭ Igorevichǐ) Russian: ru Святослав The Caucasus ( also referred to as North Caucasus) is a geopolitical region located between Europe Asia & Middle East Kiev, also known as Kyiv ( Ukrainian:, Kyiv, ˈkɪjiw Russian:, Kiyev; see also Cities' alternative names) is the In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, Jews appear to have occupied a separate quarter in Kiev, known as the Jewish town (Old Russian Жидове, Zhidove, i. e. ‘The Jews’), the gates probably leading to which were known as the Jewish gates (Old Russian Жидовская ворота, Zhidovskaya vorota). The Kievan community was oriented towards Byzantium (the Romaniotes), Babylonia and Palestine in the tenth and eleventh centuries, but appears to have been increasingly open to the European Ashkenazim from the twelfth century on. This article is about the city See also Byzantine Empire. Byzantium ( Greek: Βυζάντιον Latin: la BYZANTIVM The Romaniotes ( Greek: Ρωμανιώτες, Rōmaniōtes are a Jewish population who have lived in the territory of today's Greece and Babylonia was an Amorite state in lower Mesopotamia (modern southern Iraq) with Babylon as its capital Palestine is a name which has been widely used since Roman times to refer to the region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. Ashkenazi Jews, also known as Ashkenazic Jews or Ashkenazim ( Hebrew: אַשְׁכֲּנָזִים, ˌaʃkəˈnazim sing Few products of Kievan Jewish intellectual activity are extant, however. Other communities, or groups of individuals, are known from Chernigov and, probably, Volodymyr-Volynskyi. Chernihiv, also referred to as Chernigov (Чернігів Чернигов Чарнігаў is a historic city in northern Ukraine. Volodymyr-Volynskyi or Vladimir-Volynsky (Володимир-Волинський translit At that time Jews are probably found also in northeastern Russia, in the domains of Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky (1169-1174), although it is uncertain to which degree they would have been living there permanently. Prince Andrei I of Vladimir commonly known as Andrey Bogolyubsky (Андрей Боголюбский "Andrey the God-Loving" (c [1]
Though northeastern Russia had few Jews, countries just to its west had rapidly growing Jewish populations, as waves of anti-Jewish pogroms and expulsions from the countries of Western Europe marked the last centuries of the Middle Ages, a sizable portion of the Jewish populations there moved to the more tolerant countries of Central and Eastern Europe, as well as the Middle East. Year 1910 ( MCMX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting Antisemitism (alternatively spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism; also rarely known as judeophobia) is the Prejudice against or hostility A pogrom is a form of Riot directed against a particular group whether ethnic religious or other and characterized by destruction of their Homes Businesses Western Europe at its most general meaning means 'all the countries in the West of Europe ' Central Europe is the Region lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern and Eastern Europe is a general term that refers to the Geopolitical region encompassing the easternmost part of the European continent. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East.
Expelled en masse from England, France, Spain and most other Western European countries at various times, and persecuted in Germany in the 14th century, many Western European Jews naturally accepted Polish ruler Casimir III's invitation to settle in Polish-controlled areas of Eastern Europe as a third estate, performing commercial, middleman services in an agricultural society for the Polish king and nobility between 1330 and 1370, during Casimir the Great's reign. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland Casimir III the Great (Kazimierz Wielki April 30 1310 – November 5 1370 last King of Poland from the Piast dynasty (1333–1370 was the son of King Władysław Approximately 85 percent of the Jews in Poland during the 14th century were involved in estate management, tax and toll collecting, moneylending or trade.
After settling in Poland (later Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) and Hungary (later Austria-Hungary), the population expanded into the lightly populated areas of Ukraine and Lithuania, which were to become part of the expanding Russian empire. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, officially the Commonwealth of the Crown of the Polish Kingdom and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania also known as the Most Serene Republic Hungary (Magyarország 'mɔɟɔrorsaːg) officially in English the Republic of Hungary ( Magyar Köztársaság, literally Magyar (Hungarian Republic Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the In 1495 Alexander the Jagiellonian expelled the Jews from Grand Duchy of Lithuania but reversed his decision in 1503. Alexander Jagiellon ( Lithuanian: Aleksandras Jogailaitis; Polish: Aleksander Jagiellończyk; 5 August 1461 – 19 August The Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Lietuvos Didžioji Kunigaikštystė old literary Lithuanian Didi Kunigiste Letuvos, Ruthenian: Wialikaje Kniastwa Litowskaje
In the shtetls populated almost entirely by Jews, or in the middle-sized town where Jews constituted a significant part of population, Jewish communities traditionally ruled themselves according to halakha, and were limited by the privileges granted them by local rulers. Eliyahu ben Shlomo Zalman, known as the Vilna Gaon or Elijah of Vilna and simply by his Hebrew Acronym Gra (" G aon Shneur Zalman of Liadi ( שניאור זלמן מליאדי) ( September 4, 1745 – December 15, 1812 O Chabad-Lubavitch is one of the largest Hasidic movements in Orthodox Judaism, and is based in the Crown Heights neighborhood of Brooklyn A shtetl (שטעטל diminutive form of Yiddish shtot שטאָט "town" pronounced very similarly to the South German diminutive "Städtle" "little Halakha ( הלכה; alternative transliterations include Halocho and Halacha) is the collective body of Jewish Religious law (See also Shtadlan). A Shtadlan was an intercessor figure who represented interests of the local Jewish community (such as those of a town's Ghetto) in Medieval Europe These Jews were not assimilated into the larger eastern European societies, and identified as an ethnic group with a unique set of religious beliefs and practices, as well as an ethnically unique economic role. PLEASE TAKE NOTE************
Tsarist Russia (1480s-1917)
Documentary evidence as to the presence of Jews in Muscovite Russia is first found in the chronicles of 1471. The Grand Duchy of Moscow (Великое княжество Московское was a medieval Russian polity centered on Moscow between 1340 and The relatively small population of Jews were generally free of major persecution: although there were laws against them during this period, they do not appear to be strictly enforced.
In the 1480s the principality of Muscovy became the religious equivalent of the Caliphate or Holy Roman Empire. The Grand Duchy of Moscow (Великое княжество Московское was a medieval Russian polity centered on Moscow between 1340 and A caliphate (from the Arabic خلافة or khilāfa) is the political leadership of the Muslim community in classical and medieval Islamic history The Holy Roman Empire ( HRE; German Heiliges Römisches Reich (HRR, Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium (SRI was a union of territories in Based on the theory of the Third Rome, it was believed that the Tsar ruled the only rightful, practically independent Orthodox state, surrounded by Muslim and Roman Catholic states. The term Third Rome describes the idea that some European city or state is the successor to the legacy of the Roman Empire, with Byzantium being the "second Tsar csar and tzar redirect here For other uses see Tsar (disambiguation. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion According to prophecy, there were to be only three Romes, that is, centers of rightful religious faith. The first two, ancient Rome and Constantinople, have already fallen, leaving the only hope on earth with Moscow. Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS Moscow (Москва́ romanised: Moskvá, IPA: see also other names) is the Capital and the largest city of The religious zeal of such a theory reasoned for the ultimate measures against the "enemies of the faith", including the Jews.
Muscovite treatment of the Jews became harsher in the reign of Ivan IV, The Terrible (1533-84). For example, in his conquest of Polotsk in February 1563, some 300 local Jews who declined to convert to Christianity were, according to legend, drowned in the Dvina. Polotsk ( Polatsk, По́лацк Полоцк Polockas Połock is a historical city in Belarus, situated on the Dvina river Religious conversion is the adoption of a new religious identity or a change from one religious identity to another The Daugava or Western Dvina (Daugava Западная Двина́ (Zapadnaya Dvina Заходняя Дзвiна za'xodnʲaja dzʲvʲi'na Dźwina Düna Väina
Jews were not tolerated in the area of Muscovy, from 1721 the official doctrine of Imperial Russia was openly antisemitic. Year 1721 ( MDCCXXI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Even if Jews were tolerated for some modest time, eventually they were expelled, as when the captured part of Ukraine was cleared of Jews in the year 1727. Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. Year 1727 ( MDCCXXVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common These policies made Muscovite Russia a very hostile environment for Jewish people.
See also Chmielnicki Uprising
Pale of Settlement and Pogroms
The traditional measures of keeping Russia free of Jews failed when the main territory of Poland was annexed during the partitions. The term Khmelnytsky Uprising (also Khmel'nyts'kyi/Chmielnicki Uprising or Khmelnytsky / Chmielnicki Rebellion) refers to a Rebellion or The Partitions of Poland or Partitions of the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth took place in the second half of the 18th century and ended the existence of the During the second (1793) and the third (1795) partitions, large populations of Jews were taken over by Russia, and the Tsar established a Pale of Settlement that included Poland and Crimea. Year 1793 ( MDCCXCIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Year 1795 ( MDCCXCV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a The Pale of Settlement (Черта́ осе́длости cherta osedlosti) was the term given to a region of Imperial Russia, along its western border in which Crimea (kraɪˈmiːə or the Autonomous Republic of Crimea (Крим Автономна Республіка Крим Avtonomna Respublika Krym; Крым Jews were supposed to remain in the Pale and required special permission to move to Russia proper, while Russian officials pursued alternating policies designed to encourage assimilation (such as opening public schools to Jews) and destroy independent Jewish life (such as forbidding Jews to live in certain towns).
Rebellions beginning with the Decembrist Revolt of 1825, followed by the struggle of Russia's intelligentsia, and the rise of nihilism, liberalism, socialism, syndicalism, and finally Communism threatened the old tsarist order. Year 1825 ( MDCCCXXV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending For the coffee shop company often called Intelligentsia for short see Intelligentsia Coffee & Tea. Nihilism (from the Latin nihil, nothing is a philosophical position that argues that Existence is without objective meaning Purpose Liberalism is a broad array of related ideas and theories of Government that consider individual Liberty to be the most important political goal Socialism refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the Means of production and distribution Syndicalism is a type of movement which aims to degrade capitalist societies through action by the Working class on the industrial front Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based Assuming that many radicals were of Jewish extraction, tsarist officials increasingly resorted to popularizing religious and nationalistic fanaticism.
Alexander II, known as the "Tsar liberator" for the 1861 abolition of serfdom in Russia, was also known for his suppression of national minorities. Sholem Aleichem (שלום־עליכם Шолом-Алейхем &ndash May 13, 1916) was the Pen name of Sholem Naumovich Rabinovich the popular Alexander (Aleksandr II Nikolaevich (Александр II Николаевич ( Moscow, 29 April 1818 – 13 March 1881 in St The Emancipation Reform of 1861 in Russia was the first and most important of liberal reforms affected during the reign of Alexander II of Russia. Under his rule Jews could not commission Christian servants, could not own land, and were restricted to where they could and couldn't travel. [2] Nevertheless, he approved the policy of Polish politician Alexander Wielopolski in the Kingdom of Poland that gave Jews equal rights to other citizens (the prior status of Jews was different; it is questionable whether this distinct status was more or less beneficial). Congress Poland Kongresówka, officially and formally Kingdom of Poland (Królestwo Polskie {{IPA-pl|'|p|o|l|s|kʲ|e}} Царство Польское Tsarstvo Polskoye Alexander III was a staunch reactionary who strictly adhered to the old maxim "Autocracy, Orthodoxy, and Nationalism. Alexander III Alexandrovich ( 10 March 1845 – 1 November 1894) (Александр III Александрович reigned as Emperor Together known as Official Nationality Orthodoxy Autocracy and Nationality (Правосла́вие самодержа́вие и наро́дность "Pravoslavie Samoderzhavie " His escalation of anti-Jewish policies sought to popularize "folk antisemitism," which portrayed the Jews as "Christ-killers" and the oppressors of the Slavic, Christian victims. Jewish Deicide is an Antisemitic canard that placed the Responsibility for the death of Jesus on the Jewish people as a whole
A large-scale wave of anti-Jewish pogroms swept southwestern Russia in 1881, after Jews were wrongly blamed for the assassination of Alexander II. Anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire, in particular these of the late 19th century gave rise to the internanional Loanword Pogrom as a reference to In the 1881 outbreak, there were pogroms in 166 Russian towns, thousands of Jewish homes were destroyed, many families reduced to extremes of poverty; large numbers of men, women, and children were injured and some killed. The new czar, Alexander III, blamed the Jews for the riots and on May 15, 1882 introduced the so-called Temporary Regulations ("Временные правила") that stayed in effect for more than thirty years and came to be known as the May Laws. Events 1252 - Pope Innocent IV issues the Papal bull Ad exstirpanda, which authorizes but also limits the Year 1882 ( MDCCCLXXXII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The May Laws were anti-Jewish regulations enacted on May 15 (May 3 O
The Chief Procurator of the Holy Synod and the tsar's mentor, friend, and adviser Konstantin Pobedonostsev was reported as saying that one-third of Russia's Jews was expected to emigrate, one-third to accept baptism, and one-third to starve. Dnipropetrovsk (Дніпропетровськ Днепропетро́вск Dnepropetrovsk; formerly Yekaterinoslav, ru Екатериносла́въ is Procurator (прокурор prokuror) is an office initially created by Peter The Great, the first Emperor of the Russian Empire, in an effort The Most Holy Governing Synod (Святейший Правительствующий Синод was the highest governing body of the Russian Orthodox Church between 1721 and Konstantin Petrovich Pobedonostsev ( Константин Петрович Победоносцев in Russian) ( May 21, 1827 - March [3] The repressive legislation was repeatedly revised. Many historians noted the concurrence of these state-enforced antisemitic policies with waves of pogroms[4] that continued until 1884, with at least tacit government knowledge and in some cases policemen were seen inciting or joining the mob.
