A method of making astronomical observation instruments at the time of Qing Dynasty. Astronomy in China has a very long history Oracle bones from the Shang Dynasty ( 2nd millennium BC) record eclipses and novae Not to be confused with Qin Dynasty, the first dynasty of Imperial China

The history of science and technology in China is both long and rich with many contributions to science and technology. Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Technology is a broad concept that deals with a Species ' usage and knowledge of Tools and Crafts and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National In antiquity, independently of Greek philosophers and other civilizations, ancient Chinese philosophers made significant advances in science, technology, mathematics, and astronomy. A Civilization is a society in which large numbers of people share a variety of common elements China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Technology is a broad concept that deals with a Species ' usage and knowledge of Tools and Crafts and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study The first recorded observations of comets, solar eclipses, and supernovae were made in China. A comet is a small Solar System body that orbits the Sun and when close enough to the Sun exhibits a visible coma (atmosphere or a tail — A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between the Sun and the Earth so that the Sun is wholly or partially obscured A supernova (plural supernovae or supernovas) is a stellar Explosion. ^[1] Traditional Chinese medicine, acupuncture and herbal medicine were also practiced. Traditional Chinese medicine (also known as TCM,) includes a range of traditional medical practices originating in China. History Antiquity In China, the practice of acupuncture can perhaps be traced as far back as See Herbalism for the non-Chinese tradition of herbology Chinese Herbology ( is the common name for the subject of Chinese

Among the earliest inventions were the abacus, the "shadow clock," and the first flying machines such as kites and Kongming lanterns. China has been the source of some of the world's most significant Inventions, including the Four Great Inventions of ancient China: Paper, the An abacus, also called a counting frame, is a calculating tool used primarily by Asians for performing arithmetic processes A kite is a flying tethered object that depends upon the tension of a tethering system ^[2] The four Great Inventions of ancient China: the compass, gunpowder, papermaking, and printing, were among the most important technological advances, only known in Europe by the end of the Middle Ages. The Four Great Inventions of ancient China ( meaning "four great inventions" are four inventions that are celebrated in Chinese culture for their historical A compass, magnetic compass or mariner's compass is a navigational instrument for determining direction relative to the earth's Magnetic poles It consists Gunpowder is a an explosive mixture of Sulfur, Charcoal and Potassium nitrate (also known as saltpetre/saltpeter that burns rapidly producing volumes Papermaking is the process of making Paper, a material which is used ubiquitously today for writing and packaging Printing is a process for reproducing text and image typically with ink on Paper using a printing press The Tang dynasty (AD 618 - 906) in particular, was a time of great innovation. The Tang Dynasty ( Middle Chinese: dhɑng (June 18 618&ndashJune 4 907 was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by ^[2] A good deal of exchange occurred between Western and Chinese discoveries up to the Qing Dynasty. China has been the source of some of the world's most significant Inventions, including the Four Great Inventions of ancient China: Paper, the Not to be confused with Qin Dynasty, the first dynasty of Imperial China

The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries introduced Western science and astronomy, then undergoing its own revolution, to China, and knowledge of Chinese technology was brought to Europe. The history of the missions of the Jesuits in China in the early modern era stands as one of the notable events in the early history of relations between China and ^[3][4] Much of the early Western work in the history of science in China was done by Joseph Needham. Noel Joseph Terence Montgomery Needham, CH, FRS, FBA ( December 9, 1900 – March 24 1995) was a British

Early technological achievements

Remains of a Chinese crossbow, 2nd century BC. A crossbow is a Weapon consisting of a bow mounted on a stock that shoots projectiles often called bolts

Main article: List of Chinese inventions

Derived from Taoist philosophy, one of the oldest longstanding contributions of the ancient Chinese are in Traditional Chinese medicine, including acupuncture and herbal medicine. China has been the source of some of the world's most significant Inventions, including the Four Great Inventions of ancient China: Paper, the Taoism (pronounced /ˈdaʊɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊɪzəm/ also spelled '''Daoism''') refers to a variety of related Philosophical and Religious traditions Traditional Chinese medicine (also known as TCM,) includes a range of traditional medical practices originating in China. See Herbalism for the non-Chinese tradition of herbology Chinese Herbology ( is the common name for the subject of Chinese The practice of acupuncture can be traced back as far as the 1st millennium BC and some scientists believe that there is evidence that practices similar to acupuncture were used in Eurasia during the early Bronze Age. The 1st millennium BC encompasses the Iron Age and sees the rise of successive empires For the superstate in George Orwell 's novel see Nations of Nineteen Eighty-Four. The term Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced Metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use included techniques for ^[5]

The ancient Chinese also invented counting and time-keeping devices, which facilitated mathematical and astronomical observations. Shadow clocks, the forerunners of the sundial, first appeared in China about 4,000 years ago,^[2] while the abacus was invented in China sometime between 1000 BC and 500 BC. An abacus, also called a counting frame, is a calculating tool used primarily by Asians for performing arithmetic processes China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National ^[6][7] Using these the Chinese were able to record observations, documenting the first solar eclipse in 2137 BC, and making the first recording of any planetary grouping in 500 BC. ^[1] The Book of Silk was the first definitive atlas of comets, written c. The Book of Silk is an ancient Astronomy book made by Chinese astronomers around 400 BCE and found in the Mawangdui tomb of China in 1973 400 BC. It listed 29 comets (referred to as broom stars) that appeared over a period of about 300 years, with renderings of comets describing an event its appearance corresponded to. A comet is a small Solar System body that orbits the Sun and when close enough to the Sun exhibits a visible coma (atmosphere or a tail — ^[1]

In architecture, the pinnacle of Chinese technology manifested itself in the Great Wall of China, under the first Chinese Emperor Qin Shi Huang between 220 and 200 BC. The Great Wall of China ( or ( is a series of stone and earthen Fortifications in China, built rebuilt and maintained between the 6th century BC and the 16th The Emperor of China ( refers to any sovereign of Imperial China reigning since the founding of the Qin Dynasty in 221 BC until the fall of Qin Shi Huang ( (259 BC – September 10 210 BC personal name Yíng Zhèng, was king of the Chinese State of Qin from 247 BCE to 221 BCE (during the Typical Chinese architecture changed little from the succeeding Han Dynasty until the 19th century. The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. ^[8] The Qin Dynasty also developed the crossbow, which later became the mainstream weapon in Europe. Not to be confused with the Qing Dynasty, the last dynasty of China Several remains of crossbows have been found among the soldiers of the Terracotta Army in the tomb of Qin Shi Huang. The Terracotta Army ( are the Terracotta Warriors and Horses of Qin Shi Huang the First Emperor of China. ^[9]

The Eastern Han Dynasty scholar and astronomer Zhang Heng (78-139 AD) invented the first water-powered rotating armillary sphere (the first armillary sphere having been invented by the Greek Eratosthenes), and catalogued 2500 stars and over 100 constellations. The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. Zhang Heng ( (CE 78–139 was an astronomer, mathematician, inventor, geographer, cartographer, artist, poet The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca Eratosthenes of Cyrene ( Greek; 276 BC - 194 BC was a Greek Mathematician, Poet, athlete, Geographer and In 132, he invented the first seismological detector, called the "Houfeng Didong Yi" ("Instrument for inquiring into the wind and the shaking of the earth"). Seismometers (from Greek Seism - "the shakes" - and Metro - "I measure" are instruments that measure and record motions of the ground including ^[10] According to the History of Later Han Dynasty (25-220 AD), this seismograph was an urn-like instrument, which would drop one of eight balls to indicate when and in which direction an earthquake had occurred. ^[10] On June 13, 2005, Chinese seismologists announced that they had created a replica of the instrument. Events 1525 - Martin Luther marries Katharina von Bora, against the Celibacy rule decreed by the Roman Catholic Church for Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Seismology (from Greek grc σεισμός seismos, "earthquake" and grc -λογία -logia) is the scientific study of Earthquakes ^[10]

