| History of science |
 |
| Background |
|---|
| Theories/sociology |
| Historiography |
| Pseudoscience |
| By era |
| In early cultures |
| in Classical Antiquity |
| In the Middle Ages |
| In the Renaissance |
| Scientific Revolution |
| By topic |
| Natural sciences |
| Astronomy |
| Biology |
| Chemistry |
| Ecology |
| Geography |
| Geology |
| Paleontology |
| Physics |
| Social sciences |
| Economics |
| Linguistics |
| Political science |
| Psychology |
| Sociology |
| Technology |
| Agricultural science |
| Computer science |
| Materials science |
| Medicine |
| Navigational pages |
| Timelines |
| Portal |
| Categories |
Science is a body of empirical, theoretical, and practical knowledge about the natural world, produced by a global community of researchers making use of scientific methods, which emphasize the observation, experimentation and explanation of real world phenomena. The sociology and Philosophy of science, as well as the entire field of Science studies, have in the 20th century been preoccupied with the question of The Historiography of Science usually refers to the study of History of Science in its disciplinary aspects and practices (methods theories schools and Note The contents of this page are expected to change as consensus is reached The History of science in early cultures refers to the study of Protoscience in Ancient history, prior to the development of Science in the Middle The history of science in Classical Antiquity begins with the search for practical knowledge In the Middle Ages, Science progressed dramatically from the time of antiquity in areas as diverse as Astronomy, Medicine, and Mathematics During the Renaissance, the rediscovery of ancient scientific texts was accelerated after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, and the invention of Printing The period which many historians of science call the Scientific Revolution can be roughly dated as having begun in 1543 the year in which Nicolaus Copernicus published For the current in the 19th century German idealism see Naturphilosophie Natural philosophy or the philosophy of nature (from Astronomy is the oldest of the Natural sciences dating back to antiquity, with its origins in the religious, Mythological, and Astrological The history of biology traces the study of the living world from ancient to modern times The history of Chemistry begins with the discovery of Fire, then Metallurgy which allowed purification of metals and the making of alloys as well as the exploitation Ecology is generally spoken of as a new science having only become prominent in the second half of the 20th Century This article explores the History of Geography. Ancient geography See also Ancient Greek geography Ancient Greeks environment The history of geology is concerned with the development of the natural science of geology The history of Paleontology traces the effort to understand the history of life on Earth by studying the Fossil record left behind by living organisms The modern discipline of Physics emerged in the 17th century following in traditions of inquiry established by Galileo Galilei, René Descartes, Isaac For more see Social sciences#History of the social sciences In ancient philosophy there was no difference between the Liberal arts of mathematics The history of economic thought deals with different thinkers and theories in the field of Political economy and Economics from the ancient world to the present See also History of grammar Linguistics as a study endeavors to describe and explain the human faculty of Language. While the study of politics is first found in Ancient Greece and ancient India, political science is a late arrival in terms of Social sciences. The History of Psychology as a scholarly study of the mind and behavior dates back to the Middle Ages. Sociology is a relatively new academic discipline among other Social sciences including Economics, Political science, Anthropology, and The history of technology is the history of the Invention of Tools and techniques Agronomy and the related disciplines of Agricultural science today are very different from what they were before about 1950 The history of computer science began long before the modern discipline of Computer science that emerged in the twentieth century The history of Materials science is the study of how different materials were used as influenced by the History of Earth and the Culture of the All human societies have medical beliefs that provide explanations for birth, Death, and Disease. This is a list of Timelines. Types of timelines Living graph Logarithmic timeline Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding "A priori" redirects here For other uses see A priori. The word theory has many distinct meanings in different fields of Knowledge, depending on their methodologies and the context of discussion. Procedural knowledge is the knowledge exercised in the performance of some task Nature, in the broadest sense is equivalent to the natural world, physical universe, material world or material universe. Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or Scientific inquiry has two functions first to provide a descriptive account of how scientific inquiry is carried out in practice second to provide an explanatory account A phenomenon (from Greek φαινόμενoν, pl φαινόμενα - phenomena) is any observable occurrence Given the dual status of science as objective knowledge and as a human construct, good historiography of science draws on the historical methods of both intellectual history and social history. The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which Historians use Primary sources and other evidence to research and then to write history Intellectual history refers to the History of the people who create discuss write about and in other ways propagate Ideas Although the field emerged from Social history is an area of historical study considered by some to be a Social science that attempts to view historical evidence from the point of view of developing
Tracing the exact origins of modern science is possible through the many important texts which have survived from the classical world. However, the word scientist is relatively recent—first coined by William Whewell in the 19th century. William Whewell ( May 24, 1794 &ndash March 6, 1866) was an English Polymath, Scientist, Anglican Priest Previously, people investigating nature called themselves natural philosophers. For the current in the 19th century German idealism see Naturphilosophie Natural philosophy or the philosophy of nature (from
While empirical investigations of the natural world have been described since antiquity (for example, by Aristotle, Theophrastus and Pliny the Elder), and scientific methods have been employed since the Middle Ages (for example, by Ibn al-Haytham, Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī and Roger Bacon), the dawn of modern science is generally traced back to the early modern period, during what is known as the Scientific Revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries. In Philosophy, empiricism is a theory of Knowledge which asserts that knowledge arises from Experience. "Ancient" redirects here For other uses see Ancient_(disambiguation. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Theophrastus ( Greek:; 371 – c 287 BC a Greek native of Eressos in Lesbos, was the successor of Aristotle in the Peripatetic Gaius or Caius Plinius Secundus, ( AD 23 – August 25, AD 79 better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient Author Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized For the Nova Scotia premier see Roger Bacon (politician. Roger Bacon, O Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding The early modern period is a term initially used by historians to refer mainly to the period roughly from 1500 to 1800 in Western Europe ( Early modern Europe) The period which many historians of science call the Scientific Revolution can be roughly dated as having begun in 1543 the year in which Nicolaus Copernicus published As a means of recording the passage of Time, the 17th Century was that Century which lasted from 1601 - 1700 in the Gregorian calendar
Scientific methods are considered to be so fundamental to modern science that some — especially philosophers of science and practicing scientists — consider earlier inquiries into nature to be pre-scientific. Philosophy of science is the study of assumptions foundations and implications of Science. Traditionally, historians of science have defined science sufficiently broadly to include those inquiries. [1]
Contents |
Early cultures
- See also: Protoscience and Alchemy
In prehistoric times, advice and knowledge was passed from generation to generation in an oral tradition. Oral tradition, oral culture and oral lore is a way for a society to transmit history, literature, law and other Knowledges The development of writing enabled knowledge to be stored and communicated across generations with much greater fidelity. Combined with the development of agriculture, which allowed for a surplus of food, it became possible for early civilizations to develop, because more time could be devoted to tasks other than survival. The Neolithic Revolution was the first Agricultural revolution &mdashthe transition from hunting and gathering communities and bands to Agriculture and
Many ancient civilizations collected astronomical information in a systematic manner through simple observation. Though they had no knowledge of the real physical structure of the planets and stars, many theoretical explanations were proposed. Basic facts about human physiology were known in some places, and alchemy was practiced in several civilizations. Alchemy a part of the Occult Tradition is both a philosophy and a practice with an ultimately unknown aim involving the improvement of the alchemist as well as the making of Considerable observation of macrobiotic flora and fauna was also performed.