The systematic policy of discrimination banned Jews from rural areas and towns of fewer than ten thousand people, even within the Pale, assuring the slow death of many shtetls. Unlike most discrimination policies discrimination between, which is the discernment of qualities and recognition of the differences focused here discrimination against is A shtetl (שטעטל diminutive form of Yiddish shtot שטאָט "town" pronounced very similarly to the South German diminutive "Städtle" "little In 1887, the quotas placed on the number of Jews allowed into secondary and higher education were tightened down to 10% within the Pale, 5% outside the Pale, except Moscow and Saint Petersburg, held at 3%. Strict restrictions prohibited Jews from practicing many professions. In 1886, an Edict of Expulsion was enforced on Jews of Kiev. Year 1886 ( MDCCCLXXXVI) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common This article describes the Edict of Expulsion, given by Edward I of England in 1290, that expelled all Jews from England for Kiev, also known as Kyiv ( Ukrainian:, Kyiv, ˈkɪjiw Russian:, Kiyev; see also Cities' alternative names) is the In 1891, Moscow was cleansed of its Jews (except few deemed useful) and a newly built synagogue was closed by the city's authorities headed by the Tsar's brother. Year 1891 ( MDCCCXCI) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Moscow (Москва́ romanised: Moskvá, IPA: see also other names) is the Capital and the largest city of Ethnic cleansing is a Euphemism referring to the persecution through imprisonment expulsion or killing of members of an ethnic minority by a majority to achieve ethnic homogeneity The term useful Jew was used in various historical contexts typically describing a Jewish person useful in implementing an official authorities' policy sometimes by oppressing A synagogue (from Greek: grc συναγωγή transliterated synagogē, "assembly" he בית כנסת beit knesset, "house of Tsar Alexander III refused to curtail repressive practices and reportedly noted: "But we must never forget that the Jews have crucified our Master and have shed his precious blood. "[5] The restrictions placed on education, traditionally highly valued in Jewish communities, resulted in ambition to excel over the peers and increased emigration rates.
In 1892, new measures banned Jewish participation in local elections despite their large numbers in many towns of the Pale. Joseph Trumpeldor (b December 1, 1880, d March 1 1920, יוסף טרומפלדור Иосиф Трумпельдор was an early The Russian Ground Forces (Сухопутные войска Российской Федерации tr The Russo-Japanese War (日露戦争 Romaji: Nichi-Ro Sensō Русско-японская война Russko-Yaponskaya Voyna;, 10 February 1904 – 5 September Year 1892 ( MDCCCXCII) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap year "The Town Regulations prohibited Jews from the right to elect or be elected to town Dumas… That way, reverse proportional representation was achieved: the majority of town's taxpayers had to be subjugated to minority governing the town against Jewish interests. A Duma (Ду́ма is any of various representative assemblies in modern Russia and Russian history Proportional representation (sometimes referred to as full representation or PR is a category of electoral formula aiming at a close match between the percentage of votes "[6]
Mass emigration and political activism
| Destination | Number |
|---|---|
| Australia | 5,000 |
| Canada | 70,000 |
| Europe | 240,000 |
| Palestine | 45,000 |
| South Africa | 45,000 |
| South America | 111,000 |
| USA | 1,749,000 |
Through an application processes Russian Jews were allowed to join their families in Israel. During the Cold War, these options were out of the question due to specific holding laws not allowing Russian citizens to travel abroad. It was considered the chance to explore the world and/or discover yourself. Because it was a great opportunity, Russian authority made the application process extremely difficult. In order to be considered for this application, the individual had to quit their job. This took place because the organizations of the period did not want record of an employee disloyal to the regime.
This was an extremely stressful process due to the uncertainty of the future for the emigrants. After the individual had already lost their job, they were not equipped with the information pertaining to how long the wait for the decision would be and what would occur after the decision to go was made. Therefore, these emigrants lost their source of income and were now, on top of all the other stressful issues, also financially unstable.
Even though the persecutions provided the impetus for mass emigration there were other relevant factors that can account for the Jews' migration. "Emigrant" redirects here For the Butterflies, see Catopsilia. Recent studies have demonstrated how the Russian Jews' emigration was highly correlated with negative Russian economic performance and the high employment rate in the U. S. during those years. Moreover, after the first years of large emigration from Russia, positive feedback from the former Jews in the U. S. accounts itself for why so many Russian Jews expatriated to the U. S. Indeed more than two million of them fled Russia between 1880 and 1920. While a vast majority emigrated to the United States, some turned to Zionism. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the In 1882, members of Bilu and Hovevei Zion made what came to be known the First Aliyah to Palestine, then a part of the Ottoman Empire. Year 1882 ( MDCCCLXXXII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Bilu (ביל"ו Acronym based on a verse from the Book of Isaiah (25 "בית יעקב לכו ונלכה" " B eit Hovevei Zion is also a popular Israeli musical group Hovevei Zion (חובבי ציון also known as Hibbat Zion (חיבת ציון Aliyah ( refers to Jewish Immigration to the Land of Israel (and since its establishment in 1948 the State of Israel) Palestine is a name which has been widely used since Roman times to refer to the region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish
The Tsarist government sporadically encouraged Jewish emigration. Hovevei Zion is also a popular Israeli musical group Hovevei Zion (חובבי ציון also known as Hibbat Zion (חיבת ציון Leo Pinsker (1821-1891 was a Physician, a Zionist pioneer and activist and the founder and leader of the Hovevei Zion (Lovers of Zion movement In 1890, it approved the establishment of "The Society for the Support of Jewish Farmers and Artisans in Syria and Eretz Israel," (known as the "Odessa Committee" headed by Leon Pinsker) dedicated to practical aspects in establishing agricultural Jewish settlements in the Land of Israel. Year 1890 ( MDCCCXC) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Greater Syria (سوريّة الكبرى also known (in a historic context simply as Syria, is a term that denotes a historic region in the Middle East bordering For other uses see Israel (disambiguation The Land of Israel ( Hebrew: אֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל Eretz Yisrael) is The Odessa Committee, officially known as the Society for the Support of Jewish Farmers and Artisans in Syria and Eretz Israel, was a charitable Israeli settlements are communities inhabited by Israelis in territory that was captured as a result of Jordanian attacks during the 1967 Six-Day War. For other uses see Israel (disambiguation The Land of Israel ( Hebrew: אֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל Eretz Yisrael) is
A larger wave of pogroms broke out in 1903-1906, leaving an estimated 1,000 Jews dead, and around 7000-8000 wounded. At least some of the pogroms are believed to have been organized or supported by the Tsarist Russian secret police, the Okhrana. The Otdeleniye po Okhraneniyu Obshchestvennoy Bezopasnosti i Poryadka ( Отделение по Охранению Общественной Безопасности и Порядка
Even more pogroms accompanied the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the ensuing Russian Civil War, when an estimated 70,000 to 250,000 civilian Jews were killed in atrocities throughout the former Russian Empire; the number of Jewish orphans exceeded 300,000. See also Russian Revolution (1905 The Russian Revolution of 1916 refers to a series of popular revolutions in Russia, and the events surrounding them The Russian Civil War (1917–1923 was a multi-party war that occurred within the former Russian Empire after the Russian provisional government collapsed The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya Out of estimated 887 mass pogroms in Ukraine during 1917-1918, about 40% were perpetrated by the Ukrainian forces led by Symon Petliura, 25% by the Green Army and various nationalist and anarchist gangs, 17% by the White Army, especially forces of Anton Denikin, and 8. Symon Vasylyovych Petliura (Симон Васильович Петлюра also known as Simon Petlyura; May 10, 1879 – May 25, The Green armies, Green Army (Russian Зелёная Армия) or Greens (Russian Зелёные) were armed peasant groups which fought The White movement (Beloie Dvijenie Белое движение whose military arm is known as the White Army (Belaia Armia Белая Армия or White Guard Anton Ivanovich Denikin (Анто́н Ива́нович Дени́кин ( December 16, 1872 – August 8, 1947) was Lieutenant General 5% by the Red Army. The Red Army ( Russian: Рабоче-Крестьянская Красная Армия R aboche- K rest'yanskaya K rasnaya A rmiya [8]
See also Cantonist, Kishinev pogrom, Beilis trial, Jewish gauchos, Galveston Movement
Jews and Bolshevism
- See also: Jewish Bolshevism
A notable number of Bolshevik party members were ethnically Jewish, especially in the leadership of the party, and the percentage of Jewish party members among the rival Mensheviks was even higher. Cantonists ( Russian language: Кантонисты, the term adapted from Prussia for "recruiting district" were sons of Russian conscripts who This article is part of the History of the Jews in Bessarabia. "Beilis trial" "Beilis affair" redirect here Menahem Mendel Beilis spelled '''Beiliss'''''Blood Accusation Jewish gauchos (in Spanish, Gauchos judíos) is a common name for Jewish immigrants that settled in fertile regions of Argentina The Galveston Movement operated between 1907 and 1914 to divert Jews fleeing Russia and Eastern Europe away from crowded East Coast cities Jewish Bolshevism, Judeo-Bolshevism, Judeo-Communism, or in Polish Żydokomuna, is a Pejorative Antisemitic expression The Bolsheviks, originally also Bolshevists ( Большевик Большевист (singular, derived from bolshe, "more" were a faction The Mensheviks (Minority (Меньшевик) were a faction of the Russian Revolutionary movement that emerged in 1903 after a dispute between Vladimir The idea of overthrowing the Tsarist regime was attractive to many members of the Jewish intelligentsia because of the oppression of non-Russian nations and non-Orthodox Christians within the Russian Empire. For the coffee shop company often called Intelligentsia for short see Intelligentsia Coffee & Tea. The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian Communion in the world The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya For much the same reason, many non-Russians, notably Latvians or Poles, were disproportionately represented in the party leadership. Latvians or Letts (latvieši the indigenous Baltic people of Latvia, occasionally refer to themselves by the ancient name of Latvji, which The Polish people, or Poles, (Polacy) are a Western Slavic Ethnic group of Central Europe, living predominantly in Poland. This fact was abused by the Tsarist secret police, the Okhrana, which used antisemitism and xenophobia as a weapon against the Russian revolutionary movement and promulgated the fraudulent Protocols of the Elders of Zion to explain Russian revolutionism as a part of a powerful world conspiracy. The Otdeleniye po Okhraneniyu Obshchestvennoy Bezopasnosti i Poryadka ( Отделение по Охранению Общественной Безопасности и Порядка Antisemitism (alternatively spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism; also rarely known as judeophobia) is the Prejudice against or hostility Xenophobia is an intense and/or irrational dislike and sometimes fear of people from other countries Revolutionary movement is a specific type of Social movement dedicated to carrying out a Revolution. In the broadest sense a fraud is a Deception made for personal gain or to damage another individual The Protocols of the Elders of Zion ( Protocols of the wise men of Zion, Library of Congress 's Uniform Title; "Протоколы A conspiracy theory attributes the ultimate cause of an event or chain of events (usually Political, Social or Historical events or the concealment
Because some of the leading Bolsheviks were ethnic Jews, and Bolshevism supports a policy of promoting international proletarian revolution—most notably in the case of Leon Trotsky—many enemies of Bolshevism, as well as contemporary antisemites, draw a picture of Communism as a political slur at Jews and accuse Jews of pursuing Bolshevism to benefit Jewish interests, reflected in the terms "Jewish Bolshevism" or "Judeo-Bolshevism". Sovdepia or Sovdepiya ( Russian: Совдепия was a Derogatory name for Soviet Russia, and subsequently the Soviet Union used The Bolsheviks, originally also Bolshevists ( Большевик Большевист (singular, derived from bolshe, "more" were a faction Leon Trotsky ( Russian:, Lev Davidovich Trotsky, also transliterated Leo, Lyev, Trotskii, Trotski, Trotskij In Nazi Germany, the regime of Adolf Hitler used this theory as a rallying cry to paint a picture of a supposed "Jewish-Bolshevik conspiracy". Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently vandalized and vandalism is reverted immediately For other uses see Battle cry (disambiguation A battle cry is a yell or chant taken up in Battle, usually by members of the same Even today, many anti-semites continue to claim a link between the Jews and Communism. The original atheistic and internationalistic ideology of the Bolsheviks (See proletarian internationalism, bourgeois nationalism) was incompatible with Jewish traditionalism and the later covert tendencies towards Russian nationalism and (especially after World War II) antisemitism in the Soviet regime placed many secular Jews in conflict with the regime. Atheism International or internationally most often describes interaction between Nations or encompassing two or more nations constituting a group or association having International Socialism redirects here For the journal of the same name see International Socialism (journal Proletarian internationalism is a Bourgeois nationalism is a term from Marxist phraseology It refers to the practice of dividing people by Nationality, race, Ethnicity, or World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including
Soon after seizing power, the Bolsheviks established the Yevsektsiya, the Jewish section of the Communist party in order to destroy the rival Bund and Zionist parties, suppress Judaism and replace traditional Jewish culture with "proletarian culture". Yevsektsiya (alternative spelling Yevsektsia) Russian: ЕвСекция, the abbreviation of the phrase "Еврейская секция" History of Zionism|Timeline of Zionism|World Zionist Organization|Zionist political violence Zionism is an international political movement that originally supported the Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut
Most of the Old Bolsheviks, Jewish and Gentile alike, including members of the Yevsektsiya, were repressed by Stalin during the Great Purge of 1930s. Old Bolshevik (ста́рый большеви́к is an unofficial designation for a member of the Bolshevik party before the Russian Revolution of 1917, most of Joseph Stalin ( ნამდვილი გვარი ჯუღაშვილი|Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; March 5 1953 was General Secretary of the Communist Party Great Purge (Большая чистка transliterated Bolshaya chistka) was a series of campaigns of Political repression and Persecution The 1930s were described as an abrupt shift to more radical and conservative lifestyles as countries were struggling to find a solution to the Great Depression.