The mechanical engineer Ma Jun (c. Ma Jun (fl 220&ndash265 styled Deheng (徳衡 was a Chinese Mechanical Engineer and government official during the Three Kingdoms 200-265 AD) was another impressive figure from ancient China. Ma Jun improved the design of the silk loom,^[11] designed mechanical chain pumps to irrigate palatial gardens,^[11] and created a large and intricate mechanical puppet theatre for Emperor Ming of Wei, which was operated by a large hidden waterwheel. A loom is a Machine or device for Weaving thread or Yarn into Textiles Looms can range from very small hand-held frames to large free-standing The chain pump is a type of water Pump where an endless chain has positioned on it a series of circular discs Irrigation is an artificial application of water to the soil usually for assisting in growing crops A puppet is a representational figure manipulated by a Puppeteer. Theatre (or theater, see spelling differences) is the branch of the Performing arts defined by Bernard Beckerman as what "occurs when one Cao Rui ( 205 - 22 January 239) was the son of Cao Pi and the second emperor of the Cao Wei. A water wheel is a means of extracting power from the flow (or fall of water otherwise known as Hydropower. ^[12] However, Ma Jun's most impressive invention was the South Pointing Chariot, a complex mechanical device that acted as a mechanical compass vehicle. The South Pointing Chariot is widely regarded as one of the most complex Geared mechanism of the ancient Chinese civilization, and was continually used throughout the A compass, magnetic compass or mariner's compass is a navigational instrument for determining direction relative to the earth's Magnetic poles It consists It incorporated the use of a differential gear in order to apply equal amount of torque to wheels rotating at different speeds, a device that is found in all modern automobiles. This article deals with the concept of a differential in mechanical engineering. A torque (τ in Physics, also called a moment (of force is a pseudo- vector that measures the tendency of a force to rotate an object about ^[13]

Sliding calipers were invented in China almost 2,000 years ago. A caliper ( British spelling also calliper) is a device used to measure the distance between two symmetrically opposing sides ^[2] The Chinese civilisation was the earliest civilisation to experiment successfully with aviation, with the kite and Kongming lantern (proto Hot air balloon) being the first flying machines. Aviation refers to activities involving man-made flying devices ( Aircraft) including the people organizations and regulatory bodies involved with them A kite is a flying tethered object that depends upon the tension of a tethering system The hot air balloon is the oldest successful human-carrying Flight technology

Four Great Inventions of ancient China

The intricate frontispiece of the Diamond Sutra from Tang Dynasty China, 868 AD (British Library)

Main article: Four Great Inventions of ancient China

The "Four Great Inventions of ancient China" (traditional Chinese: 四大發明; simplified Chinese: 四大发明; pinyin: sì dà fāmíng) are the compass, gunpowder, papermaking, and printing. The Tang Dynasty ( Middle Chinese: dhɑng (June 18 618&ndashJune 4 907 was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by The British Library ( BL) is the National library of the United Kingdom. The Four Great Inventions of ancient China ( meaning "four great inventions" are four inventions that are celebrated in Chinese culture for their historical The Four Great Inventions of ancient China ( meaning "four great inventions" are four inventions that are celebrated in Chinese culture for their historical Pinyin, more formally Hanyu pinyin, is the most common Standard Mandarin Romanization system in use A compass, magnetic compass or mariner's compass is a navigational instrument for determining direction relative to the earth's Magnetic poles It consists Gunpowder is a an explosive mixture of Sulfur, Charcoal and Potassium nitrate (also known as saltpetre/saltpeter that burns rapidly producing volumes Papermaking is the process of making Paper, a material which is used ubiquitously today for writing and packaging Printing is a process for reproducing text and image typically with ink on Paper using a printing press Paper and printing were developed first. Printing was recorded in China in the Tang Dynasty, although the earliest surviving examples of printed cloth patterns date to before 220. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The Tang Dynasty ( Middle Chinese: dhɑng (June 18 618&ndashJune 4 907 was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by ^[14] Pin-pointing the development of the compass can be difficult: the magnetic attraction of a needle is attested by the Louen-heng, composed between AD 20 and 100,^[15] although the first undisputed magnetized needles in Chinese literature appear in 1086. Chinese literature extends back thousands of years from the earliest recorded dynastic court Archives to the mature fictional Novel that arose during the Ming Dynasty ^[16]

By AD 300, Ge Hong, an alchemist of the Jin Dynasty, conclusively recorded the chemical reactions caused when saltpetre, pine resin and charcoal were heated together, in Book of the Master of the Preservations of Solidarity. Alchemy a part of the Occult Tradition is both a philosophy and a practice with an ultimately unknown aim involving the improvement of the alchemist as well as the making of The Jìn Dynasty ( 265 – 420) one of the Six Dynasties, followed the Three Kingdoms period and preceded the Southern and Northern Dynasties ^[17] Another early record of gunpowder, a Chinese book from c. 850 AD, indicates that gunpowder was a byproduct of Taoist alchemical efforts to develop an elixir of immortality:^[18]

"Some have heated together sulfur, realgar and saltpeter with honey; smoke and flames result, so that their hands and faces have been burnt, and even the whole house where they were working burned down. Taoism (pronounced /ˈdaʊɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊɪzəm/ also spelled '''Daoism''') refers to a variety of related Philosophical and Religious traditions Alchemy a part of the Occult Tradition is both a philosophy and a practice with an ultimately unknown aim involving the improvement of the alchemist as well as the making of The elixir of life, from Arabic الإكسير also known as the elixir of immortality or Dancing Water or Persian: Aab-e-Hayaat آب حیات Sulfur or sulphur (ˈsʌlfɚ see spelling below) is the Chemical element that has the Atomic number 16 Realgar, α -As4S4 is an Arsenic Sulfide mineral It is a soft sectile mineral occurring in Monoclinic crystals or in Potassium nitrate is a Chemical compound with the Chemical formula K[[Nitrogen N]] O 3 Honey is a sweet and Viscous fluid produced by Honey bees (and some other species and derived from the nectar of Flowers According to the "^[19]

These four discoveries had an enormous impact on the development of Chinese civilization and a far-ranging global impact. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Gunpowder, for example, spread to the Arabs in the 13th century and thence to Europe. ^[20] According to English philosopher Francis Bacon, writing in Novum Organum:

"Printing, gunpowder and the compass: These three have changed the whole face and state of things throughout the world; the first in literature, the second in warfare, the third in navigation; whence have followed innumerable changes, in so much that no empire, no sect, no star seems to have exerted greater power and influence in human affairs than these mechanical discoveries. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Francis Bacon 1st Viscount St Alban KC QC (22 January 1561 – 9 April 1626 was an English Philosopher, Statesman, and author The Novum Organum is a philosophical work by Francis Bacon published in 1620. Literature is the Art of written works Literally translated the word means "acquaintance with letters" (from Latin littera letter War is an international relations Dispute, characterized by organized Violence between National Military units Navigation is the process of reading and controlling the movement of a craft or vehicle from one place to another " ^[21]

One of the most important military treatises of all Chinese history was the Huo Long Jing written by Jiao Yu in the 14th century. Jiao Yu ( Traditional and Simplified Chinese: 焦玉 Wade-Giles: Chiao Yü, Hanyu Pinyin: Jiāo Yù) was a Chinese For gunpowder weapons, it outlined the use of fire arrows and rockets, fire lances and firearms, land mines and naval mines, bombards and cannons, along with different compositions of gunpowder, including 'magic gunpowder', 'poisonous gunpowder', and 'blinding and burning gunpowder' (refer to his article). The Fire Arrow is a projectile weapon that uses Black powder. A rocket or rocket vehicle is a Missile, Aircraft or other Vehicle which obtains Thrust by the reaction of the The fire lance ( or fire spear is one of the first gunpowder weapons in the world A firearm is a Tool that projects either single or multiple Projectiles at high velocity through a controlled explosion A land mine is an Explosive device designed to be placed on or in the ground to explode when triggered by an operator or the Proximity of a vehicle person A naval mine is a self-contained Explosive device placed in water to destroy Ships or Submarines Unlike Depth charges mines are deposited | NOTE Throughout this article "cannon" is used as BOTH the || singular and plural

For the 11th century invention of ceramic movable type printing by Bi Sheng (990-1051), it was enhanced by the wooden movable type of Wang Zhen in 1298 and the bronze metal movable type of Hua Sui in 1490. Movable type is the system of Printing and Typography that uses movable components to reproduce the elements of a document (usually individual letters or punctuation Bì Shēng ( 990-1051 AD was the inventor of the first known Movable type Printing system This article is about Wang Zhen agronomist and inventor For other historical figures with this name see Wang Zhen (disambiguation. Hua Sui ( Traditional Chinese: 華燧 Simplified Chinese:华燧 Hanyu Pinyin: Huá Suì (1439-1513 AD was a Chinese Scholar and

Middle Ages

Ships of the world in 1460 (Fra Mauro map). The Fra Mauro map, "considered the greatest memorial of medieval cartography" according to Roberto Almagià is a map made around 1450 by the Venetian monk Chinese junks are described as very large, three or four-masted ships. -HK CityHall Seaview 51217 5png|thumb|300px|A modern junk in Hong Kong]]A junk is a Chinese sailing vessel.