Science in the Fertile Crescent
- Further information: Egyptian mathematics, Babylonian mathematics, and Babylonian astronomy
From their beginnings in Sumer (now Iraq) around 3500 BC the Mesopotamian peoples began to attempt to record some observations of the world with extremely thorough quantitative and numerical data. Egyptian mathematics refers to the style and methods of Mathematics performed in Ancient Egypt. Babylonian mathematics refers to any mathematics of the peoples of Mesopotamia (ancient Iraq) from the days of the early Sumerians to the fall of Babylonian astronomy refers to the astronomical theories and methods that were developed in ancient Mesopotamia, the "land between the rivers" Tigris Sumer ( Sumerian: sux-Latn [[Ki (earth ki]]-[[EN (cuneiform en]]-'''ĝir15''', Akkadian: Šumeru; possibly Biblical Shinar For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. The 35th century BC in the Near East sees the gradual transition from the Chalcolithic to the Early Bronze Age. Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding Observation is either an activity of a living being (such as a Human) which senses and assimilates the Knowledge of a Phenomenon, or the recording of data A quantitative attribute is one that exists in a range of magnitudes and can therefore be measured. A number is an Abstract object, tokens of which are Symbols used in Counting and measuring. But their observations and measurements were seemingly taken for purposes other than for scientific laws. A scientific law is a statement that describes the behavior of some particular thing or set of things within the natural world, with an adequately thorough history of successful A concrete instance of Pythagoras' law was recorded, as early as the 18th century BC: the Mesopotamian cuneiform tablet Plimpton 322 records a number of Pythagorean triplets (3,4,5) (5,12,13). In Mathematics, the Pythagorean theorem ( American English) or Pythagoras' theorem ( British English) is a relation in Euclidean geometry The 18th century BC was the Century which lasted from 1800 BC to 1701 BC Of the approximately half million Babylonian Clay tablets excavated since the beginning of the 19th century several thousand are of a mathematical nature . . . , dated 1900 BC, possibly millennia before Pythagoras, [2] but an abstract formulation of the Pythagorean theorem was not. [2]
Significant advances in Ancient Egypt include astronomy, mathematics and medicine. Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now [3] Their geometry was a necessary outgrowth of surveying to preserve the layout and ownership of farmland, which was flooded annually by the Nile river. Geometry ( Greek γεωμετρία; geo = earth metria = measure is a part of Mathematics concerned with questions of size shape and relative position Surveying is the technique and science of accurately determining the terrestrial or three-dimensional space Position of points and the distances and angles between The Nile (النيل, Ancient Egyptian iteru or Ḥ'pī, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing River The 3,4,5 right triangle and other rules of thumb served to represent rectilinear structures, and the post and lintel architecture of Egypt. Two types of special right triangles appear commonly in geometry the "angle based" and the "side based" (or Pythagorean Triangles The former are characterised Egypt was also a center of alchemy research for much of the Mediterranean. Alchemy a part of the Occult Tradition is both a philosophy and a practice with an ultimately unknown aim involving the improvement of the alchemist as well as the making of The Mediterranean Basin refers to the lands around and surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea.
Science in the Greco-Roman world
In Classical Antiquity, the inquiry into the workings of the universe took place both in investigations aimed at such practical goals as establishing a reliable calendar or determining how to cure a variety of illnesses and in those abstract investigations known as natural philosophy. Classical antiquity (also the classical era or classical period) is a broad term for a long period of cultural History centered on the Mediterranean For the current in the 19th century German idealism see Naturphilosophie Natural philosophy or the philosophy of nature (from The ancient people who are considered the first scientists may have thought of themselves as natural philosophers, as practitioners of a skilled profession (for example, physicians), or as followers of a religious tradition (for example, temple healers). A scientist, in the broadest sense refers to any person that engages in a systematic activity to acquire Knowledge or an individual that engages in such practices