After the October Revolution (1917-1991)
Under Lenin (1917-1924)
In March 1919, Lenin delivered a speech "On Anti-Jewish Pogroms"[9] on a gramophone disc. Lenin sought to explain the phenomenon of antisemitism in Marxist terms. Marxism is the political philosophy and practice derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. According to Lenin, antisemitism was an "attempt to divert the hatred of the workers and peasants from the exploiters toward the Jews. " Linking antisemitism to class struggle, he argued that it was merely a political technique used by the tsar to exploit religious fanaticism, popularize the despotic, unpopular regime, and divert popular anger toward a scapegoat. The Soviet Union also officially maintained this Marxist-Leninist interpretation under Stalin, who expounded Lenin's critique of antisemitism. Joseph Stalin ( ნამდვილი გვარი ჯუღაშვილი|Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; March 5 1953 was General Secretary of the Communist Party However, this did not prevent the widely publicized repressions of Jewish intellectuals during 1948–1953 (see After World War II). Year 1948 ( MCMXLVIII) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the 1948 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Year 1953 ( MCMLIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.
Such actions, along with extensive Jewish participation among the Bolsheviks, plagued the Communists during the Russian Civil War against the Whites with a reputation of being "a gang of marauding Jews"; Jews comprised a majority in the Communist Central Committee, outnumbering even ethnic Russians. The Russian Civil War (1917–1923 was a multi-party war that occurred within the former Russian Empire after the Russian provisional government collapsed The White movement (Beloie Dvijenie Белое движение whose military arm is known as the White Army (Belaia Armia Белая Армия or White Guard At the same time, the vast majority of Russia's Jews, much like their ethnic Russian neighbours, were not in any political party.
The attempts of the socialist Jewish Labor Bund to be the sole representative of the Jewish worker in Russia had always conflicted with Lenin's idea of a universal coalition of workers of all nationalities. Like some other socialist parties in Russia, the Bund was initially opposed to the Bolsheviks' seizing of power in 1917 and to the dissolving of the Russian Constituent Assembly. The All Russian Constituent Assembly (Всероссийское Учредительное Собрание Vserossiiskoe Uchreditelnoe Sobranie was a democratically elected constitutional Consequently, the Bund suffered repressions in the first months of the Soviet regime. However, the antisemitism of many Whites during the Russian Civil War caused many if not most Bund members to readily join the Bolsheviks, and most of the factions eventually merged with the Communist Party. The Russian Civil War (1917–1923 was a multi-party war that occurred within the former Russian Empire after the Russian provisional government collapsed The movement did split in three; the Bundist identity survived in interwar Poland under Rafael Abramovich, while many Bundists joined the Mensheviks. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland The Mensheviks (Minority (Меньшевик) were a faction of the Russian Revolutionary movement that emerged in 1903 after a dispute between Vladimir
In August of 1919 Jewish properties, including synagogues, were seized and many Jewish communities were dissolved. The anti-religious laws against all expressions of religion and religious education were being taken out on the Jewish population, just like on other religious groups. Many Rabbis and other religious officials were forced to resign from their posts under the threat of violent persecution. This type of persecution continued on into the 1920s. [10]
In 1921, a large number of Jews opted for Poland, as they were entitled by peace treaty in Riga to choose the country they preferred. Year 1921 ( MCMXXI) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1921 calendar of the Gregorian calendar Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland The Peace of Riga, also known as the Treaty of Riga; (Ри́жский ми́рный договóр -- Romanisation Rízhsky Mírny dogovór --, Rīgas Several hundred thousand joined the already numerous Jewish population of Poland. The history of the Jews in Poland dates back over a Millennium.
Under Stalin (1927-1953)
Before World War II
Russian Jews were long considered a non-native "Semitic" ethnicity in a "Slavic" Russia, and such categorization was solidified when ethnic minorities in the Soviet Union were categorized according to ethnicity (национальность), with Jews being no exception. Jewish Autonomous Oblast (Евре́йская автоно́мная о́бласть Yevreyskaya avtonomnaya oblast) is a federal subject of Russia In Linguistics and Ethnology, Semitic (from the Biblical " Shem " Hebrew שם translated as "name" Arabic: ساميّ The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 In his 1913 theoretical work Marxism and the National Question Stalin described Jews as "not a living and active nation, but something mystical, intangible and supernatural. For, I repeat, what sort of nation, for instance, is a Jewish nation which consists of Georgian, Daghestanian, Russian, American and other Jews, the members of which do not understand each other (since they speak different languages), inhabit different parts of the globe, will never see each other, and will never act together, whether in time of peace or in time of war?!"[11] According to Stalin, who became the People's Commissar for Nationalities Affairs after the revolution, to qualify as a nation, a minority was required to have a culture, a language, and a homeland. Council of Ministers of the USSR (Совет Министров СССР tr
To offset the growing Jewish national and religious aspirations of Zionism and to successfully categorize Soviet Jews under Stalin's definition of nationality, an alternative to the Land of Israel was established with the help of Komzet and OZET in 1928. History of Zionism|Timeline of Zionism|World Zionist Organization|Zionist political violence Zionism is an international political movement that originally supported the For other uses see Israel (disambiguation The Land of Israel ( Hebrew: אֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל Eretz Yisrael) is Komzet ( Ком итет по з емельному устройству е врейских т рудящихся КОМЗЕТ) was the OZET (ОЗЕТ О бщество з емлеустройства е врейских т рудящихся was public Society for Settling Year 1928 ( MCMXXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Jewish Autonomous Oblast with the center in Birobidzhan in the Russian Far East was to become a "Soviet Zion". Jewish Autonomous Oblast (Евре́йская автоно́мная о́бласть Yevreyskaya avtonomnaya oblast) is a federal subject of Russia Birobidzhan (Биробиджа́н) is a town and the administrative center of the Jewish Autonomous Oblast, Russia. Russian Far East (Да́льний Восто́к Росси́и ˈdalʲnʲɪj vʌˈstok rʌˈsʲiɪ is a term that refers to the Russian part of the Far East, i [12]
The Soviet authorities considered the use of Hebrew language "reactionary" since it was associated with both Judaism and Zionism, and the teaching of Hebrew at primary and secondary schools was officially banned by the Narkompros (Commissariat of Education) as early as 1919, as part of an overall agenda aiming to secularize education. Narkompros (Наркомпрос is an abbreviation for the People's Commissariat for Education (Народный комиссариат просвещения the Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Secularization or secularisation generally refers to the process of transformation by which a Society migrates from close identification with religious institutions [13] Hebrew books and periodicals ceased to be published and were seized from the libraries, although liturgical texts were still published until the 1930s. Despite numerous protests in the West,[14] teachers and students who attempted to study the Hebrew language were pilloried and sentenced for "counter revolutionary" and later for "anti-Soviet" activities.
Yiddish, rather than Hebrew, would be the national language, and proletarian socialist literature and arts would replace Judaism as the quintessence of culture. Yiddish (yi [[wiktייִדיש ייִדיש]] yidish or yi [[wiktאידיש אידיש]] idish, literally "Jewish" is a nonterritorial High A national language is a Language (or language variant, ie Dialect) which has some connection - de facto or de jure - with Socialist realism is a teleologically -oriented style of realistic art which has as its purpose the furtherance of the goals of Socialism and Communism Despite a massive domestic and international state propaganda campaign, the Jewish population there never reached 30% (as of 2003 it was only about 1. Propaganda is a concerted set of messages aimed at influencing the opinions or behaviors of large numbers of people 2%[15]). The experiment ground to a halt in the mid-1930s, during Stalin's first campaign of purges. Jewish leaders were arrested and executed, and Yiddish schools were shut down.
In his January 12, 1931 letter "Antisemitism: Reply to an Inquiry of the Jewish News Agency in the United States" Stalin officially condemned antisemitism:
In answer to your inquiry: National and racial chauvinism is a vestige of the misanthropic customs characteristic of the period of cannibalism. Year 1931 ( MCMXXXI) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1931 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Cannibalism (from Spanish es ''caníbal'' in connection with cannibalism among the Antillean Caribs, also called anthropophagy (from Greek ἄνθρωπος Antisemitism, as an extreme form of racial chauvinism, is the most dangerous vestige of cannibalism. Antisemitism is of advantage to the exploiters as a lightning conductor that deflects the blows aimed by the working people at capitalism. Antisemitism is dangerous for the working people as being a false path that leads them off the right road and lands them in the jungle. Hence Communists, as consistent internationalists, cannot but be irreconcilable, sworn enemies of antisemitism. In the U. S. S. R. antisemitism is punishable with the utmost severity of the law as a phenomenon deeply hostile to the Soviet system. Under U. S. S. R. law active antisemites are liable to the death penalty. [16]
In 1936 Pravda, the party's newspaper and main propaganda organ, printed a beneficial explanation of the vile nature of antisemitism. Year 1936 ( MCMXXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. It stated that "national and racial chauvinism is a survival of the barbarous practices of the cannibalistic period. . . it served the exploiters. . . to protect capitalism from the attack of the working class; antisemitism, a phenomenon profoundly hostile to the Soviet Union, is repressed in the USSR. "
The Molotov-Ribbentrop pact—the 1939 non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany—created further suspicion regarding the Soviet Union's position toward Jews. Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers The pact, arguably allowed Adolf Hitler to freely enter Poland, the nation with the world's largest Jewish population, but it was neither an acceptance of Nazism nor instigated by anti-Jewish objectives. Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently vandalized and vandalism is reverted immediately Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland This was a disaster for Eastern Europe's Jews, but that was a side effect rather than a motivation.
Many Jews fell victim to the The Great Purges, although there is no evidence that Jews were specifically targeted by Stalin. A number of the most prominent victims of the Purges—Trotsky, Zinoviev, and Kamenev, to name a few—were ethnic Jews, but Stalin was just as brutal when acting against his real or imagined enemies who were not Jewish—e. Leon Trotsky ( Russian:, Lev Davidovich Trotsky, also transliterated Leo, Lyev, Trotskii, Trotski, Trotskij Zinoviev, Zinovyev, Zinovieff (Зиновьев or Zinovieva (feminine Зиновьева is a Russian surname and may refer to ( Russian: Лев Борисович Каменев born Rosenfeld, Розенфельд ( – August 25, 1936) was a Bolshevik g. , Bukharin, Tukhachevsky, Kirov, and Ordzhonikidze. Nikolai Ivanovich Bukharin (Никола́й Ива́нович Буха́рин ( &ndash March 15, 1938) was a Bolshevik Mikhail Nikolayevich Tukhachevsky (Михаи́л Никола́евич Тухаче́вский Michał Tuchaczewski ( &ndash June 12, 1937) was a Sergei Mironovich Kirov (Серге́й Миро́нович Ки́ров ( &ndash December 1, 1934) was a prominent early Bolshevik leader whose assassination Grigoriy Konstantinovich Ordzhonikidze (გრიგოლ (სერგო ორჯონიკიძე - Grigol (Sergo Orjonikidze Russian: Григорий Константинович The number of prominent Jewish Old Bolsheviks killed in the purges reflects the fact that Jews were the largest group in the Central Committee after the Russians and that Jews had a high participation among the Bolsheviks. Old Bolshevik (ста́рый большеви́к is an unofficial designation for a member of the Bolshevik party before the Russian Revolution of 1917, most of
Some Stalinists survived notwithstanding their Jewish heritage. Stalin did not purge Lazar Kaganovich, a loyal supporter who came to Stalin's attention in the 1920s as a successful bureaucrat in Tashkent who participated in brutal purges in the 1930s. The 1920s is sometimes referred to as the " Jazz Age " or the " Roaring Twenties " when speaking about the United States and Canada The 1930s were described as an abrupt shift to more radical and conservative lifestyles as countries were struggling to find a solution to the Great Depression. Kaganovich's loyalty endured even after Stalin's death, when he and Molotov were expelled from the party ranks in 1957 due to their opposition to destalinization. The Cold War ensued as the USSR and the United States struggled indirectly for influence around the world
On the eve of the Holocaust
Beyond longstanding controversies, ranging from the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact to anti-Zionism, the Soviet Union did grant official "equality of all citizens regardless of status, sex, race, religion, and nationality. Anti-Zionism is opposition to Zionism, an international political movement and ideology that supports a Homeland for the Jewish People in the land known " The years before the Holocaust were an era of rapid change for Soviet Jews, leaving behind the dreadful poverty of the Pale of Settlement. The Holocaust (from the Greek el ''ὁλόκαυστον'' (el-Latn holókauston holos, "completely" and kaustos, "burnt" also known as Forty percent of the population in the former Pale left for large cities within the USSR.