Among the scientific accomplishments of early China were matches, dry docks, the double-action piston pump, cast iron, the iron plough, the horse collar, the multi-tube seed drill, the wheelbarrow, the suspension bridge, the parachute, natural gas as fuel, the raised-relief map, the propeller, the sluice gate, and the pound lock. A match is a consumable Tool for lighting a Fire under controlled circumstances on demand A drydock is a narrow basin or vessel that can be flooded to allow a load to be floated in then drained to allow that load to come to rest on a dry platform A piston is a component of Reciprocating engines Pumps and Gas compressors It is located in a cylinder and is made gas-tight by Piston Cast iron usually refers to grey cast iron, but identifies a large group of Ferrous Alloys which solidify with a Eutectic. Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 The plough ( American spelling plow; both plaʊ is a Tool used in Farming for initial cultivation of soil in preparation for sowing seed A horse collar is a part of a Horse harness device used to distribute load around a Horse 's neck and shoulders when pulling a wagon or plow A seed drill is a device for planting Seeds in the soil Before the introduction of the seed drill the common practice was to "broadcast" seeds by hand A wheelbarrow is a small hand-propelled vehicle usually with just one Wheel, designed to be pushed and guided by a single person using two handles to the rear or a sail This article is concerned with a particular type of suspension bridge the suspended-deck type A parachute is a device used to slow the motion of an object through an atmosphere by creating drag. Natural gas is a Gaseous Fossil fuel consisting primarily of Methane but including significant quantities of Ethane, Propane, A raised-relief map or terrain model is a three-dimensional representation usually of terrain A propeller is essentially a type of fan which transmits power by converting Rotational motion into Thrust for propulsion of a vehicle such as an A sluice is a water channel that is controlled at its head by a gate A pound lock is type of lock that is used almost exclusively nowadays on Canals and Rivers A pound lock has a chamber (the pound) with The Tang Dynasty (618 - 906 AD) in particular was a time of great innovation. The Tang Dynasty ( Middle Chinese: dhɑng (June 18 618&ndashJune 4 907 was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by ^[2]

In the 7th century, book-printing was developed in China and Japan, using delicate hand-carved wooden blocks to print individual pages. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. ^[2] The 9th century Diamond Sutra is the earliest known printed document. The Diamond Sutra is a short Mahayana Sutra of the Perfection of Wisdom genre which teaches the practice of the avoidance of abiding in extremes ^[2] Movable type was also used in China for a time, but was abandoned because of the number of characters needed; it would not be until Gutenburg that the technique was reinvented in a suitable environment. ^[2]

In addition to gunpowder, the Chinese also developed improved delivery systems for the Byzantine weapon of Greek fire, Meng Huo You and Pen Huo Qi first used in China c. Greek fire was a burning-liquid weapon used by the Byzantine Empire. Meng Huo You ( is the name given to Petroleum in Ancient China, which practiced the use of petroleum as an Incendiary weapon in warfare The Pen Huo Qi is a double-piston pump Naphtha Flamethrower used in 919 in China during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period 900. ^[22] Chinese illustrations were more realistic than in Byzantine manuscripts,^[22] and detailed accounts from 1044 recommending its use on city walls and ramparts show the brass container as fitted with a horizontal pump, and a nozzle of small diameter. ^[22] The records of a battle on the Yangtze near Nanjing in 975 offer an insight into the dangers of the weapon, as a change of wind direction blew the fire back onto the Song forces. ( Chinese: 南京 Romanizations Nánjīng ( Pinyin) Nan-ching ( Wade-Giles ^[22]

Song Dynasty

Main article: Technology of the Song Dynasty

The Song Dynasty (960-1279) brought a new stability for China after a century of civil war, and started a new area of modernisation by encouraging examinations and meritocracy. The Song Dynasty (宋朝 960–1279 CE provided some of the most significant technological advances in Chinese history, many of which came from talented statesmen The Song Dynasty ( Wade-Giles: Sung Ch'ao was a ruling dynasty in China between 960&ndash1279 CE it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Meritocracy is a system of a government or another organization wherein Appointments are made and responsibilities are given based on demonstrated talent and Ability The first Song Emperor created political institutions that allowed a great deal of freedom of discourse and thought, which facilitated the growth of scientific advance, economic reforms, and achievements in arts and literature. Ancestry and early life His family was of fairly modest origins and cannot be traced back with certainty further than the late Tang dynasty. The history of Science and Technology in China is both long and rich with many contributions to science and technology ^[23] Trade flourished both within China and overseas, and the encouragement of technology allowed the mints at Kaifeng and Hangzhou to gradually increase in production. Kaifeng ( formerly known as Bianliang ( Bianjing ( Daliang ( or simply Liang ( is a Prefecture-level city in eastern ( Postal map spelling: Hangchow) is a Sub-provincial city located in the Yangtze River Delta in the People's Republic of China, ^[23] In 1080, the mints of Emperor Shenzong were produced 5 billion coins (roughly 50 per Chinese citizen), and the first banknotes were produced in 1023. Shenzong is the Temple name of several Chinese emperors It may refer to Emperor Shenzong of Song China (reign 1067-1085 Wanli ^[23] These coins were so durable that they would still be in use 700 years later, in the 18th century. ^[23]

There were many famous inventors and early scientists in the Song Dynasty period. The statesman Shen Kuo is best known for his book known as the Dream Pool Essays (1088 AD). Shen Kuo or Shen Kua ( (1031&ndash1095 style name Cunzhong and pseudonym Mengqi Weng, was a Polymathic Chinese The Dream Pool Essays ( Pinyin: Meng Xi Bi Tan; Wade-Giles: Meng Ch'i Pi T'an Chinese: 夢溪筆談／梦溪笔谈 In it, he wrote of use for a drydock to repair boats, the navigational magnetic compass, and the discovery of the concept of true north (with magnetic declination towards the North Pole). A drydock is a narrow basin or vessel that can be flooded to allow a load to be floated in then drained to allow that load to come to rest on a dry platform A compass, magnetic compass or mariner's compass is a navigational instrument for determining direction relative to the earth's Magnetic poles It consists noted by the Chinese Polymath Shen Kuo in the 11th century and possibly the egyptians over 6 millenia ago The North Pole, also known as the Geographic North Pole or Terrestrial North Pole, is subject to the caveats explained below defined as the point in the northern Shen Kuo also devised a geological theory for land formation, or geomorphology, and theorized that there was climate change in geological regions over an enormous span of time. Geomorphology (from Greek: γη ge, "earth" μορφή morfé, "form" and λόγος Logos, "knowledge" Climate change is any long-term significant change in the “average weather” that a given region experiences

The equally talented statesman Su Song was best known for his engineering project of the Astronomical Clock Tower of Kaifeng, by 1088 AD. Su Song ( style name: Zirong 子容 (1020&ndash1101 AD was a renowned Chinese statesman, astronomer, cartographer, Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study A clock tower is a Tower built with one or more (often four Clock faces. Kaifeng ( formerly known as Bianliang ( Bianjing ( Daliang ( or simply Liang ( is a Prefecture-level city in eastern The clock tower was driven by a rotating waterwheel and escapement mechanism, the latter of which did not appear in clockworks of Europe until two centuries later. In Mechanical watches and Clocks an escapement is a device which converts continuous rotational motion into an oscillating or back and forth motion Circadian Locomotor Output Cycles Kaput, or Clock is a gene which encodes proteins regulating Circadian rhythm. Crowning the top of the clock tower was the large bronze, mechanically-driven, rotating armillary sphere. In 1070, Su Song also compiled the Ben Cao Tu Jing (Illustrated Pharmacopoeia, original source material from 1058 – 1061 AD) with a team of scholars. This pharmaceutical treatise covered a wide range of other related subjects, including botany, zoology, mineralogy, and metallurgy. Botany, plant science(s, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of Biology and is the scientific study of plant Life Zoology (from Greek ζῷον, zoon, "animal" + λόγος, " Logos " "knowledge" is the branch of Mineralogy is an Earth Science focused around the Chemistry, Crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of Minerals Metallurgy is a domain of Materials science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds, and their