The earliest Greek philosophers, known as the pre-Socratics, provided competing answers to the question found in the myths of their neighbors: "How did the ordered cosmos in which we live come to be?"[4] The pre-Socratic philosopher Thales, dubbed the "father of science", was the first to postulate non-supernatural explanations for natural phenomena such as lightning and earthquakes. The Pre-Socratic Greek philosophers were active before Socrates or contemporaneously but expounding knowledge developed earlier In its most general sense a cosmos is an orderly or harmonious system Pythagoras of Samos founded the Pythagorean school, which investigated mathematics for its own sake, and was the first to postulate that the Earth is spherical in shape. "Pythagoras of Samos" redirects here For the Samian statuary of the same name see Pythagoras (sculptor. Pythagoreanism is a term used for the Esoteric and metaphysical beliefs held by Pythagoras and his followers the Pythagoreans who were much influenced EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 Subsequently, Plato and Aristotle produced the first systematic discussions of natural philosophy, which did much to shape later investigations of nature. Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Their development of deductive reasoning was of particular importance and usefulness to later scientific inquiry. Deductive reasoning is Reasoning which uses deductive Arguments to move from given statements ( Premises to Conclusions which must be true if the
The important legacy of this period included substantial advances in factual knowledge, especially in anatomy, zoology, botany, mineralogy, geography, mathematics and astronomy; an awareness of the importance of certain scientific problems, especially those related to the problem of change and its causes; and a recognition of the methodological importance of applying mathematics to natural phenomena and of undertaking empirical research. Anatomy (from the Greek anatomia, from ana separate apart from and temnein, to cut up cut open is a branch of Biology that is the consideration Zoology (from Greek ζῷον, zoon, "animal" + λόγος, " Logos " "knowledge" is the branch of Botany, plant science(s, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of Biology and is the scientific study of plant Life Mineralogy is an Earth Science focused around the Chemistry, Crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of Minerals Geography (from Greek γεωγραφία - geografia) is the study of the Earth and its lands features inhabitants and phenomena Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study [5] In the Hellenistic age scholars frequently employed the principles developed in earlier Greek thought: the application of mathematics and deliberate empirical research, in their scientific investigations. This article focuses on the historical aspects of the Hellenistic age for the cultural aspects see Hellenistic civilisation. Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and [6] Thus, clear unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophers, to medieval Muslim philosophers and scientists, to the European Renaissance and Enlightenment, to the secular sciences of the modern day. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca Hellenistic philosophy is the period of Western philosophy that was developed in the Hellenistic civilization following Aristotle and ending with Neoplatonism Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Neither reason nor inquiry began with the Ancient Greeks, but the Socratic method did, along with the idea of Forms, great advances in geometry, logic, and the natural sciences. The Socratic Method (or Method of Elenchus or Socratic Debate) named after the Classical Greek philosopher Socrates, is a form of Plato 's Theory of Forms asserts that Forms (or Ideas) and not the material world of change known to us through sensation, possess Geometry ( Greek γεωμετρία; geo = earth metria = measure is a part of Mathematics concerned with questions of size shape and relative position Logic is the study of the principles of valid demonstration and Inference. Benjamin Farrington, former Professor of Classics at Swansea University wrote:
- "Men were weighing for thousands of years before Archimedes worked out the laws of equilibrium; they must have had practical and intuitional knowledge of the principles involved. Benjamin Farrington (1891-1974 was an Irish scholar and professor of the Classics. "Classical literature" redirects here For literature in Classical languages outside the Graeco-Roman sphere see Ancient literature. Swansea University (Prifysgol Abertawe is a University located in Swansea, Wales, United Kingdom. Archimedes of Syracuse ( Greek:) ( c. 287 BC – c 212 BC was a Greek mathematician, Physicist, Engineer What Archimedes did was to sort out the theoretical implications of this practical knowledge and present the resulting body of knowledge as a logically coherent system. "
and again:
- "With astonishment we find ourselves on the threshold of modern science. Nor should it be supposed that by some trick of translation the extracts have been given an air of modernity. Far from it. The vocabulary of these writings and their style are the source from which our own vocabulary and style have been derived. "[7]