Emphasis on education and movement from countryside shtetls to newly industrialized cities allowed many Soviet Jews to enjoy overall advances under Stalin and to become one of the most educated population groups in the world. A shtetl (שטעטל diminutive form of Yiddish shtot שטאָט "town" pronounced very similarly to the South German diminutive "Städtle" "little This period of the Soviet Union was dominated by Joseph Stalin, who sought to reshape Soviet society with aggressive economic planning in particular a sweeping collectivization of agriculture
Due to Stalinist emphasis on its urban population, interwar migration inadvertently rescued countless Soviet Jews; Nazi Germany penetrated the entire former Jewish Pale—but were kilometers short of Leningrad and Moscow. Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers Saint Petersburg ( tr: Sankt-Peterburg,) is a city and a federal subject of Russia located on the Neva River Moscow (Москва́ romanised: Moskvá, IPA: see also other names) is the Capital and the largest city of The great wave of deportations from the areas annexed by Soviet Union according to the Nazi-Soviet pact, often seen by victims as genocide, paradoxically also saved lives of a few hundred thousand Jewish deportees. However horrible their conditions, the fate of Jews in Nazi Germany was much worse. The migration of many Jews deeper East from the part of the Jewish Pale that would become occupied by Germany saved at least forty percent of this area's Jewish population.
The Holocaust
Over two million Soviet Jews died during the Holocaust, second only to the number of Polish Jews who fell victim to Hitler. The Holocaust (from the Greek el ''ὁλόκαυστον'' (el-Latn holókauston holos, "completely" and kaustos, "burnt" also known as Even before the mass deportations to the death camps in 1942, German death squads, the Einsatzkommandos, shot hundreds of thousands of Jews throughout 1941. Extermination camps were two types of facilities that Nazi Germany built during World War II for the systematic killing of millions of people in what has become Einsatzkommando refers to a sub-group of the five Einsatzgruppen mobile killing squads — 3000 men — responsible for systematically killing every Jew and Among some of the larger massacres in 1941 were: 33,771 Jews of Kiev shot in ditches at Babi Yar; 100,000 Jews and Poles of Vilnius killed in the forests of Ponary, 20,000 Jews killed in Kharkiv at Drobnitzky Yar, 36,000 Jews machine-gunned in Odessa, 25,000 Jews of Riga killed in the woods at Rumbula, and 10,000 Jews slaughtered in Simferopol in the Crimea. Kiev, also known as Kyiv ( Ukrainian:, Kyiv, ˈkɪjiw Russian:, Kiyev; see also Cities' alternative names) is the See #Other memorials below for the Babi Yar Memorial Park in Denver Colorado USA Paneriai (Ponary is a suburb of Vilnius, situated about 10 kilometres away from the city center Riga (Rīga riːga) the Capital of Latvia, is situated on the Baltic Sea coast on the mouth of the river Daugava. Rumbula is a Pine forest enclave in Riga, Latvia, in which Jews were massacred during the Holocaust. Simferopol (English pronunciation ˌsɪmfəˈroʊpəl (Сімферополь Симферополь Aqmescit literally The white mosque) is the Capital of the Though mass shootings continued through 1942, most notably 16,000 Jews shot at Pinsk, Jews were increasingly shipped to concentration camps in Nazi-occupied Poland.
Local residents of German-occupied areas, especially Ukrainians, Lithuanians, and Latvians, sometimes played key roles in the genocide of other Latvians, Lithuanians, Ukrainians, Slavs, Gypsies, homosexuals and Jews alike. Under the Nazi occupation, some members of the Ukrainian and Latvian police carried out deportations in the Warsaw Ghetto, and Lithuanians marched Jews to their death at Ponary. The Warsaw Ghetto was the largest of the Jewish Ghettos located in the territory of General Government during World War II, established by Even as some assisted the Germans, a significant number of individuals in the territories under German control also helped Jews escape death (see Righteous Among the Nations). Righteous among the Nations (חסידי אומות העולם Chassidey Umot HaOlam) which may at times refer to the B'nei Noah or Noahides as well is a term used In Latvia, particularly, the number of Nazi-collaborators was only slightly more than that of Jewish saviours. Latvia ( Latvija officially the Republic of Latvia (Latvijas Republika is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region.
Over 200,000 Jews died in battle fighting in the Red Army against the Nazis.
Soviet reaction to the Holocaust
The typical Soviet policy regarding the Holocaust was to present it as atrocities against Soviet citizens, not emphasizing the genocide of the Jews. For example, after the liberation of Kiev from the Nazi occupation, the Extraordinary State Commission (Чрезвычайная Государственная Комиссия) was set out to investigate Nazi crimes. Kiev, also known as Kyiv ( Ukrainian:, Kyiv, ˈkɪjiw Russian:, Kiyev; see also Cities' alternative names) is the The description of the Babi Yar massacre was officially censored as follows:[17]
| Draft report (December 25, 1943) | Censored version (February 1944) |
|---|---|
|
|
After World War II
In January 1948 Solomon Mikhoels, a popular actor-director of the Moscow State Jewish Theater and the chairman of the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee, was killed in a suspicious car accident. Vasily Semyonovich Grossman (first name alternatively spelled as Vassily or Vasiliy Василий Семёнович Гроссман December 12 1905 &ndash The Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee ( JAC, Russian language: Еврейский антифашистский комитет, ЕАК) was formed Year 1948 ( MCMXLVIII) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the 1948 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Solomon (Shloyme Mikhoels שלמה מיכאָעלס Соломон Михайлович Михоэлс (Вовси ( - January 12/13 1948 was a Soviet Jewish actor The Moscow State Jewish Theater, Russian language: Московский Гос ударственный Е врейский Т еатр The Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee ( JAC, Russian language: Еврейский антифашистский комитет, ЕАК) was formed [18] Mass arrests of prominent Jewish intellectuals and suppression of Jewish culture followed under the banners of campaign against "rootless cosmopolitans" and anti-Zionism. Anti-Zionism is opposition to Zionism, an international political movement and ideology that supports a Homeland for the Jewish People in the land known On August 12, 1952, in the event known as the Night of the Murdered Poets, thirteen most prominent Yiddish writers, poets, actors and other intellectuals were executed on the orders of Joseph Stalin, among them Peretz Markish, Leib Kvitko, David Hofstein, Itzik Feffer and David Bergelson. Events 1099 - First Crusade: Battle of Ascalon - Crusaders under the command of Godfrey of Bouillon defeat Fatimid Year 1952 ( MCMLII) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Night of the Murdered Poets (Ночь казнённых поэтов refers to the night of 12 to 13 August 1952, when thirteen of the most prominent Yiddish Yiddish (yi [[wiktייִדיש ייִדיש]] yidish or yi [[wiktאידיש אידיש]] idish, literally "Jewish" is a nonterritorial High Peretz Markish (פּרץ מאַרקיש; Перец Давидович Маркиш in Polonnoye currently Ukraine - 12 August 1952 in Moscow Leib Kvitko (Лейб Квитко לייב קוויטקאָ (October 15 1890 — August 12 1952 was a prominent Yiddish poet an author of well-known children's poems and David Hofstein (דוד האָפשטיין Dovid Hofshteyn, Давид Гофштейн 1889 &mdash August 12, 1952) was a Yiddish Poet Itzik Feffer (1900 — August 12, 1952) also Fefer ( Yiddish איציק פֿעפֿער Russian Ицик Фефер Исаàк Соломòнович David (or Dovid) Bergelson (דוד בערגעלסאָן ( August 12, 1884 &ndash August 12, 1952) was a Yiddish language [19] In the 1955 UN Assembly's session a high Soviet official still denied the "rumors" about their disappearance. Membership For two articles dealing with membership in the General Assembly see General Assembly members
The Doctors' plot allegation in 1953 was a deliberately antisemitic policy: Stalin targeted "corrupt Jewish bourgeois nationalists," eschewing the usual code words like "cosmopolitans. The Doctors' plot ( Russian language: дело врачей (doctors' affair врачи-вредители (doctors-saboteurs or врачи-убийцы Year 1953 ( MCMLIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. " Stalin died, however, before this next wave of arrests and executions could be launched in earnest. A number of historians claim that the Doctors' plot was intended as the opening of a campaign that would have resulted in the mass deportation of Soviet Jews had Stalin not died on March 5, 1953. Deportation, not to be confused with Extradition, generally means the expulsion of someone from a place or Country. Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian moves from Antioch with an army of 90000 to attack the Sassanid Empire, in a Year 1953 ( MCMLIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Days after Stalin's death the plot was declared a hoax by the Soviet government. A hoax is a deliberate attempt to Dupe, Deceive or trick an audience into believing or accepting that something is real when in fact it is not or that
These cases may have reflected Stalin's paranoia, rather than state ideology — a distinction that made no practical difference as long as Stalin was alive, but which became salient on his death.
- See also Stalinism and antisemitism
After Stalin
In April 1956, the Warsaw Yiddish language Jewish newspaper Folkshtimme published sensational long lists of Soviet Jews who had perished before and after the Holocaust. 1930s Even though Communism theoretically rejects every form of national discrimination including Antisemitism, and many Old Bolsheviks were ethnically Jewish Warsaw (Warszawa; also known by other names) is the Capital and Largest city of Poland. Yiddish (yi [[wiktייִדיש ייִדיש]] yidish or yi [[wiktאידיש אידיש]] idish, literally "Jewish" is a nonterritorial High The world press began demanding answers from Soviet leaders, as well as inquire about current condition of Jewish education system and culture. The same fall, a group of leading Jewish world figures publicly requested the heads of Soviet state to clarify the situation. Since no cohesive answer was received, their concern was only heightened. The fate of Soviet Jews emerged as a major human rights issue in the West. Human rights refers to the "basic Rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled The term Western world, the West or the Occident ( Latin: occidens -sunset -west as distinct from the Orient) can have multiple meanings
The Soviet Union and Zionism
Marxist anti-nationalism and anti-clericalism had a mixed effect on Soviet Jews. Jews were the immediate benefactors, but long-term victims, of the Marxist notion that any manifestation of nationalism is "socially retrogressive. " On one hand, Jews were liberated from the religious persecution of the Tsarist years of "autocracy, nationalism, and Orthodoxy. " On the other, this notion was threatening to Jewish cultural institutions, the Bund, Jewish autonomy, Judaism and Zionism. Jewish Autonomism was a non- Zionist political movement that emerged in Eastern Europe in the late 19th and early 20th century History of Zionism|Timeline of Zionism|World Zionist Organization|Zionist political violence Zionism is an international political movement that originally supported the
Political Zionism was officially stamped out for the entire history of the Soviet Union as a form of bourgeois nationalism. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Bourgeois nationalism is a term from Marxist phraseology It refers to the practice of dividing people by Nationality, race, Ethnicity, or Although Leninism emphasizes "self-determination," this did not make the state more accepting of Zionism. Leninism defines self-determination by territory, not culture, which allowed Soviet minorities to have separate oblasts, autonomous regions, or republics, which were nonetheless symbolic until its later years. Jews, however, did not fit such a theoretical model; Jews in the Diaspora did not even have an agricultural base, as Stalin often asserted when attempting to deny the existence of a Jewish nation, and certainly no territorial unit. Marxian notions even denied a Jewish identity beyond religion and caste; Marx defined Jews as a "chimerical nation. "
Lenin, claiming to be deeply committed to egalitarian ideals and universality of all humanity, rejected Zionism as a reactionary movement, "bourgeois nationalism", "socially retrogressive", and a backward force that deprecates class divisions among Jews. Moreover, Zionism entailed contact between Soviet citizens and westerners, which was dangerous in a closed society. History of Zionism|Timeline of Zionism|World Zionist Organization|Zionist political violence Zionism is an international political movement that originally supported the Soviet authorities were likewise fearful of any mass-movement independent of monopolistic Communist Party, and not tied to the state or the ideology of Marxism-Leninism. In Economics, a monopoly (from Greek monos, alone or single + polein, to sell exists when a specific individual or enterprise has sufficient Marxism-Leninism is a Communist ideological stream that emerged as the mainstream tendency amongst the Communist parties in the 1920s as it was adopted
Without changing its official anti-Zionist stance, from late 1944 until 1948 Stalin had adopted a de facto pro-Zionist foreign policy, apparently believing that the new country would be socialist and would speed the decline of British influence in the Middle East. Anti-Zionism is opposition to Zionism, an international political movement and ideology that supports a Homeland for the Jewish People in the land known Year 1944 ( MCMXLIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Year 1948 ( MCMXLVIII) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the 1948 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Joseph Stalin ( ნამდვილი გვარი ჯუღაშვილი|Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; March 5 1953 was General Secretary of the Communist Party Socialism refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the Means of production and distribution The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. [20]
The USSR briefly supported the establishment of Israel in a 1947 speech that was not published in the Soviet media. It came during the 1947 UN Partition Plan debate on May 14, 1947, when the Soviet ambassador Andrei Gromyko announced:
- "As we know, the aspirations of a considerable part of the Jewish people are linked with the problem of Palestine and of its future administration. The United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine or United Nations General Assembly Resolution 181 was a plan approved by the General Assembly on November 29 Events 1264 - Battle of Lewes: Henry III of England is captured in France making Simon de Montfort the Year 1947 ( MCMXLVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1947 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Andrei Andreyevich Gromyko (Андре́й Андре́евич Громы́ко Андрэй Андрэевіч Грамыка July 2 1989 was a Soviet politician This fact scarcely requires proof. . . During the last war, the Jewish people underwent exceptional sorrow and suffering. . .
- The United Nations cannot and must not regard this situation with indifference, since this would be incompatible with the high principles proclaimed in its Charter. . .
- The fact that no Western European State has been able to ensure the defence of the elementary rights of the Jewish people and to safeguard it against the violence of the fascist executioners explains the aspirations of the Jews to establish their own State. It would be unjust not to take this into consideration and to deny the right of the Jewish people to realize this aspiration. "[21]
Soviet approval in the United Nations Security Council was critical to the UN partitioning of the British Mandate of Palestine, which led to the founding of the State of Israel. The Palestine Mandate, was a set of protocols or articles that formed a multilateral legal and administrative agreement For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. Three days after Israel declared independence, the Soviet Union legally recognized it de jure. The Israeli Declaration of Independence (הכרזת העצמאות Hakhrazat HaAtzma'ut or מגילת העצמאות Megilat HaAtzma'ut) made on 14 May
Effects of the Cold War
By the end of 1948 the USSR switched sides in the Arab-Israeli conflict and throughout the course of the Cold War unequivocally supported various Arab regimes against Israel. Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the The official position of the Soviet Union and its satellite states and agencies was that Zionism was a tool used by the Jews and Americans for "racist imperialism".