Chinese astronomers were the first to record observations of a supernova, the first being the SN 185, recorded during the Han Dynasty. Astronomy in China has a very long history Oracle bones from the Shang Dynasty ( 2nd millennium BC) record eclipses and novae A supernova (plural supernovae or supernovas) is a stellar Explosion. SN 185 was a Supernova which appeared in the year 185 near the direction of Alpha Centauri, between the constellations Circinus and Centaurus The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. Chinese astronomers made two more notable supernova observations during the Song Dynasty: the SN 1006, the brightest recorded supernova in history; and the SN 1054, making the Crab Nebula the first astronomical object recognized as being connected to a supernova explosion. SN 1006 was a Supernova, widely seen on Earth beginning in the year 1006 CE Earth was about 7200 light-years away from the supernova SN 1054 (Crab Supernova was a Supernova that was widely seen on Earth in the year 1054 The Crab Nebula  (catalogue designations M 1 NGC 1952 Taurus A is a Supernova remnant and Pulsar wind nebula in the Constellation ^[24]

Archaeology

During the early half of the Song Dynasty (960–1279), the study of archaeology developed out of the antiquarian interests of the educated gentry and their desire to revive the use of ancient vessels in state rituals and ceremonies. The Song Dynasty ( Wade-Giles: Sung Ch'ao was a ruling dynasty in China between 960&ndash1279 CE it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from Greek grc ἀρχαιολογία archaiologia – grc ἀρχαῖος archaīos An antiquarian or antiquary is one concerned with Antiquities or things of the past In imperial China, Gentry were the class of landowners who were retired mandarins or their descendants ^[25] This and the belief that ancient vessels were products of 'sages' and not common people was criticized by Shen Kuo, who took an interdisciplinary approach to archaeology, incorporating his archaeological findings into studies on metallurgy, optics, astronomy, geometry, and ancient music measures. In Academia, Pedagogy, Physical sciences, Earth sciences, Human sciences and Social sciences In Musical notation, a bar or measure is a segment of time defined as a given number of beats of a given duration ^[25] His contemporary Ouyang Xiu (1007–1072) compiled an analytical catalogue of ancient rubbings on stone and bronze, which Patricia B. Early life He was born in Mingyang, Sichuan where his father was a judge though his family comes from present day Jishui (then known as Luling Ebrey says pioneered ideas in early epigraphy and archaeology. Epigraphy (ἐπιγραφολογία from Greek ἐπιγραφή — "inscription" is the study of inscriptions or epigraphs engraved ^[26] In accordance with the beliefs of the later Leopold von Ranke (1795–1886), some Song gentry—such as Zhao Mingcheng (1081–1129)—supported the primacy of contemporaneous archaeological finds of ancient inscriptions over historical works written after the fact, which they contested to be unreliable in regards to the former evidence. Leopold von Ranke ( December 21, 1795 – May 23, 1886) was a German Historian of the 19th century and frequently considered ^[27] Hong Mai (1123–1202) used ancient Han Dynasty era vessels to debunk what he found to be fallacious descriptions of Han vessels in the Bogutu archaeological catalogue compiled during the latter half of Huizong's reign (1100–1125). Emperor Huizong ( November 2, 1082 – June 4, 1135) was the eighth and one of the most famous emperors of the Song Dynasty of ^[27]

Geology and climatology

In addition to his studies in meteorology, astronomy, and archaeology mentioned above, Shen Kuo also made hypotheses in regards to geology and climatology in his Dream Pool Essays of 1088, specifically his claims regarding geomorphology and climate change. Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit Climatology (from Greek grc κλίμα klima, "region zone" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of Climate, scientifically The Dream Pool Essays ( Pinyin: Meng Xi Bi Tan; Wade-Giles: Meng Ch'i Pi T'an Chinese: 夢溪筆談／梦溪笔谈 Geomorphology (from Greek: γη ge, "earth" μορφή morfé, "form" and λόγος Logos, "knowledge" Climate change is any long-term significant change in the “average weather” that a given region experiences Shen believed that land was reshaped over time due to perpetual erosion, uplift, and deposition of silt, and cited his observance of horizontal strata of fossils embedded in a cliffside at Taihang as evidence that the area was once the location of an ancient seashore that had shifted hundreds of miles east over an enormous span of time. Erosion is the carrying away or displacement of solids ( Sediment, Soil, rock and other particles usually by the agents of currents such as wind Silt is Soil or rock derived Granular material of a Grain size between sand and clay The Taihang Mountains ( are a Chinese Mountain range running down the eastern edge of the Loess Plateau in Henan, Shanxi and Hebei ^[28][29][30] Shen also wrote that since petrified bamboos were found underground in a dry northern climate zone where they had never been known to grow, climates naturally shifted geographically over time. ^[30]

Mongol transmission

Mongol rule under the Yuan Dynasty saw technological advances from an economic perspective, with the first mass production of paper banknotes by Kublai Khan in the 13th century. The Mongol Empire ( Mongolyn Ezent Güren or mn Их Mонгол улс Ikh Mongol Uls; 1206–1368 was the largest contiguous Empire The Yuan Dynasty ( Pinyin: Yuáncháo Dai Ön Ulus (Дай Юан Улс was a ruling Dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai A banknote (often known as a bill, paper money or simply a note) is a kind of Negotiable instrument, a Promissory note made by a Early years Kublai Khan studied Chinese culture and became enamoured of it ^[2] Numerous contacts between Europe and the Mongols occurred in the 13th century, particularly through the unstable Franco-Mongol alliance. Many attempts were made towards forming a Franco-Mongol alliance between the mid-13th and early 14th centuries starting around the time of the Seventh Crusade. Chinese corps, expert in siege warfare, formed an integral part of the Mongol armies campaigning in the West. In 1259-1260 military alliance of the Franks knights of the ruler of Antioch, Bohemond VI and his father-in-law Hetoum I with the Mongols under Hulagu, in which they fought together for the conquests of Muslim Syria, taking together the city of Aleppo, and later Damascus. Antioch on the Orontes (Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Δάφνῃ Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου or Ἀντιόχεια ἡ Μεγάλη Antiochia ad Orontem also Bohemond VI of Antioch (ca 1237 &ndash 1275 called the Fair ( le Beau) was the Prince of Antioch and Count of Tripoli from 1251 until his death Hetoum I (also Transliterated Hethoum, Hethum, Het'um, or Hayton from Armenian This article is about the founder of the Ilkhanate For the head of the Chagatai khanate please see Qara Hülëgü Hulagu Khan, also known as Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية For other meanings see Aleppo (disambiguation. Halab redirects here for other meanings see Halab (disambiguation. Damascus ( دمشق,, also commonly known as الشام ash-Shām) is the capital and largest city of Syria. ^[31] William of Rubruck, an ambassador to the Mongols in 1254-1255, a personal friend of Roger Bacon, is also often designated as a possible intermediary in the transmission of gunpowder know-how between the East and the West. William of Rubruck (c 1220 in Rubrouck Flanders - c 1293 was a Flemish Franciscan missionary and explorer For the Nova Scotia premier see Roger Bacon (politician. Roger Bacon, O Gunpowder is a an explosive mixture of Sulfur, Charcoal and Potassium nitrate (also known as saltpetre/saltpeter that burns rapidly producing volumes ^[32] The compass is often said to have been introduced by the Master of the Knights Templar Pierre de Montaigu between 1219 to 1223, from one of his travels to visit the Mongols in Persia. A compass, magnetic compass or mariner's compass is a navigational instrument for determining direction relative to the earth's Magnetic poles It consists The Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon (Pauperes commilitones Christi Templique Solomonici commonly known as the Knights Templar or the Order Pedro de Montaigu was Grand Master of the Knights Templar from 1218 to 1232. The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia ^[33]

Chinese and Arabic astronomy intermingled under Mongol. Astronomy in China has a very long history Oracle bones from the Shang Dynasty ( 2nd millennium BC) record eclipses and novae Muslim astronomers worked in the Chinese astronomical bureau established by Kublai Khan, while some Chinese astronomers also worked at the Persian Maragha observatory. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion See Also Persian Empire History of Iran and Greater Iran (also referred to as the " Iranian Cultural Continent Maragheh observatory ( Persian:رصدخانه مراغه Rasad Khaneh) is an Ancient Observatory, which was established in 1259 by ^[34] (Before this, in ancient times, Indian astronomers had lent their expertise to the Chinese court. Indian astronomy —the earliest textual mention of which is given in the religious literature of India (2nd millennium BCE—became an established tradition by the 1st millennium BCE [3])

Theory and hypothesis

A 1726 illustration of The Sea Island Mathematical Manual, written by Liu Hui in the 3rd century. The Sea Island Mathematical Manual or Haidao suanjing (海岛算经 was written by the Chinese mathematican Liu Hui of the Three Kingdoms Liu Hui ( fl 3rd century) was a Chinese Mathematician who lived in the Wei Kingdom.