As Israel was emerging as a close Western ally, the specter of Zionism raised fears of internal dissent and opposition. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. The term Western world, the West or the Occident ( Latin: occidens -sunset -west as distinct from the Orient) can have multiple meanings History of Zionism|Timeline of Zionism|World Zionist Organization|Zionist political violence Zionism is an international political movement that originally supported the During the later parts of the Cold War Soviet Jews were suspected of being possible traitors, Western sympathisers, or a security liability. The Communist leadership closed down various Jewish organizations and declared Zionism an ideological enemy. Synagogues were often placed under police surveillance, both openly and through the use of informers.
As a result of the persecution, both state-sponsored and unofficial, antisemitism became deeply ingrained in the society and remained a fact for years: ordinary Soviet Jews often suffered hardships, epitomized by often not being allowed to enlist in universities, work in certain professions, or participate in government. However, it should be mentioned that this was not always the case and this kind of persecution varied depending on the region. Still many Jews felt compelled to hide their identities by changing their names.
The word "Jew" was also avoided in the media when criticising undertakings by Israel, which the Soviets often accused of racism, chauvinism etc. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. Instead of Jew, the word Israeli was used almost exclusively, so as to paint its harsh criticism not as antisemitism but anti-Zionism. More controversially, the Soviet media, when depicting political events, sometimes used the term 'fascism' to characterise Israeli nationalism (e. Fascism is a totalitarian nationalist and corporatist ideology g calling Jabotinsky a 'fascist', and claiming 'new fascist organisations were emerging in Israel in 1970s' etc).
See also rootless cosmopolitan, Doctors' plot, Zionology and Anti-Zionist committee of the Soviet public
The collapse of the Soviet Union and emigration to Israel
A mass emigration was politically undesirable for the Soviet regime. Rootless cosmopolitan ( Russian language: безродный космополит, "bezrodniy kosmopolit" was a Soviet Euphemism introduced The Doctors' plot ( Russian language: дело врачей (doctors' affair врачи-вредители (doctors-saboteurs or врачи-убийцы Zionology ( Russian language: сионология sionologiya) also called Soviet Anti-Zionism, was a doctrine promulgated in the Soviet On March 29, 1983, the Secretariat of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union has approved the resolution 101/62ГС to "Support the As increasing number of Soviet Jews applied to emigrate to Israel in the period following the 1967 Six Day War, many were formally refused permission to leave. Year 1967 ( MCMLXVII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the 1967 Gregorian calendar. Background Suez Crisis aftermath The Suez Crisis of 1956 represented a military defeat but a political victory for Egypt Refusenik (אסיר ציון asir tzion, "zion prisoner" מסורב עליה mesorav aliyah, "one who is not allowed to perform Aliyah A typical excuse given by the OVIR (ОВиР), the MVD department responsible for provisioning of exit visas was that the persons who had been given access at some point in their careers to information vital to Soviet national security could not be allowed to leave the country. A visa (short for the Latin carta visa, lit "a document that has been seen" is a document issued by a Country giving an individual National security is the entire scope of measures undertaken by the Governments of Nation-states in providing assurance of national Sovereignty
After the Dymshits-Kuznetsov hijacking affair in 1970 and the crackdown that followed, strong international condemnations caused the Soviet authorities to increase the emigration quota. PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ Refusenik (אסיר ציון asir tzion, "zion prisoner" מסורב עליה mesorav aliyah, "one who is not allowed to perform Aliyah Dymshits-Kuznetsov aircraft hijacking affair (Ленинградское самолётное дело or Дело группы Дымшица-Кузнецова Or The Leningrad Year 1970 ( MCMLXX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link shows full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. In the years 1960-1970, only 4,000 people left the USSR; in the following decade, the number rose to 250,000. [22]
In 1972 the USSR imposed the so-called "diploma tax" on would-be emigrants who received higher education in the USSR. Year 1972 ( MCMLXXII) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. A diploma (from Greek δίπλωµα diploma, meaning "folded paper" is a Certificate or Deed issued by an educational institution Higher education is Education that is provided by universities, vocational universities, Community colleges Liberal arts colleges In some cases, the fee was as high as twenty annual salaries. This measure was apparently designed to combat the brain drain caused by the growing emigration of Soviet Jews and other members of the intelligentsia to the West. A brain drain or human capital flight is a large emigration of individuals with technical skills or knowledge, normally due to conflict, lack of opportunity For the coffee shop company often called Intelligentsia for short see Intelligentsia Coffee & Tea. Following international protests, the Kremlin soon revoked the tax, but continued to sporadically impose various limitations. The Moscow Kremlin ( Russian: Московский Кремль Moskovskiy Kreml) usually referred to as simply The Kremlin, is a historic fortified
At first almost all of those who managed to get exit visas to Israel actually made aliyah, but after the mid-1970s, many of those allowed to leave for Israel actually chose other destinations, most notably the United States. Aliyah ( refers to Jewish Immigration to the Land of Israel (and since its establishment in 1948 the State of Israel) In 1989 a record 71,000 Soviet Jews were granted exodus from the USSR, of whom only 12,117 immigrated to Israel. Year 1989 ( MCMLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link displays 1989 Gregorian calendar) Since the adoption of the Jackson-Vanik amendment, over one million Soviet Jews have immigrated to Israel. According to the 1974 Trade Act of the United States, the Jackson-Vanik amendment, named for its major co-sponsors Sen
See also Russian aliyah in Israel. Aliyah ( refers to Jewish Immigration to the Land of Israel (and since its establishment in 1948 the State of Israel)
Jews in Russia today
Jewish life
Most Russian Jews are secular and identify themselves as Jews via ethnicity rather than religion, similar to secular Jews in America and other Western countries, although interest about Jewish identity as well as practice of Jewish tradition amongst Russian Jews is growing. Lubavitch has been a catalyst in this sector, setting up synagogues and Jewish kindergartens in Russian cities with Jewish populations. Chabad-Lubavitch is one of the largest Hasidic movements in Orthodox Judaism, and is based in the Crown Heights neighborhood of Brooklyn In addition, most Russian Jews have relatives in Israel.
Since the dissolution of the USSR, democratization in the former USSR has brought with it a good deal of tragic irony for the country's minorities, especially the Jewish population. The Soviet Union 's collapse into independent nations began early in 1985 The absence of Soviet-era repression exposed the remaining Jews to a resurgence of antisemitism in the former Soviet Union. However, there has not been a return to mass antisemitic incidents in Russia or anywhere else throughout the former Soviet Union.
Russian Jews are well represented in the fields of medicine, law, science and education. Henri Reznik, the head of Moscow Bar Association, as well as three out of five wealthiest oligarchs in Russia, are Jewish: Roman Abramovich tops the list, Mikhail Fridman is in the third position and Viktor Vekselberg in fifth. Henri Reznik (born 1938 is a prominent Russian Lawyer. Graduated from the Kazan State University, he is a member of the Moscow Helsinki Group Roman Arkadyevich Abramovich (rɐˈman ɐrˈkadʲjevʲɪtɕ ɐbrɐˈmovʲɪtɕ Рома́н Арка́дьевич Абрамо́вич born on 24 October 1966 Mikhail Maratovich Fridman Михаи́л Мара́тович Фри́дман born 21 April 1964) or Mikhail Friedman Viktor Felixovich Vekselberg (Виктор Феликсович Вексельберг born April 14, 1957, Drohobych, Ukraine, Soviet Mikhail Khodorkovsky, a former oil tycoon and outspoken critic of president Vladimir Putin who has been jailed on tax evasion charges, is also Jewish. Mikhail Borisovich Khodorkovsky (Михаи́л Бори́сович Ходорко́вский born June 26, 1963) is a Russian businessman a former Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin (; born 7 October 1952 in Leningrad, USSR; now Saint Petersburg, Russia was the second President of Russia Exiled oligarchs Boris Berezovsky, fugutive Leonid Nevzlin and Vladimir Gusinsky are likewise Jewish. Boris Abramovich Berezovsky (Бори́с Абра́мович Березо́вский (also known as Platon Elenin (born January 23, 1946) is a Russian Leonid Borisovich Nevzlin (Леонид Борисович Невзлин לאוניד בוריסוביץ' נבזלין born September 21, 1959 in Moscow Vladimir Aleksandrovich Gusinsky (Владимир Александрович Гусинский born 6 October 1952 in Moscow) a Russian media Baron
There are several major Jewish organizations in the territories of the former USSR. The central Jewish organization is the Federation of Jewish Communities of the CIS under the leadership of Chief Rabbi Berel Lazar. Federation of Jewish Communities of the CIS was created in November of 1998 to unite efforts aimed at restoring Jewish life culture and religion in the Post-Soviet Rabbi Berel Lazar (born 1964 is an Orthodox Rabbi affiliated with the Chabad-Lubavitch Hasidic movement
Perhaps stemming from the now obsolete Soviet nationality policy, a linguistic distinction remains to this day in the Russian language where there are two terms for "Jew". The word Еврей ("Yevrey" - Hebrew) typically denotes a Jewish ethnicity, while the world Иудей ("Iudey" - Judean) is reserved for denoting a follower of the Jewish religion, although the latter term has mostly fallen out of use.
Post-Soviet countries and antisemitism
Russia
Despite stipulations against fomenting hatred based on ethnic or religious grounds (Article 282 of Russian Federation Penal Code),[23] antisemitic pronouncements, speeches and articles are not uncommon in Russia, and there are a large number of antisemitic neo-Nazi groups in the republics of the former Soviet Union, leading Pravda to declare in 2002 that "Anti-Semitism is booming in Russia". Henry Ford ( July 30, 1863 &ndash April 7, 1947) was the American founder of the Ford Motor Company and father of Yelizaveta Petrovna (Елизаве́та (Елисаве́т Петро́вна (December 29 1709 – January 5 1762 (New Style December 18 1709 – December 25 1761 ( Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending A penal code is a portion of a State 's Laws defining Crimes and specifying the Punishment. Pravda (Правда "The Truth" was a leading Newspaper of the Soviet Union and an official organ of the Central Committee of the [24] Over the past few years there have also been bombs attached to antisemitic signs, apparently aimed at Jews, and other violent incidents, including stabbings, have been recorded.
The government of Vladimir Putin takes an official stand against antisemitism, while some movements parties and groups are explicitly antisemitic. Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin (; born 7 October 1952 in Leningrad, USSR; now Saint Petersburg, Russia was the second President of Russia In January 2005, a group of 15 Duma members demanded that Judaism and Jewish organizations be banned from Russia. The State Duma (Государственная дума (Gosudarstvennaya Duma common abbreviation Госдума (Gosduma in the Russian Federation is the [25] In June, 500 prominent Russians, including some 20 members of the nationalist Rodina party, demanded that the state prosecutor investigate ancient Jewish texts as "anti-Russian" and ban Judaism. Rodina or Motherland-National Patriotic Union ( Rodina - Narodno-Patrioticheskiy Soyuz, Партия "РОДИНА" is one of the four parties that control An investigation was in fact launched, but halted after an international outcry. [26][27]
In Russia, both historical and contemporary antisemitic materials are frequently published. For example a set (called Library of a Russian Patriot) consisting of twenty five antisemitic titles was recently published, including Mein Kampf translated to Russian (2002), The Myth of Holocaust by Jürgen Graf, a title by Douglas Reed, Protocols of the Elders of Zion, and others. Mein Kampf ( English: My Struggle/My Battle) is a book by Adolf Hitler. Jürgen Graf (born August 15, 1951, Basel) is a Swiss Holocaust denier. Douglas Reed (1895-1976 was a British Journalist, Playwright, Novelist and Author of a number of Books on political analysis The Protocols of the Elders of Zion ( Protocols of the wise men of Zion, Library of Congress 's Uniform Title; "Протоколы
Antisemitic incidents have ranged from random acts of violence against Jews to the detonation of explosives in Jewish communities, to high-profile cases such as the stabbing of eight Russian Jews in a Moscow synagogue on January 11, 2006 by a man with neo-Nazi ties. The term neo-Nazism refers to post- World War II Political movements Social movements and ideologies seeking to revive Nazism, See also: Pamyat, Neo-Nazism in Russia. Pamyat ( Russian language: Память; English translation Memory) is a Russian Ultra-nationalist organization identifying The term neo-Nazism refers to post- World War II Political movements Social movements and ideologies seeking to revive Nazism,
The Jewish Autonomous Oblast continues to be an autonomous oblast of the Russian state. Jewish Autonomous Oblast (Евре́йская автоно́мная о́бласть Yevreyskaya avtonomnaya oblast) is a federal subject of Russia An autonomous oblast is an Autonomous entity within the state which is on the Oblast ( Province) level of the overall administrative subdivision [2] The Chief Rabbi of Birobidzhan, Mordechai Scheiner, says there are 4,000 Jews in the capital city. Chief Rabbi is a title given in several countries to the recognized religious leader of that country's Jewish community or to a rabbinic leader appointed by the local secular Birobidzhan (Биробиджа́н) is a town and the administrative center of the Jewish Autonomous Oblast, Russia. Mordechai Sheiner has been Chief Rabbi of Jewish Autonomous Oblast since 2002. [3] Governor Nikolay Mikhaylovich Volkov has stated that he intends to, "support every valuable initiative maintained by our local Jewish organizations. A governor is a governing official usually the executive (at least nominally to different degrees also politically and administratively of a non-sovereign level of government Nikolai Volkov (born December 19, 1951) is a Russian Politician. " [4] The Birobidzhan Synagogue opened in 2004 on the 70th anniversary of the regions founding in 1934. The Birobidzhan Synagogue was established in 2004. The Synagogue is in the city of Birobidzhan which is the capital of the Jewish Autonomous Oblast "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " Year 1934 ( MCMXXXIV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display full 1934 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [5]
Ukraine
In Ukraine, renewed nationalist sentiment has fueled antisemitism that already existed and persisted under the soviet system (communism), which includes recent years after communism fell in the Ukraine before "renewed nationalist sentiment" began to grow. Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. Jewish schools and synagogues have been firebombed and assaulted, and Jewish cemeteries vandalized. [28]
Interregional Academy of Personnel Management (MAUP), the largest non-governmental university in the country, hosted white supremacist David Duke in June of 2005, as part of his European and Middle East tour for the promotion of his book, Jewish Supremacism: My Awakening on the Jewish Question. Interregional Academy of Personnel Management ( М іжрегіональна А кадемія у правління п ерсоналом ( White supremacy is a racist ideology based on the assertion that White people are superior to other racial groups. David Ernest Duke (born July 1, 1950) is a former Louisiana State Representative, a Candidate in Presidential primaries for the Duke co-hosted a conference named "Zionism As the Biggest Threat to Modern Civilization" during his stay and received an honorary doctorate from the university in September of 2005.
Belarus
In Belarus, anti-Jewish incidents are considerably less frequent than in Russia or Ukraine, due to the fact that President Lukashenko represses all movements that can become a threat to the regime, including local neo-Nazi parties and organizations. Belarus ( Belarusian Беларусь / Biełaruś is a Landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered by Russia to the north and east Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. Alexander Grigoryevich Lukashenko (Аляксандр Рыгоравіч Лукашэнка Aljaksandar Ryhoravič Lukašenka/Alyaksandar Ryhoravich Lukashenka; Александр The term neo-Nazism refers to post- World War II Political movements Social movements and ideologies seeking to revive Nazism, Nonetheless, antisemitic incidents, such as vandalization of Jewish Holocaust memorials, cemeteries, and synagogues do occur. The Holocaust (from the Greek el ''ὁλόκαυστον'' (el-Latn holókauston holos, "completely" and kaustos, "burnt" also known as
Tajikistan
In Tajikistan, the government began demolition on the Dushanbe synagogue on February 22, 2006 to make way for a new presidential palace. Tajikistan (təˈdʒɪkɨstæn or /təˈdʒiːkɨstæn/ Тоҷикистон tɔʤikɪsˈtɔn or, Persian تاجیکستان taajikestaan officially the Republic of The Dushanbe synagogue, also known as the Bukharian Synagogue, located in Dushanbe, the capital of Tajikistan, was constructed in the 19th century in one The synagogue was the last remaining synagogue in Tajikistan, and was actively being used for worship until the time of its destruction. The government completed demolition of the Jewish community's kosher butcher, mikveh, and classroom earlier in 2006. In late March, 2006, the government reversed its decision and will allow the community to rebuild the synagogue on its current site.
Assimilation trends
In the Tsarist Russia, assimilation, russification and conversion to the state religion of Orthodox Christianity were official policies. A region or society where several different groups are spontaneously assimilated is sometimes referred to as a Melting pot. Russification (in Russian: русификация rusifikátsiya)is an adoption of the Russian language or some other Russian attribute (whether voluntarily Religious conversion is the adoption of a new religious identity or a change from one religious identity to another See also Eastern Orthodox Church Structure and organization The Slavic Orthodox Church is organized in a hierarchical structure After coming to power and dealing severe blows to all religions, the Bolsheviks undertook efforts to form a new nation of the Soviet people (Советский народ). Soviet nation (Советский народ was an ideological Demonym and proposed Ethnonym for the population of the Soviet Union.
The Russian Empire and later the Soviet Union, one of the world's most ethnically diverse nations, with hundreds of distinct nationalities, was also home to a Jewish population of about two million before its disintegration in 1991, making Jews the eleventh largest Soviet nationality (the USSR classified Jews as a nationality). Despite such diversity, Jews were a unique minority in the ideological state. Before and after the Bolshevik Revolution many of the Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Baltic Jews embraced secular education and culture, thereby becoming a minority that had adapted the Russian language and culture. The October Revolution (Октябрьская революция Oktyabrskaya revolyutsiya) also known as the Soviet Revolution Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. Belarus ( Belarusian Беларусь / Biełaruś is a Landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered by Russia to the north and east Baltic Seven Islandsgif|right|thumb|330px|A contemporary transnational Euroregion encompasses the islands of the Baltic countries
Jews, in that sense, were not "foreigners" within Soviet Russia but instead a distinct, cohesive group bounded by a common value system, Yiddish language, exclusive cultural institutions, synagogues, and Zionist nationalism, despite the absence of a territorial unit or a single locale. This existence is thus alien to Marxism-Leninism as espoused by the Soviet state, which viewed Jewish cohesiveness as resulting from class struggle, binding proletariat Jews to Jews in oppressor classes. Marxism-Leninism is a Communist ideological stream that emerged as the mainstream tendency amongst the Communist parties in the 1920s as it was adopted Marxist egalitarianism and universality suggested that it would be ideal to see the assimilation of Jews and the renunciation of Judaism, in a sense contradicting the elements that allowed Jews to be distinct members of society. Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut All Soviet ethnic groups, such as Russians, Ukrainians, Uzbeks, Tatars, were encouraged to look at class over nationality, but did not face assimilation and cultural annihilation because of their individual locales and common languages. The Russian people (Русские— Russkie) are an East Slavic Ethnic group, primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries Ukrainians (Українці Ukrayintsi,) are an East Slavic Ethnic group primarily living in Ukraine, or more broadly— Citizens The Uzbeks (Self designation sg O‘zbek, pl O‘zbeklar) are a Turkic people of Central Asia. Tatars ( Tatar: Tatarlar/Татарлар sometimes spelled Tartars, are a Turkic -speaking ethnic group or multiple ethnic groups While Jews had been bound together in the past by Yiddish, most by the end of the Stalinist era had already adapted the Russian language and culture, and tended to live alongside Slavic gentiles.
Certain Marxists predicted such a sociological trend, but miscalculated the extent to which this trend would erode the cohesiveness of the Jewish community. Karl Marx and some later Marxists assumed that the Jewish identity would cease to exist after the demise of capitalism since man can only be free when he transcended the confines of individuality and locality and recognized a shared humanity, "a universal existence", free of antagonism and divisiveness, which, he believed, only existed due to class struggle. Although the Jewish community went from being one of the most isolated in Europe to one of its most assimilated from the time of the Bolshevik Revolution to the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union, the identity has not faded away.
Law throughout Soviet history, however, listed Jews as one of the Union's "basic nations", with their own language (Yiddish), and their own autonomous region, a failed, inhospitable settlement in the Russian Far East that was nonetheless symbolic. Yiddish (yi [[wiktייִדיש ייִדיש]] yidish or yi [[wiktאידיש אידיש]] idish, literally "Jewish" is a nonterritorial High Jewish Autonomous Oblast (Евре́йская автоно́мная о́бласть Yevreyskaya avtonomnaya oblast) is a federal subject of Russia Russian Far East (Да́льний Восто́к Росси́и ˈdalʲnʲɪj vʌˈstok rʌˈsʲiɪ is a term that refers to the Russian part of the Far East, i The word "Еврей" (Yevrei, "Jew") was also listed in the "национальность" ("nationality") section (the infamous "Пятая графа" (pyataya grafa, "the fifth record") of the obligatory internal passport document, which stated the ethnic or national background of all Soviet citizens. An internal passport is an Identity document that can be compared to Identity card used in some countries to control the internal movement and residence of people Such treatment of Jews as a nationality is somewhat alien to Jewish law, but reminiscent of Zionism. In May 1976, the Soviet journal Party Life prominently displayed Jews as a distinct "nationality. Year 1976 ( MCMLXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. "
While Soviet socialism clearly did not destroy the Jewish identity, it nevertheless weakened a degree of cultural cohesiveness. Hebrew and Yiddish languages, Jewish theaters, Jewish schools, religion and Zionism bounded the Soviet Jewish population together despite the absence of a common locale; but these were the very elements restricted by a Soviet Union promoting secularism among all its citizens. Secular Jewish culture embraces several related phenomena above all it is the Culture of secular communities of Jewish people but it can also include The closings of synagogues and other important Jewish cultural institutions, such as theaters, schools and periodicals, were conducted under this ideological context of egalitarianism. While threatening to Judaism and the Jewish culture, the regime enforced the same policies on other religions, leading to the development of a modern, secular state. However, after the end of the Second World War, the restrictions against Christians and Muslims were gradually reduced, while the persecution of Judaism remained in force. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including The rise of Jewish secularism thus paralleled social trends among Soviet non-Jews, but had threatening overtones to Jewish existence. Soviet secularism, the discouragement of Yiddish, and the restriction of other elements that forged an exclusive, Jewish identity, caused assimilation to be a foreboding threat to Jewish existence. A region or society where several different groups are spontaneously assimilated is sometimes referred to as a Melting pot. Soviet rule can be characterized by a rise in intermarriages and abandonment of Jewish identities by those who were eager to prove their loyalty to the Communist Party's atheism and proletarian internationalism, and committed to stamp out any sign of "Jewish cultural particularism", such as Leon Trotsky, Maxim Litvinov or Lazar Kaganovich. Atheism International Socialism redirects here For the journal of the same name see International Socialism (journal Proletarian internationalism is a Leon Trotsky ( Russian:, Lev Davidovich Trotsky, also transliterated Leo, Lyev, Trotskii, Trotski, Trotskij Maxim Maximovich Litvinov (Макси́м Макси́мович Литви́нов) ( July 17, 1876 &ndash December 31, 1951) was a Russian
Assimilated Jews significantly contributed to Russian and Soviet multi-ethnic culture, science and technology. It is hard to imagine Russian art without Isaac Levitan and Léon Bakst; Russian literature—Isaac Babel, Osip Mandelstam and Boris Pasternak; Russian ballet—Ida Rubinstein and Maya Plisetskaya; Soviet cinematography— Dziga Vertov, Mikhail Romm, Grigori Chukhrai; Russian and Soviet music—Anton Rubinstein and Isaak Dunayevsky; comedy—Faina Ranevskaya, Arkady Raikin and Mikhail Zhvanetsky; science—Lev Landau, Abram Ioffe and Yakov Zel'dovich; defense industry—Boris Vannikov, Mikhail Gurevich (of MiG) and Semyon Lavochkin. Russian culture is one that is rich and colorful Russians have a rich cuisine. Isaac Ilyich Levitan ( Russian: Исаак Ильич Левитан, August 30, 1860 &ndash) was a classical Russian Landscape Léon Samoilovitch Bakst ( May 10, 1866 - December 28, 1924) was a Russian painter and scene- and Costume designer This article is about literature from Russia For the song by Maxïmo Park, see Our Earthly Pleasures. Isaac Emmanuilovich Babel, Исаак Эммануилович Бабель ( – January 27, 1940) was a Soviet journalist playwright and short story writer who Osip Emilyevich Mandelstam (also spelled Mandelshtam) (О́сип Эми́льевич Мандельшта́м ( &ndash December 27, 1938) was a Boris Leonidovich Pasternak (Бори́с Леони́дович Пастерна́к ( — May 30, 1960) was a Nobel Prize -winning Soviet Russian ballet is a form of Ballet characteristic of or originating from Russia. Ida Lvovna Rubinstein ( 5 October 1885, St Petersburg, Russia &ndash 20 September 1960, Vence, France Maya Mikhailovna Plisetskaya (Майя Михайловна Плисецкая born November 20, 1925) is a retired Russian Ballet dancer The cinema of the Soviet Union, not to be confused with " Russian Cinema " despite Russian language films being predominant in both genres includes Dziga Vertov (Дзига Вертов Дзиґа Вертов January 15, 1896 &ndash February 12, 1954) was a Soviet pioneer Mikhail Romm (Михаил Ильич Ромм ( &mdash November 1 1971) was a Russian Film director. Grigori Naumovich Chukhrai (Григорiй Наумович ЧухрайГригорий Наумович Чухрай May 23, 1921 -- October 28, This article is about the 19th century Russian pianist and composer Isaak Osipovich Dunayevsky also Dunaevsky or Dunaevski ( Исаак Осипович Дунаевский; Lokhvitsa Poltava - 25 July Faina Grigoryevna Ranevskaya (Фаина Григорьевна Раневская ( - July 19, 1984) is recognized as one of the most popular Soviet Russian Arkady Isaakovich Raikin ( Latvian: Arkādijs Raikins; Russian: Аркадий Исаакович Райкин ( Riga, Latvia, &ndash Mikhail Zhvanetskiy ( Russian: Жванецкий Михаил Михайлович (born March 6, 1934 in Odessa) is a famous Soviet and Lev Davidovich Landau ( Russian language: Ле́в Дави́дович Ланда́у ( January 22, 1908 &ndash April 1, 1968 Abram Fedorovich Ioffe (Абра́м Фёдорович Ио́ффе &ndash October 14, 1960) was a prominent Soviet / Russian Physicist Yakov Borisovich Zel'dovich (Яков Борисович Зельдович ( March 8, 1914 &ndash December 2, 1987) was a prolific Soviet The Military history of the Soviet Union began in the days following the 1917 October Revolution that brought the Bolsheviks to power Boris Lvovich Vannikov (Бори́с Льво́вич Ва́нников ( 26 August, 1897, Baku, Russian Empire - 22 February, Mikhail Iosifovich Gurevich (Михаил Иосифович Гуревич ( &mdash November 12, 1976) was a Soviet aircraft designer a partner JSC "RSK "MiG" or Russian Aircraft Corporation MiG in full (formerly Mikoyan or Mikoyan-i-Gurevich Design Bureau, Микоян Semyon Alekseyevich Lavochkin (Семён Алексе́евич Ла́вочкин August 29, 1900 -
Demographic data
The official census data on Jewish population of Imperial Russia and the Soviet Union. [29] The number of Jews has fallen from about 2. 15 million in 1970 (the third largest population in the world, after the USA and Israel) to 1. Year 1970 ( MCMLXX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link shows full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. 45 million in 1989 (less than 600,000 in Russia itself) and to some 250,000 in Russia, according to the 2002 census. The decline is mostly due to emigration to Israel, but close to one million Jews living on former Soviet territory other than Russia do not appear in the most recent census. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics.