As Toby E. Huff notes, pre-modern Chinese science developed precariously without solid scientific theory, while there was a lacking of consistent systemic treatment in comparison to contemporaneous European works such as the Concordance and Discordant Canons by Gratian of Bologna (fl. The word theory has many distinct meanings in different fields of Knowledge, depending on their methodologies and the context of discussion. Gratian, was a 12th century canon lawyer from Bologna. He is sometimes wrongly referred to as Franciscus Gratianus, or Johannes Gratianus, or Bologna (boloɲa from Latin Bononia, Bulåggna in Bolognese dialect is the capital city of Emilia-Romagna in northern Italy 12th century). ^[35] This drawback to Chinese science was lamented even by the mathematician Yang Hui (1238–1298), who criticized earlier mathematicians such as Li Chunfeng (602–670) who were content with using methods without working out their theoretical origins or principle, stating:

The men of old changed the name of their methods from problem to problem, so that as no specific explanation was given, there is no way of telling their theoretical origin or basis. Yang Hui ( ca 1238–1298 Courtesy name Qianguang (谦光 was a Chinese Mathematician from Qiantang (modern Hangzhou Li Chunfeng ( 602–670 was a Chinese mathematician, Astronomer, and Historian who was born in today's Baoji Shaanxi during the Sui ^[36]

Despite this, Chinese thinkers of the Middle Ages proposed some hypotheses which are in accordance with modern principles of science. Yang Hui provided theoretical proof for the proposition that the complements of the parallelograms which are about the diameter of any given parallelogram are equal to one another. In Geometry, a parallelogram is a Quadrilateral with two sets of Parallel sides ^[36] Sun Sikong (1015–1076) proposed the idea that rainbows were the result of the contact between sunlight and moisture in the air, while Shen Kuo (1031–1095) expanded upon this with description of atmospheric refraction. A rainbow is an optical and meteorological phenomenon that causes a spectrum of Light to appear in the Sky when the Sun Shen Kuo or Shen Kua ( (1031&ndash1095 style name Cunzhong and pseudonym Mengqi Weng, was a Polymathic Chinese Atmospheric Refraction is the deviation of Light or other Electromagnetic wave from a straight line as it passes through the atmosphere due to the ^[37][38][39] Shen believed that rays of sunlight refracted before reaching the surface of the earth, hence the appearance of the observed sun from earth did not match its exact location. ^[39] Coinciding with the astronomical work of his colleague Wei Pu, Shen and Wei realized that the old calculation technique for the mean sun was inaccurate compared to the apparent sun, since the latter was ahead of it in the accelerated phase of motion, and behind it in the retarded phase. Wei Pu (衛朴 Wade-Giles: Wei P'u) was an 11th century Chinese Astronomer of the Song Dynasty ( 960 - 1279 AD Direct motion is the motion of a Planetary body in a direction similar to that of other bodies within its system and is sometimes called prograde motion. ^[40] Shen supported and expanded upon beliefs earlier proposed by Han Dynasty (202 BCE–202 CE) scholars such as Jing Fang (78–37 BCE) and Zhang Heng (78–139 CE) that lunar eclipse occurs when the earth obstructs the sunlight traveling towards the moon, a solar eclipse is the moon's obstruction of sunlight reaching earth, the moon is spherical like a ball and not flat like a disc, and moonlight is merely sunlight reflected from the moon's surface. The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. Jing Fang ( 78&ndash37 BC born Li Fang (李房 Courtesy name Junming (君明 was a Chinese music theorist, Mathematician Zhang Heng ( (CE 78–139 was an astronomer, mathematician, inventor, geographer, cartographer, artist, poet A lunar eclipse occurs whenever the Moon passes through some portion of the Earth's shadow A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between the Sun and the Earth so that the Sun is wholly or partially obscured ^[41] Shen also explained that the observance of a full moon occurred when the sun's light was slanting at a certain degree and that cresent phases of the moon proved that the moon was spherical, using a metaphor of observing different angles of a silver ball with white powder thrown onto one side. Lunar phase (or Moon phase refers to the appearance of the illuminated portion of the Moon as seen by an observer usually on Earth ^[42][43] It should be noted that, although the Chinese accepted the idea of spherical-shaped heavenly bodies, the concept of a spherical earth (as opposed to a flat earth) was not accepted in Chinese thought until the works of Italian Jesuit Matteo Ricci (1552–1610) and Chinese astronomer Xu Guangqi (1562–1633) in the early 17th century. The concept of a spherical Earth dates back to around the 6th century BC in ancient Greek philosophy and possibly ancient Indian philosophy. The idea of a flat Earth is the idea that the surface of the Earth is flat (a plane) rather than the view that it is a very close approximation of Matteo Ricci SJ ( October 6 1552 &ndash May 11 1610;; Courtesy name: 西泰 Xītài was an Italian Jesuit priest Xu Guangqi ( 1562–1633 Courtesy name Zixian (子先 was a Chinese bureaucrat agricultural scientist astronomer and mathematician in the Ming Dynasty ^[44]

Pharmacology

Main article: Traditional Chinese medicine

See also: Classical Chinese Medicine

There were noted advances in Traditional Chinese medicine during the Middle Ages. Traditional Chinese medicine (also known as TCM,) includes a range of traditional medical practices originating in China. Classical Chinese medicine (CCM is notably different from Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM Traditional Chinese medicine (also known as TCM,) includes a range of traditional medical practices originating in China. Emperor Gaozong (r. Background and life as Prince of Jin Li Zhi was born in 628 He was the ninth son of his father Emperor Taizong, and the third son of his mother Emperor Taizong's wife 649–683) of the Tang Dynasty (618–907) commissioned the scholarly compilation of a materia medica in 657 that documented 833 medicinal substances taken from stones, minerals, metals, plants, herbs, animals, vegetables, fruits, and cereal crops. The Tang Dynasty ( Middle Chinese: dhɑng (June 18 618&ndashJune 4 907 was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by Materia medica is a Latin medical term for the body of collected knowledge about the therapeutic properties of any substance used for healing ^[45] In his Bencao Tujing ('Illustrated Pharmacopoeia'), the scholar-official Su Song (1020–1101) not only systematically categorized herbs and minerals according to their pharmaceutical uses, but he also took an interest in zoology. Su Song ( style name: Zirong 子容 (1020&ndash1101 AD was a renowned Chinese statesman, astronomer, cartographer, Botany, plant science(s, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of Biology and is the scientific study of plant Life Mineralogy is an Earth Science focused around the Chemistry, Crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of Minerals Zoology (from Greek ζῷον, zoon, "animal" + λόγος, " Logos " "knowledge" is the branch of ^{[46][47][48][49]} For example, Su made systematic descriptions of animal species and the environmental regions they could be found, such as the freshwater crab Eriocher sinensis found in the Huai River running through Anhui, in waterways near the capital city, as well as reservoirs and marshes of Hebei. Crabs are decapod Crustaceans of the infraorder Brachyura, which typically have a very short projecting "tail" (βραχύ / brachy The Huai River ( is a major river in China. The Huai River is located about mid-way between the Yellow River and Yangtze River, the two largest rivers Anhui (in Chinese: 安徽 Ānhuī) is a province of the People's Republic of China. Kaifeng ( formerly known as Bianliang ( Bianjing ( Daliang ( or simply Liang ( is a Prefecture-level city in eastern ( Postal map spelling: Hopeh) is a northern province of the People's Republic of China. ^[50]