| Year | Jewish population, millions | Note |
|---|---|---|
| 1914 | More than 5. 25 | Russian Empire |
| 1939 | 3 | A result of border change, emigration, assimilation and repressions |
| Early 1941 | 5. 4 | A result of the annexation of Western Ukraine and Belarus, Baltic republics, and inflow of Jewish refugees from Poland |
| 1959 | 2. 26 | See the Shoah (Holocaust) |
| 1970 | 2. The Holocaust (from the Greek el ''ὁλόκαυστον'' (el-Latn holókauston holos, "completely" and kaustos, "burnt" also known as The Holocaust (from the Greek el ''ὁλόκαυστον'' (el-Latn holókauston holos, "completely" and kaustos, "burnt" also known as 15 | |
| 1979 | 1. 81 | |
| 1989 | 1. 45 | |
| End of 1993 | Less than 0. 4 | A result of mass emigration and assimilation. Militaryov calls this number "especially funny". By his estimate, the real number should be 2-3 million. See also Jewish Virtual Library |
The Jewish population in the Jewish Autonomous Oblast of the Russian Far East as of 2002 is 2,327 (1. Jewish Autonomous Oblast (Евре́йская автоно́мная о́бласть Yevreyskaya avtonomnaya oblast) is a federal subject of Russia Russian Far East (Да́льний Восто́к Росси́и ˈdalʲnʲɪj vʌˈstok rʌˈsʲiɪ is a term that refers to the Russian part of the Far East, i 22%).
The Bukharan Jews, self-designating as Yahudi, Isroel or Banei Isroel, live mainly in Uzbek cities. Bukharan Jews, also Bukharian Jews or Bukhari Jews, ( בוכרים, Bukharim) are Jews from Central Asia who speak Uzbekistan, officially the Republic of Uzbekistan ( Uzbek: O‘zbekiston Respublikasi or Ўзбекистон Республикаси is a doubly The number of Central Asian Jews was around 20,800 in 1959. Before mass emigration, they spoke a dialect of the Tajik language. The Tajik language, or Tajik Persian, or Tajiki, (sometimes written Tadjik or Tadzhik; тоҷикӣ, tg-Latn ''tojikí'') is a modern [6]
The Georgian Jews numbered about 35,700 in 1964, most of them living in Georgia. The Georgian Jews ( Georgian: ქართველი ებრაელები qartveli ebraelebi, Hebrew: יהודי גאורגיה Yehudei Year 1964 ( MCMLXIV) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the 1964 Gregorian calendar. Georgia ( საქართველო, Sakartvelo) is a Transcontinental country in the Caucasus region situated at the dividing line between [7]
The Caucasian Mountain Jews, also known as Tats or Dagchufuts, live mostly in Dagestan, with a scattered population in Azerbaijan. Mountain Jews, Juvuro, Juhuro, are Jews of the eastern Caucasus, mainly of Azerbaijan and Dagestan. For Tattoos also called "tats" see Tattoo. The Tat are an Aryan (Iranic ethnic group in the Caucasus. The Republic of Dagestan dæɡɪˈstɑːn (IntEng ˈdeɪɡəstæn (AmEng (Респу́блика Дагеста́н Дагъистанлъул ДжумхIурият Daɣistanłul Azerbaijan ( English; Azərbaycan officially the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azərbaycan Respublikası is the largest and most populous country in the South In 1959, they numbered around 15,000 in Dagestan and 10,000 in Azerbaijan. Their Tat language is a dialect of Persian. [8]
The Crimean Jews, self-designating as Krymchaks, traditionally lived in the Crimea, numbering around 5,700 in 1897. The Krymchaks ( Krymchak: sg кърымчах - qrymchakh, pl Crimea (kraɪˈmiːə or the Autonomous Republic of Crimea (Крим Автономна Республіка Крим Avtonomna Respublika Krym; Крым Due to a famine, a number emigrated to Turkey and the USA in the 1920. The remaining population was virtually annihilated in the Holocaust during the Nazi occupation of the Crimea, but Krymchaks re-settled the Crimea after the war, and in 1959, between 1,000 and 1,800 had returned. The Holocaust (from the Greek el ''ὁλόκαυστον'' (el-Latn holókauston holos, "completely" and kaustos, "burnt" also known as [9]
Russian Jewish Diaspora
Israel
| Year | TFR |
|---|---|
| 2000 | 1. 544 |
| 1999 | 1. 612 |
| 1998 | 1. 632 |
| 1997 | 1. 723 |
| 1996 | 1. 743 |
| 1995 | 1. 731 |
| 1994 | 1. 756 |
| 1993 | 1. 707 |
| 1992 | 1. 604 |
| 1991 | 1. 398 |
| 1990 | 1. 390 |
The largest number of Russian Jews now live in Israel, not in Russia. Israel is home to a core Russian-Jewish population of 825,000 and an enlarged population of 1,150,000 (including halachically non-Jewish members of Jewish households, but excluding 70,000 of them who reside in Israel illegally). The Aliyah in 1990s accounts for 85-90% of this population. The population growth rate for FSU immigrants were among the lowest for any Israeli groups, with a Fertility rate of 1. 70 and natural increase of just +0. 5% per year. [30] The increase in Jewish birth rate in Israel during the 2000-2007 period was partly due to the increasing birth rate among the FSU immigrants, who now form 20% of the Jewish population of Israel. [31][32] 96. 5% of the enlarged Russian Jewish population in Israel is either Jewish or non-religious, while 3. 5% (35,000) belongs to other religions (mostly Christians) and about 10,000 messianic Jews. [33]
The Total Fertility Rate for FSU immigrants in Israel is given in the table below. The TFR increased with time, peaking in 1997, then slightly decreased after that and then again increased after 2000. [34]
As of 1999, about 1,037,000 FSU immigrants lived in Israel, of whom about 738,900 immigrated after 1989. [35] [36] The second largest ethnic group (Moroccans) numbered just 501,000. In 2000-2006 period 142,638 FSU immigrants moved to Israel. While 70,000 of them emigrated from Israel to countries like USA and Canada, bringing the total population to 1,150,000 by 2007 January (Excluding illegals). [37] The natural increase was around 0. 3% in late 90s. For example 2,456 in 1996 (7,463 births to 5,007 deaths), 2,819 in 1997 (8,214 to 5,395), 2,959 in 1998 (8,926 to 5,967) and 2,970 in 1999 (9,282 to 6,312). In 1999, the natural growth was +0. 385%. (Figures only for FSU immigrants moved in after 1989). [38]
Notable recent immigrants from FSU include Lev Leviev, Avigdor Lieberman, Roman Dzindzichashvili, Akiva Megrelashvili, Haim Megrelashvili, Victor Mikhalevski, Evgeny Postny, Maxim Rodshtein, Tatiana Zatulovskaya, Maria Gorokhovskaya, Katia Pisetsky, Aleksandr Averbukh, Jan Talesnikov, Vadim Alexeev, Michael Kolganov, Alexander Danilov, Evgenia Linetskaya, Marina Kravchenko, David Kazhdan, Leonid Nevzlin, Vadim Akolzin, Roman Bronfman, Michael Cherney, Arcadi Gaydamak, Sergei Sakhnovski, Natan Sharansky, Roman Zaretski, Alexandra Zaretski, Larisa Trembovler and Boris Tsirelson. Lev Avnerovich Leviev (born on July 30, 1956 in Tashkent, Soviet Union) is a Chabad Orthodox Bukharian Jewish Avigdor Levi Lieberman (אביגדור ליברמן also spelled Liberman, born 5 June 1958) is an Israeli politician and leader of the Roman Yakovlevich Dzindzichashvili (რომან იაკობის-ძე ჯინჯიხაშვილი רומן יעקובלביץ' ג'ינג'יחשווילי born Akiva Megrelashvili (עקיבא מֶגְרֵלָשוִילִי born June 24, 1981) is an Israeli Football defender currently playing for Haim Megrelashvili (חיים מֶגְרֵלָשוִילִי born July 4, 1982 in Tirat Carmel) is an Israeli Football defender currently Victor (Viktor Mikhalevski (וויקטור מיכלבסקי born 8 July 1972, Gomel, Belarus) is an Israeli chess grandmaster Evgeny Postny (born July 3 1981) is an Israeli chess player He is a grandmaster. Maxim Rodshtein (born 19 January 1989 in Leningrad) is an Israeli Chess Grandmaster (since 2007 Tatiana Yakovlevna Zatulovskaya (טטיאנה יעקבלבנה זטולובסקיה Russian: Татьяна Яковлевна Затуловская; born 8 Maria Kondratyevna Gorokhovskaya (Мария Кондратьевна Гороховская October 17, 1921 in Eupatoria - July 22 Aleksandr Averbukh (אלכס אברבוך born October 1, 1974 in Irkutsk, Soviet Union) is an Israeli athlete competing in the Jan Talesnikov ( ז'אן טלסניקוב, Ян Талесников, born December 11, 1972) is an Israeli former footballer Vadim Alexeev (Вадим Алексеев born April 21, 1970) is a retired Soviet / Israeli Breaststroke swimmer who Michael Kolganov (מיכאל קלגנוב born 24 October 1974 in Tashkent, Uzbek SSR) is an Israeli flatwater canoer Alexander Danilov (born Nov 10 1969 is an Israeli pistol shooter who was a member of the Israeli shooting team at the 2000 Sydney Games and 2004 Athens Games Evgenia Simonovna Linetskaya (Евгения Симоновна Линецкая born 30 November, 1986, in Moscow) is a Russian born 5' 9" Marina Kravchenko (born May 19 1975 in Ukraine) is an Israeli Table tennis player David Kazhdan (spelled דוד קשדן in Hebrew Každan or Kajdan in translations of some of his earlier papers formerly named Дми́трий Александрович Leonid Borisovich Nevzlin (Леонид Борисович Невзлин לאוניד בוריסוביץ' נבזלין born September 21, 1959 in Moscow Vadim Akolzin (born October 19, 1982 in Tver, Soviet Union) is an Israeli pair skater. Dr Roman Bronfman (רומן ברונפמן born 22 April 1954) is a Left wing Israeli Politician. Michael Cherney (מיכאל צ'רנוי also Mikhail Chernoy or Mikhail Chorny; born 16 January 1952) is a Russian-born Israeli entrepreneur } Sergei Sakhnovski (סרגיי סחנובסקי Сергей Сахновский (born on May 15 1975, in Moscow, Russia) is an Israeli Natan Sharansky (נתן שרנסקי Натан Щаранский born Anatoly Borisovich Shcharansky (Анатолий Борисович Щаранский on Roman Zaretski (רומן זרצקי Роман Зарецкий(born December 4 1983, in Minsk, Soviet Union) is an Israeli Ice dancer Alexandra "Sasha" Zaretski (אלכסנדרה זרצקי (Александра Зарецкая ru-Latn ''Alexandra Zaretskaya'' (born December 23, 1987 Larisa Amir (Hebrew לריסה עמיר Previously Larisa Trembovler Hebrew לריסה טרימבובלר Russian: Лариса Трембовлер (also Boris Semyonovich Tsirelson (בוריס סמיונוביץ' צירלסון Борис Семенович Цирельсон is a Soviet - Israeli Mathematician
USA
The second largest population is in USA. According to RINA, there is a core Russian-Jewish population of 350,000 in USA. The enlarged Russian Jewish population in USA is estimated to be 700,000. [10]. Most noticeable FSU Jews in USA are Dmitry Salita, Sergey Brin, Alexei Alexeyevich Abrikosov, Regina Spektor, Anthony Fedorov and Gregory Kaidanov. Dmitry Salita (Дмитрий Салита " Star of David " born April 4 1982) is a Ukrainian -born undefeated boxer Sergey Mikhailovich Brin (Сергей Михайлович Брин born August 21 1973 is a Soviet -born American Entrepreneur who co-founded Google Alexei Alexeyevich Abrikosov (Алексе́й Алексе́евич Абрико́сов (born June 25, 1928) is a Russian theoretical physicist Regina Spektor (Регина Спектор born February 18, 1980) is a Soviet -born Jewish- American Singer-songwriter and Anthony Fedorov (born Anatoliy Vladimirovich Fedorov on May 4, 1985; Russian: Анатолий Владимирович Фёдоров Ukrainian Gregory Kaidanov (Григорий Кайданов born October 11, 1959) is an International Grandmaster of Chess. Bukharan Jews alone number close to 50,000 in USA, mostly in Queens and Phoenix. [11]
FSU
The number of Russian Jews remaining in FSU is dwindling. The number of core Russian-Jews was estimated at 435,000 in 2002 and the enlarged Jewish population estimated at 800,000. (At 1. 9 ratio given in JAFI) [12]. The core Russian Jewish population for FSU was estimated at 366,000 in 2006. The enlarged Russian Jewish population stands at 700,000. [13]
Germany
The fourth largest Russian-Jewish community exists in Germany with a core Russian-Jewish population of 110,000 and an enlarged population of 200,000. [39][40][41]
In 1991-2006 period, approximately 230,000 ethnic Jews from FSU immigrated to Germany. In the beginning of 2006, Germany tightened the immigration program. A survey conducted among the approximately 215,000 enlarged Russian Jewish population (taking natural decrease into consideration) indicated that about 81% of the enlarged population was Jewish or Atheist by religion, while about 18. 5% identified as Christians. That gives a core Russian Jewish population of 111,800 (religion Jewish, 52%) or 174,150 (religion Jewish or Atheist). [42] [43]
Notable Russian Jews in Germany include Valery Belenky, Lev Kopelev. Valery Vladimirovich Belenky (Валерий Владимирович Беленький Valeri Belenki born September 5, 1969) is a retired Soviet Lev Zalmanovich Kopelev (also Lev Zinovevich Kopelev; Russian: Лев Залма́нович Ко́пелев or Лев Зино́вьевич Ко́пелев
Canada
The fifth largest Russian Jewish community is in Canada. The core Russian Jewish population in Canada numbers 30,000 and the enlarged Russian Jewish population numbered 50,000+, mostly in Montreal and Toronto. [14] Notable Russian Jewish residents includes Mark Berger. Sensei Mark Berger (born January 3 1954 in Tchernovitz Ukraine) is a Canadian Judoka.