Horology and clockworks

Although the Bencao Tujing was an important pharmaceutical work of the age, Su Song is perhaps better known for his work in horology. Horology (from Greek ώρα, "hour time" and λόγος Logos, "study speech" lit His book Xinyi Xiangfayao (新儀象法要; lit. 'Essentials of a New Method for Mechanizing the Rotation of an Armillary Sphere and a Celestial Globe') documented the intricate mechanics of his astronomical clock tower in Kaifeng. An astronomical clock is a Clock with special Mechanisms and Dials to display Astronomical information such as the relative positions of Kaifeng ( formerly known as Bianliang ( Bianjing ( Daliang ( or simply Liang ( is a Prefecture-level city in eastern This included the use of an escapement mechanism and world's first known chain drive to power the rotating armillary sphere crowning the top as well as the 133 clock jack figurines positioned on a rotating wheel that sounded the hours by banging drums, clashing gongs, striking bells, and holding plaques with special announcements appearing from open-and-close shutter windows. In Mechanical watches and Clocks an escapement is a device which converts continuous rotational motion into an oscillating or back and forth motion Chain drive is a way of transmitting mechanical power from one place to another A striking clock is a Clock that sounds the Hours audibly on a bell or Gong. ^{[51][52][53][54]} While it had been Zhang Heng who applied the first motive power to the armillary sphere via hydraulics in 125 CE,^[55][56] it was Yi Xing (683–727) in 725 CE who first applied an escapement mechanism to a water-powered celestial globe and stiking clock. In Thermodynamics, motive power is an agency as Water or Steam, used to impart motion. For the mechanical technology see Hydraulic machinery and Hydraulic cylinder Hydraulics is a topic of science and Engineering Yi Xing ( 683–727 born Zhang Sui (张遂 was a Chinese Astronomer, Mathematician, mechanical engineer, and Buddhist monk ^[57] The early Song Dynasty horologist Zhang Sixun (fl. Zhang Sixun ( fl 10th century was a Chinese Astronomer and Military engineer from Bazhong Sichuan during the early late 10th century) employed liquid mercury in his astronomical clock because there were complaints that water would freeze too easily in the clepsydra tanks during winter. Mercury (ˈmɜrkjʊri also called quicksilver or hydrargyrum, is a Chemical element with the symbol Hg ( Latinized hydrargyrum ^[58]

Magnetism and metallurgy

Shen Kuo's written work of 1088 also contains the first written description of the magnetic needle compass, the first description in China of experiments with camera obscura, the invention of movable type printing by the artisan Bi Sheng (990–1051), a method of repeated forging of cast iron under a cold blast similar to the modern Bessemer process, and the mathematical basis for spherical trigonometry that would later be mastered by the astronomer and engineer Guo Shoujing (1231–1316). A compass, magnetic compass or mariner's compass is a navigational instrument for determining direction relative to the earth's Magnetic poles It consists The camera obscura (Latin dark chamber) is an optical device used for example in drawing or for entertainment Movable type is the system of Printing and Typography that uses movable components to reproduce the elements of a document (usually individual letters or punctuation Bì Shēng ( 990-1051 AD was the inventor of the first known Movable type Printing system Cast iron usually refers to grey cast iron, but identifies a large group of Ferrous Alloys which solidify with a Eutectic. The Bessemer process was the first inexpensive Industrial process for the mass-production of Steel from molten Pig iron. Spherical trigonometry is a part of Spherical geometry that deals with Polygons (especially Triangles on the Sphere and explains how to find relations Guo Shoujing ( 1231–1316 Courtesy name Ruosi (若思 was a Chinese Astronomer, Engineer, and Mathematician ^{[59][60][61][62][63][64][65]} While using a sighting tube of improved width to correct the position of the polestar (which had shifted over the centuries), Shen discovered the concept of true north and magnetic declination towards the North Magnetic Pole, a concept which would aid navigators in the years to come. A pole star is a visible star especially a prominent one that is approximately aligned with the Earth 's Axis of rotation; that is a star whose apparent position noted by the Chinese Polymath Shen Kuo in the 11th century and possibly the egyptians over 6 millenia ago The magnetic declination (also known as grid magnetic angle in military circles at any point on the Earth is the angle between the local magnetic field -- the direction The Earth's North Magnetic Pole is the wandering point on the Earth's surface at which the Earth's magnetic field points vertically downwards (i ^[66][67]

In addition to the method similar to the Bessemer process mentioned above, there were other notable advancements in Chinese metallurgy during the Middle Ages. During the 11th century, the growth of the iron industry caused vast deforestation due to the use of charcoal in the smelting process. Deforestation is the conversion of Forested areas to non-forest land for use such as Arable land, Pasture, urban use logged area or wasteland Charcoal' is the blackish residue consisting of impure Carbon obtained by removing water and other volatile constituents from Animal and Vegetation ^[68][69] To remedy the problem of deforestation, the Song Chinese discovered how to produce coke from bituminous coal as a substitute for charcoal. Coke is a solid Carbonaceous material derived from Destructive distillation of low-ash low-sulfur Bituminous coal. Bituminous coal is a relatively soft Coal containing a tarlike substance called Bitumen. ^[68][69] Although hydraulic-powered bellows for heating the blast furnace had been written of since Du Shi's (d. A bellows is a device for delivering pressurized Air in a controlled quantity to a controlled location A blast furnace is a type of metallurgical Furnace used for Smelting to produce metals generally Iron. Du Shi ( d 38 was a Chinese governmental Prefect of Nanyang in 31 AD and a mechanical Engineer of the Eastern Han Dynasty in Ancient 38) invention of the 1st century CE, the first known drawn and printed illustration of it in operation is found in a book written in 1313 by Wang Zhen (fl. This article is about Wang Zhen agronomist and inventor For other historical figures with this name see Wang Zhen (disambiguation. 1290–1333). ^[70]

Mathematics

Main article: Chinese mathematics

Qin Jiushao (c. Mathematics in China emerged independently by the 11th century BC Qin Jiushao ( ca 1202–1261 Courtesy name Daogu (道古 was a Chinese Mathematician born in Ziyang Sichuan, his 1202–1261) was the first to introduce the zero symbol into Chinese mathematics. ^[71] Before this innovation, blank spaces were used instead of zeros in the system of counting rods. Counting rods ( Japanese: 算木 sangi are small bars typically 3-14 cm long used by mathematicians for calculation in China, Japan ^[72] Pascal's triangle was first illustrated in China by Yang Hui in his book Xiangjie Jiuzhang Suanfa (详解九章算法), although it was described earlier around 1100 by Jia Xian. \begin{matrix}&&&&&1\\&&&&1&&1\\&&&1&&2&&1\\&&1&&3&&3&&1\\&1&&4&&6&&4&&1\end{matrix Jia Xian (贾宪 was a Chinese mathematician of the Song Dynasty, first half of 11th century ^[73] Although the Introduction to Computational Studies (算学启蒙) written by Zhu Shijie (fl. Zhu Shijie ( fl 13th century) Courtesy name Hanqing (汉卿 Pseudonym Songting (松庭 was one of the greatest Chinese 13th century) in 1299 contained nothing new in Chinese algebra, it had a great impact on the development of Japanese mathematics. Algebra is a branch of Mathematics concerning the study of structure, relation, and Quantity. In the History of mathematics, Japanese mathematics or wasan (和算 denotes a genuinely distinct kind of mathematics developed in Japan during the ^[74]

Daoist influence

In their pursuit for an elixir of life and desire to create gold from various mixtures of elements, Daoist priests became heavily associated with alchemy. The elixir of life, from Arabic الإكسير also known as the elixir of immortality or Dancing Water or Persian: Aab-e-Hayaat آب حیات Taoism (pronounced /ˈdaʊɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊɪzəm/ also spelled '''Daoism''') refers to a variety of related Philosophical and Religious traditions Alchemy a part of the Occult Tradition is both a philosophy and a practice with an ultimately unknown aim involving the improvement of the alchemist as well as the making of ^[75] Joseph Needham labeled their pursuits as proto-scientific rather than merely pseudoscience. Pseudoscience is defined as a body of knowledge methodology belief or practice that is claimed to be Scientific or made to appear scientific but does not adhere to the ^[75] In their futile experiments, they did manage to discover new metal alloys, porcelain types, and dyes. An alloy is a Solid solution or Homogeneous mixture of two or more elements, at least one of which is a Metal, which itself has Porcelain is a Ceramic material made by heating raw materials generally including Clay in the form of Kaolin, in a Kiln to temperatures A dye can generally be described as a Colored substance that has an affinity to the substrate to which it is being applied ^[75] In a 9th century Arab work Kitāb al-Khawāss al Kabīr, there are numerous products listed that were native to China, including waterproof and dust-repelling cream or varnish for clothes and weapons, a Chinese lacquer, varnish, or cream that protected leather items, a completely fire-proof cement for class and porcelain, recipes for Chinese and Indian ink, a waterproof cream for the silk garments of underwater divers, and a cream specifically used for polishing mirrors. Lacquerware is objects which are decoratively covered with Lacquer which is sometimes inlaid or carved "Indian ink" redirects here For the play by Tom Stoppard see Indian Ink (play. ^[76]