Australia
Small number of FSU Jews exist in Australia (Core population of 10,000 constituting 33% of all Russian born and 25% of all Ukranian born citizens in 1996 Census. Enlarged population around 20,000) [15]. Some Jewish organizations claim that there are up to 50,000 Russian Jews in Australia.
Finland
Hundreds of Russian Jews have moved to Finland since 1990 and have helped to stem the negative population growth of the Jewish community there. [16] The total number of Jews in Finland have grown from 800 in 1980 to 1,200 in 2006. Of all the schoolgoing Jewish children, 75% have at least one Russian born parent.
Other Countries
The Netherlands, England, Finland, Belgium, New Zealand, Italy, Austria and Switzerland. The addition of Russian Jews have neutrilized the negative Jewish natural increase in some European countries like The Netherlands and Austria. There are a considerable number of Russian Jews living in England, most noticeable ones being Roman Abramovich, Boris Berezovsky and Selig Brodetsky. Roman Arkadyevich Abramovich (rɐˈman ɐrˈkadʲjevʲɪtɕ ɐbrɐˈmovʲɪtɕ Рома́н Арка́дьевич Абрамо́вич born on 24 October 1966 Boris Abramovich Berezovsky (Бори́с Абра́мович Березо́вский (also known as Platon Elenin (born January 23, 1946) is a Russian Selig Brodetsky ( 10 February 1888, Olviopol, Russia - 18 May 1954) was a British Professor of Mathematics Notable ones in France include Anatoly Vaisser, Leon Poliakov and Lev Shestov. Anatoly (Anatoli Vaisser (born 5 March 1949 Almaty, Kazakhstan) is a French chess Grandmaster. Lev Isaakovich Shestov (Лев Исаакович Шестов born Yehuda Leyb Schwarzmann (Иегуда Лейб Шварцман was a Ukrainian/Russian - Jewish Some other important Russian Jews are Gennadi Sosonko (Netherlands), Anna Smashnova (Italy), Viktor Korchnoi (Switzerland) and Maya Plisetskaya (Spain). Gennadi (Gennady Genna Borisovich Sosonko (Геннадий Борисович Сосонко born 18 May 1943, Troitsk, Russia) is a Anna Smashnova (Анна Смашнова אנה סמשנובה born July 16, 1976, in Minsk, USSR, now Viktor Lvovich Korchnoi (also Korchnoy Kortchnoy Kortschnoi etc Maya Mikhailovna Plisetskaya (Майя Михайловна Плисецкая born November 20, 1925) is a retired Russian Ballet dancer
See also
- Jewish history and Jewish diaspora
- Timeline of Jewish History
- History of the Jews in Poland
- History of the Jews in Carpathian Ruthenia
- History of the Jews in Bessarabia
- Ashkenazi Jews - Lithuanian Jews - Galician Jews - Georgian Jews - Bukharan Jews - Mountain Jews
- History of antisemitism
- Sect of Skhariya the Jew
- Jews and Judaism in the Jewish Autonomous Oblast
- Jewish Cossacks
- Regional history
- List of Jews from Russia, Ukraine and Belarus
References
- ^ A. Jewish history is the History of the Jewish people, faith, and culture. The Jewish diaspora ( Hebrew: Tefutzah, "scattered" or Galut גלות "exile" Yiddish: tfutses) the presence This is a timeline of the development of Judaism and the Jewish people. The history of the Jews in Poland dates back over a Millennium. History of the Jews in Carpathian Ruthenia. Beginning of Jewish settlement in Upper Hungary Turkish occupation Data from This article is a brief outline of the history of the Bessarabian Jews. Ashkenazi Jews, also known as Ashkenazic Jews or Ashkenazim ( Hebrew: אַשְׁכֲּנָזִים, ˌaʃkəˈnazim sing Lithuanian Jews (known in Yiddish and Yeshivish as Litvish (adjective or Litvaks (noun are Ashkenazi Jews with roots in the Galician Jews or Galitzianer Jews are a subdivision of the Ashkenazim geographically originating from Galicia, from western Ukraine (current The Georgian Jews ( Georgian: ქართველი ებრაელები qartveli ebraelebi, Hebrew: יהודי גאורגיה Yehudei Bukharan Jews, also Bukharian Jews or Bukhari Jews, ( בוכרים, Bukharim) are Jews from Central Asia who speak Mountain Jews, Juvuro, Juhuro, are Jews of the eastern Caucasus, mainly of Azerbaijan and Dagestan. The history of antisemitism, hostile actions or discrimination against Jews as a religious or ethnic group goes back many centuries Skariya the Jew is also the name used by Ivan III of Muscovy to refer to Zacharias de Ghisolfi. Jewish Autonomous Oblast#Jewish settlement and development in the region The Jewish history of the Jewish Autonomous Oblast (JAO began with the early Background Of the different branches of Cossacks the only one that would allow Jews into their society were the Cossacks of History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union is covered in the following series of articles Early history Pre-Slavic inhabitants See also Steppe nomads, Scythians, Bosporan Kingdom, Khazaria In prehistoric times I. Pereswetoff-Morath, A Grin without a Cat, vol. 2: Jews and Christians in Medieval Russia – Assessing the Sources (Lund Slavonic Monographs, 5), Lund 2002
- ^ Duffy, James P. , Vincent L. Ricci, Czars: Russia's Rulers for Over One Thousand Years, p. 324
- ^ History of the national question in Russia at Russian Committee in defense of the human rights (in Russian), also in AXT: Russia and in Studies in Comparative Genocide by Levon Chorbajian (p. 237)
- ^ A History of Russia by Nicholas Riasanovsky, p. Nicholas V Riasanovsky is a professor emeritus at the University of California Berkeley and the author of numerous books on Russian History. 395
- ^ But Were They Good for the Jews? by Elliot Rosenberg, p. 183
- ^ The newest history of the Jewish people, 1789-1914 by Simon Dubnow, vol. Simon Dubnow (alternatively spelled Dubnov, Russian: Семен Маркович Дубнов September 10 1860 &ndash December 8 3, Russian ed. , p. 152
- ^ Jewish Emigration from Russia: 1880 - 1928 (Beyond the Pale)
- ^ The numbers are from Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn's 200 Years Together, citing Nahum Gergel's 1951 study of the pogroms. Aleksandr Isayevich Solzhenitsyn ( Алекса́ндр Иса́евич Солжени́цын) (December 11 1918 – August 3 2008 was a Russian Novelist Controversial and probably never existed person quoted by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn in his book Two Hundred Years Together.
- ^ Lenin's March 1919 speech On Anti-Jewish Pogroms («О погромной травле евреев»: text, audio )
- ^ "Russia". Encyclopaedia Judaica 17. Keter Publishing House Ltd. . 531-553. Retrieved on 11/5/07.
- ^ Stalin, Joseph (1913): Marxism and the National Question
- ^ OZET lottery posters and tickets featured in Swarthmore College's online exhibition "Stalin's Forgotten Zion: Birobidzhan and the Making of a Soviet Jewish Homeland. Swarthmore College is a private, independent, liberal arts college in the United States with an enrollment of about 1500 students "
- ^ (Russian) ЕВРЕЙСКАЯ СОВЕТСКАЯ КУЛЬТУРА БЫЛА ПРИГОВОРЕНА К УНИЧТОЖЕНИЮ В 1930-Е ГОДЫ (The Jewish Soviet Culture Was Doomed Since 1930s) by Nosonovski, Michael
- ^ Protest against the suppression of Hebrew in the Soviet Union 1930-1931 signed by Albert Einstein, among others
- ^ Mark Tolts: The Post-Soviet Jewish Population in Russia and the World. Published in: Jews in Russia and Eastern Europe, 2004, No. Albert Einstein ( German: ˈalbɐt ˈaɪ̯nʃtaɪ̯n; English: ˈælbɝt ˈaɪnstaɪn (14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955 was a German -born theoretical 1 (52). p. 51
- ^ Joseph Stalin. Works, Vol. 13, July 1930-January 1934, Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1955, p. 30
- ^ Draft report by the Commission for Crimes Committed by the Nazis in Kiev from February 1944. The page 14 shows changes made by G. F. Aleksandrov, head of the Propaganda and Agitation Department, Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
- ^ According to historian Gennady Kostyrchenko, recently opened Soviet archives contain evidence that the assassination was organized by L.M. Tsanava and S. Ogoltsov of the MVD
- ^ Stalin's Secret Pogrom: The Postwar Inquisition of the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee (introduction) by Joshua Rubenstein
- ^ A History of the Jews by Paul Johnson, London, 1987, p. Agitprop (агитпроп is a contraction of " agit ation and prop aganda" Paul Johnson (born Paul Bede Johnson on 2 November 1928 in Manchester, England) is a British Roman Catholic 527
- ^ UN Debate Regarding the Special Committee on Palestine: Gromyko Statement. 14 May 1947 77th Plenary Meeting Document A/2/PV. 77
- ^ History of Dissident Movement in the USSR by Ludmila Alekseyeva. Vilnius, 1992 (in Russian)
- ^ International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination. Russian Federation. 28/07/97. CERD/C/299/Add.15
- ^ Explosion of anti-Semitism in Russia Pravda, 2002-07-30, retrieved 17 Oct 2005.
- ^ Deputies Urge Ban on Jewish Organizations, Then Retract - Bigotry Monitor. Volume 5, Number 4. January 28, 2005. Published by UCSJ. Editor: Charles Fenyvesi
- ^ Prosecutor Drops Charges of Antisemitism Against Duma Deputies - Bigotry Monitor. Volume 5, Number 24. June 17, 2005. Published by UCSJ. Editor: Charles Fenyvesi
- ^ Russia to Drop Probe of Jewish Law Code Accused of Stoking Ethnic Hatred - Bigotry Monitor. Volume 5, Number 26. July 1, 2005. Published by UCSJ. Editor: Charles Fenyvesi
- ^ [1] Gidwitz, Betsy. Anti-Semitism in the Post-Soviet States. Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, No. 7. April 2003
- ^ Implemented Myth (Russian ed. : Воплощённый миф) 2003, p. 46) by Dr. Alexander Militaryov, director of Moscow Jewish University ISBN 5-8062-0068-X
- ^ Fertility behaviour of recent immigrants to Israel: A comparative analysis of immigrants from Ethiopia and the former Soviet Union
- ^ http://wsupress.wayne.edu/judaica/folklore/fialkovaesi/fialkovaINT.pdf
- ^ http://www.jafi.org.il/education/100/concepts/demography/Tolts_Article1.pdf
- ^ Monthly Bulletin of Statistics
- ^ Fertility behaviour of recent immigrants to Israel: A comparative analysis of immigrants from Ethiopia and the former Soviet Union
- ^ http://www.middle-east-info.org/league/israel/israelpopulation.pdf
- ^ http://www1.cbs.gov.il/www/population/ussrp/tab01.pdf
- ^ Monthly Bulletin of Statistics
- ^ Mmigrant Population From The Former Ussr
- ^ Sergio DellaPergola, "World Jewish Population 2002", American Jewish Year Book, 102, New York, 2002
- ^ Central Council of Jews in Germany
- ^ Foreigners in Wonderland: Jewish immigration from the former Soviet Union by Judith Kessler
- ^ (Russian) В Германии началась депопуляция еврейских общин (In Germany, Depopulation of Jewish Community Has Begun) by Pavel Polian. Pavel Markovich Polian (Павел Маркович Полян born 31 August 1952) is a Russian Geographer, Historian and Sociologist Demoscope
- ^ (Russian) Новое о еврейских иммигрантах из б. СССР в Германию. Результаты государственного обследования (New About Jewish Immigrants from FSU to Germany. ) by Pavel Polyan. Demoscope
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