Gunpowder warfare

The significant change that distinguished Medieval warfare to early Modern warfare was the use of gunpowder weaponry in battle. Medieval Warfare is the warfare of the Middle Ages. In Europe technological cultural and social developments had forced a dramatic transformation in the character Early Modern warfare is associated with the start of the widespread use of Gunpowder and the development of suitable weapons to use the explosive Gunpowder is a an explosive mixture of Sulfur, Charcoal and Potassium nitrate (also known as saltpetre/saltpeter that burns rapidly producing volumes A 10th century silken banner from Dunhuang portrays the first artistic depiction of a fire lance, a prototype of the gun. Dunhuang ( also written as 燉煌 till early Qing Dynasty; is a City (pop The fire lance ( or fire spear is one of the first gunpowder weapons in the world ^[77] The Wujing Zongyao military manuscript of 1044 listed the first known written formulas for gunpowder, meant for light-weight bombs lobbed from catapults or thrown down from defenders behind city walls. The Wujing Zongyao ( was a Chinese military compendium written in 1044 AD during the Northern Song Dynasty. ^[78] By the 13th century, the iron-cased bomb shell, hand cannon, land mine, and rocket were developed. The hand cannon ( Arabic: midfa; Chinese: 手[[wikt 銃|銃]] as it was called was the first handheld portable A land mine is an Explosive device designed to be placed on or in the ground to explode when triggered by an operator or the Proximity of a vehicle person A rocket or rocket vehicle is a Missile, Aircraft or other Vehicle which obtains Thrust by the reaction of the ^[79][80] As evidenced by the Huolongjing of Jiao Yu and Liu Ji, by the 14th century the Chinese had developed the heavy cannon, hollow and gunpowder-packed exploding cannonballs, the two-stage rocket with a booster rocket, the naval mine and wheellock mechanism to ignite trains of fuses. The Huolongjing ( Wade-Giles: Huo Lung Ching; Traditional Chinese: 火龍經 rendered by its translator into English as Jiao Yu ( Traditional and Simplified Chinese: 焦玉 Wade-Giles: Chiao Yü, Hanyu Pinyin: Jiāo Yù) was a Chinese Liu Ji ( July 1 1311 — 16 May 1375) Courtesy name Bowen (伯温 Posthumous name Wencheng (文成 | NOTE Throughout this article "cannon" is used as BOTH the || singular and plural Round shot is an obsolete solid Projectile without explosive charge fired from Small arms or Cannons As the name implies round shot is spherical In Spaceflight, a booster may be either an entire Launch vehicle or "launcher" used to lift a Spacecraft. A naval mine is a self-contained Explosive device placed in water to destroy Ships or Submarines Unlike Depth charges mines are deposited Wheellock, wheel-lock or wheel lock, is a mechanism for firing a Firearm. ^[81][82]

Jesuit activity in China

Jesuits in China.

The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries introduced Western science and astronomy, then undergoing its own revolution, to China. The history of the missions of the Jesuits in China in the early modern era stands as one of the notable events in the early history of relations between China and One modern historian writes that in late Ming courts, the Jesuits were "regarded as impressive especially for their knowledge of astronomy, calendar-making, mathematics, hydraulics, and geography. "^[83] The Society of Jesus introduced, according to Thomas Woods, "a substantial body of scientific knowledge and a vast array of mental tools for understanding the physical universe, including the Euclidean geometry that made planetary motion comprehensible. The Society of Jesus ( Latin: Societas Iesu, SJ and SI or SJ, SI) is a Catholic religious order For the California legislator see Tom Woods (politician. Thomas E "^[3] Another expert quoted by Woods said the scientific revolution brought by the Jesuits coincided with a time when science was at a very low level in China:

[The Jesuits] made efforts to translate western mathematical and astronomical works into Chinese and aroused the interest of Chinese scholars in these sciences. They made very extensive astronomical observation and carried out the first modern cartographic work in China. They also learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe. Through their correspondence European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture. ^[4]

Conversely, the Jesuits were very active in transmitting Chinese knowledge to Europe. Confucius's works were translated into European languages through the agency of Jesuit scholars stationned in China. Confucius ( lit " Master Kung " September 28, 551 BC - 479 BC) was a Chinese thinker and social philosopher Matteo Ricci started to report on the thoughts of Confucius, and Father Prospero Intorcetta published the life and works of Confucius into Latin in 1687. Matteo Ricci SJ ( October 6 1552 &ndash May 11 1610;; Courtesy name: 西泰 Xītài was an Italian Jesuit priest Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. ^[84] It is thought that such works had considerable importance on European thinkers of the period, particularly among the Deists and other philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Christianity. Deism is the belief that a supreme God exists and created the physical universe and that religious truths can be arrived at by the application of reason alone without dependence on revelation The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings ^[85][86]

The French physiocrat François Quesnay, founder of modern economics, and a forerunner of Adam Smith was in his lifetime known as "the European Confucius". The physiocrats were a group of Economists who believed that the wealth of nations was derived solely from the value of land Agriculture or land development François Quesnay ( June 4, 1694 - December 16, 1774) was a French Economist of the Physiocratic school Adam Smith ( baptised 16 June 1723 – 17 July 1790) was a Scottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of Political economy. ^[87] The doctrine and even the name of "Laissez-faire" may have been inspired by the Chinese concept of Wu wei. Laissez-faire ( pronunciation: French,; English,) is a French phrase literally meaning Let do (“allow to do” Wu wei ( is an important tenet of Taoism that involves knowing when to act and when not to act ^[88][89] Goethe, was known as "the Confucius of Weimar". ˈjoːhan ˈvɔlfgaŋ fɔn ˈgøːtə (in English generally ˈgɝːtə 28 August 1749 22 March 1832 was a German writer Weimar (ˈvaɪmaʁ is a City in Germany. It is located in the Bundesland of Thuringia (Thüringen north of the Thüringer Wald, ^[90]

Scientific and technological stagnation

One question that has been the subject of debate among historians has been why China did not develop a scientific revolution and why Chinese technology fell behind that of Europe. The period which many historians of science call the Scientific Revolution can be roughly dated as having begun in 1543 the year in which Nicolaus Copernicus published Many hypotheses have been proposed ranging from the cultural to the political and economic. Nathan Sivin has argued that China indeed had a scientific revolution in the 17th century and that we are still far from understanding the scientific revolutions of the West and China in all their political, economic and social ramifications. ^[91] John K. Fairbank argued that the Chinese political system was hostile to scientific progress. John King Fairbank ( 24 May, 1907 - 14 September 1991) was among the most prominent American scholars of East Asia

Needham argued, and most scholars agreed, that cultural factors prevented these Chinese achievements from developing into what could be called "science". ^[3] It was the religious and philosophical framework of the Chinese intellectuals which made them unable to believe in the ideas of laws of nature:

It was not that there was no order in nature for the Chinese, but rather that it was not an order ordained by a rational personal being, and hence there was no conviction that rational personal beings would be able to spell out in their lesser earthly languages the divine code of laws which he had decreed aforetime. The Taoists, indeed, would have scorned such an idea as being too naïve for the subtlety and complexity of the universe as they intuited it. Taoism (pronounced /ˈdaʊɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊɪzəm/ also spelled '''Daoism''') refers to a variety of related Philosophical and Religious traditions ^[92]

Similar grounds have been found for questioning much of the philosophy behind traditional Chinese medicine, which, derived mainly from Taoist philosophy, reflects the classical Chinese belief that individual human experiences express causative principles effective in the environment at all scales. Because its theory predates use of the scientific method, it has received various criticisms based on scientific thinking. Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena Even though there are physically verifiable anatomical or histological bases for the existence of acupuncture points or meridians, for instance skin conductance measurements show increases at the predicted points (see _The Body Electric_ by Robert O. Anatomy (from the Greek anatomia, from ana separate apart from and temnein, to cut up cut open is a branch of Biology that is the consideration Histology (from the Greek = 'tissue' is the study of the microscopic anatomy of cells and tissues of Plants and Acupuncture points ( also called acupoints ( or Japanese: つぼ tsubo) are locations on the body that are the focus of Acupuncture, Acupressure Channel ( also known as meridian, in Traditional Chinese medicine, is the common name of Vessel ( also known as channel and Collaterals ( Becker, M. D. , pgs 233-236), philosopher Robert Todd Carroll, a member of the Skeptics Society, deemed acupuncture a pseudoscience because it "confuse(s) metaphysical claims with empirical claims". Robert Todd Carroll (born 1945 PhD, is an American writer and academic Pseudoscience is defined as a body of knowledge methodology belief or practice that is claimed to be Scientific or made to appear scientific but does not adhere to the [4]:

. . . no matter how it is done, scientific research can never demonstrate that unblocking chi by acupuncture or any other means is effective against any disease. Chi is defined as being undetectable by the methods of empirical science. [5]

More recent historians have questioned political and cultural explanations and have put greater focus on economic causes. Mark Elvin's high level equilibrium trap is one well-known example of this line of thought. The high level equilibrium trap is a concept developed by Mark Elvin to explain why China never underwent an indigenous Industrial Revolution, despite its It argues that the Chinese population was large enough, workers cheap enough, and agrarian productivity high enough to not require mechanization : thousands of Chinese workers were perfectly able to quickly perform any needed task. Other events such as Haijin, the Opium Wars and the resulting hate of European influence prevented China from undergoing an Industrial Revolution; copying Europe's progress on a large scale would be impossible for a lengthy period of time. Hai jin ( literally "ocean forbidden" was a ban on maritime activities during China 's Ming Dynasty and again during the Qing Dynasty. Political instability under Cixi rule (opposition and frequent oscillation between modernists and conservatives), the Republican wars (1911-1933), the Sino-Japanese War (1933-1945), the Communist/Nationalist War (1945-1949) as well as the later Cultural Revolution isolated China at the most critical times. The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution in the People’s Republic of China was a struggle for power within the Communist Party of China that manifested into Kenneth Pomeranz has made the argument that the substantial resources taken from the New World to Europe made the crucial difference between European and Chinese development. Kenneth Pomeranz (born 1958 is a professor in the history department at the University of California Irvine in the US. The New World is one of the names used for the non-Eurasian/non-African parts of the Earth specifically the Americas and Australia.

In Guns, Germs, and Steel, Jared Diamond postulates that the lack of geographic barriers in much of China (essentially a wide plain with two large navigable rivers, and a relatively smooth coastline) led to a single government without competition. Guns Germs and Steel The Fates of Human Societies is a 1997 book by Jared Diamond, professor of Geography and Physiology at UCLA TemplateInfobox writer --> Jared Mason Diamond (b 10 September, 1937) is an American Evolutionary biologist At the whim of a ruler who disliked new inventions, technology could be stifled for half a century or more. In contrast, Europe's barriers of the Pyrennes, the Alps, and the various defensible peninsulas (Denmark, Scandinavia, Italy, Greece, etc. ) and islands (Britain, Ireland, Sicily, etc. ) led to smaller countries in constant competition with each other. If a ruler chose to ignore a scientific advancement (especially a military or economic one), his more-advanced neighbors would soon usurp his throne.

People's Republic of China

Main article: History of science and technology in the People's Republic of China

See also: Science and technology in the People's Republic of China

After the establishment of the People's Republic in 1949, China reorganized its science establishment along Soviet lines. See also Science and technology in the People's Republic of China For more than a century China 's leaders have called for rapid development of Science and technology Science and technology in the People's Republic of China has been growing rapidly A soviet (сове́т, "council" originally was a workers' local council in late Imperial Russia. Since 1975, science and technology was one of the Four Modernizations, and its high-speed development was declared essential to all national economic development by Deng Xiaoping. The Four Modernizations ( were the goals of Deng Xiaoping ’s reforms Deng Xiaoping ( 22 August 1904 19 February 1997) was a prominent Chinese Revolutionary, Politician, Pragmatist and Reformer Major breakthroughs occurred in the 1980s in nuclear weapons, satellite launching and recovery, superconductivity, high-yield hybrid rice. Policy formulation at top levels had put emphasis on the application of science to industry and foreign technology transfer. Technology transfer is the process of sharing of skills knowledge technologies methods of manufacturing samples of manufacturing and facilities among industries universities governments

Since the 21st century, science and technology in the People's Republic of China has been growing rapidly. Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES As the People's Republic of China becomes better connected to the global economy, the government has placed more emphasis on science and technology. The rising Technology has allowed our environment to be characterized as a global one This has led to increases in funding, improved scientific structure, and more money for research. These factors have led to advancements in agriculture, medicine, genetics, and global change. Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Genetics (from Ancient Greek grc-Latn genetikos, “genitive” and that from grc-Latn genesis, “origin” a discipline of Biology, is Climate change is any long-term significant change in the “average weather” that a given region experiences

See also

• List of Chinese inventions
• Chinese mathematics
• Chinese astronomy
• Traditional Chinese medicine
• Yongle Encyclopedia
• Chinese alchemy
• Military history of China for weapons and military technology

Notes

References

• Inventions (Pocket Guides). Publisher: DK CHILDREN; Pocket edition (March 15, 1995). ISBN 1564588890. ISBN 978-1564588890
• Buildings (Pocket Guides). Publisher: DK CHILDREN; Pocket edition (March 15, 1995). ISBN 1564588858. ISBN 978-1564588852
• Patricia Buckley Ebrey, The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge, New York and Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 1996. ISBN 0-521-43519-6.
• Mark Elvin, "The high-level equilibrium trap: the causes of the decline of invention in the traditional Chinese textile industries" in W. E. Willmott, Economic Organization in Chinese Society, (Stanford, Calif. , Stanford University Press, 1972) pp. 137-172.
  • The High-level Equilibrium TrapPDF (64. 3 KiB)
• Kelly, Jack (2004). A kibibyte (a contraction of ki lo bi nary byte) is a unit of Information or Computer storage, established by the International Gunpowder: Alchemy, Bombards, & Pyrotechnics: The History of the Explosive that Changed the World. Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-03718-6.  
• Liang, Jieming (2006). Chinese Siege Warfare: Mechanical Artillery & Siege Weapons of Antiquity. ISBN 981-05-5380-3.  
• Joseph Needham, Science and Civilization in China, volume 1. Noel Joseph Terence Montgomery Needham, CH, FRS, FBA ( December 9, 1900 – March 24 1995) was a British (Cambridge University Press, 1954)
• Joseph Needham (1986). Noel Joseph Terence Montgomery Needham, CH, FRS, FBA ( December 9, 1900 – March 24 1995) was a British Science and Civilization in China, Volume 4, Part 2. Taipei: Caves Books Pty. Ltd.
• Li Shu-hua, “Origine de la Boussole 11. Aimant et Boussole,” Isis, Vol. 45, No. 2. (Jul. , 1954)
• Stephen Turnbull, The Walls of Constantinople, AD 324–1453, Osprey Publishing, ISBN 1-84176-759-X
• Agustín Udías, Searching the Heavens and the Earth: The History of Jesuit Observatories (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2003)
• Shelagh Vainker in Anne Farrer (ed), "Caves of the Thousand Buddhas" , 1990, British Museum publications, ISBN 0 7141 1447 2
• Thomas Woods, How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization, (Washington, DC: Regenery, 2005), ISBN 0-89526-038-7

Further reading

• Bennett, A. Osprey Publishing is an Oxford (UK-based book publisher specializing in military history For the California legislator see Tom Woods (politician. Thomas E A. , John Fryer: The Introduction of Western Science and Technology into Nineteenth-Century China - 2 vols. (Harvard University Press, 1967).

External links

• Chinese Siege Warfare: Mechanical Artillery & Siege Weapons of Antiquity