The level of achievement in Hellenistic astronomy and engineering is impressively shown by the Antikythera mechanism (150-100 BC). Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study Engineering is the Discipline and Profession of applying technical and scientific Knowledge and The Antikythera mechanism (ˌæntɪkɪˈθɪərə an-ti-ki- theer -uh is an ancient mechanical Calculator (also described as the first known " mechanical The astronomer Aristarchus of Samos was the first known person to propose a heliocentric model of the solar system, while the geographer Eratosthenes accurately calculated the circumference of the Earth. Aristarchus (Ἀρίσταρχος 310 BC - ca 230 BC) was a Greek Astronomer and Mathematician, born on the island of Eratosthenes of Cyrene ( Greek; 276 BC - 194 BC was a Greek Mathematician, Poet, athlete, Geographer and Hipparchus (ca. Hipparchus ( Greek; ca 190 BC &ndash ca 120 BC was a Greek Astronomer, Geographer, and Mathematician of the Hellenistic 190 – ca. 120 BC) produced the first systematic star catalog. Timeline of astronomical maps, catalogs and surveys ca 1800 BC - Babylonian star catalog ca In medicine, Herophilos (335 - 280 BC) was the first to base his conclusions on dissection of the human body and to describe the nervous system. Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Herophilos, sometimes Latinized Herophilus (335-280 BC was a Greek physician The nervous system is a Network of specialized cells that communicate information about an animal's surroundings and itself Hippocrates (ca. Hippocrates of Cos II or Hippokrates of Kos ( ca. 460 BC – ca 460 BC – ca. 370 BC) and his followers were first to describe many diseases and medical conditions. Galen (129 – ca. Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or 200 AD) performed many audacious operations—including brain and eye surgeries— that were not tried again for almost two millennia. Surgery (from the χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via chirurgiae meaning "hand work" is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental The mathematician Euclid laid down the foundations of mathematical rigor and introduced the concepts of definition, axiom, theorem and proof still in use today in his Elements, considered the most influential textbook ever written. Euclid ( Greek:.) fl 300 BC also known as Euclid of Alexandria, is often referred to as the Father of Geometry Rigour or rigor (see spelling differences) has a number of meanings in relation to intellectual life and discourse Euclid's Elements ( Greek:) is a mathematical and geometric Treatise consisting of 13 books written by the Greek [8] Archimedes, considered one of the greatest mathematicians of all time,[9] is credited with using the method of exhaustion to calculate the area under the arc of a parabola with the summation of an infinite series, and gave a remarkably accurate approximation of Pi. Archimedes of Syracuse ( Greek:) ( c. 287 BC – c 212 BC was a Greek mathematician, Physicist, Engineer The method of exhaustion is a method of finding the Area of a Shape by inscribing inside it a sequence of Polygons whose areas converge to the Area is a Quantity expressing the two- Dimensional size of a defined part of a Surface, typically a region bounded by a closed Curve. In Mathematics, the parabola (pəˈræbələ from the Greek παραβολή) is a Conic section, the intersection of a right circular In Mathematics, a series is often represented as the sum of a Sequence of terms That is a series is represented as a list of numbers with IMPORTANT NOTICE Please note that Wikipedia is not a database to store the millions of digits of π please refrain from adding those to Wikipedia as it could cause technical problems [10] He is also known in physics for laying the foundations of hydrostatics and the explanation of the principle of the lever. Physics (Greek Physis - φύσις in everyday terms is the Science of Matter and its motion. Fluid statics (also called hydrostatics) is the Science of Fluids at rest and is a sub-field within Fluid mechanics.
Theophrastus wrote some of the earliest descriptions of plants and animals, establishing the first taxonomy and looking at minerals in terms of their properties such as hardness. Theophrastus ( Greek:; 371 – c 287 BC a Greek native of Eressos in Lesbos, was the successor of Aristotle in the Peripatetic Taxonomy is the practice and science of classification The word comes from the Greek, taxis (meaning 'order' 'arrangement' and, nomos Hardness refers to various properties of Matter in the Solid phase that give it high resistance to various kinds of shape change when Force Pliny the Elder produced what is one of the largest encyclopedias of the natural world in 77 AD, and must be regarded as the rightful successor to Theophrastus. Gaius or Caius Plinius Secundus, ( AD 23 – August 25, AD 79 better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient Author An encyclopedia (or '''encyclopædia''') is a comprehensive written Compendium that contains Information on either all branches of Knowledge
For example, he accurately describes the octahedral shape of the diamond, and proceeds to mention that diamond dust is used by engravers to cut and polish other gems owing to its great hardness. An octahedron (plural octahedra is a Polyhedron with eight faces In Mineralogy, diamond is the allotrope of carbon where the carbon atoms are arranged in Engraving is the practice of incising a design onto a hard usually flat surface by cutting grooves into it His recognition of the importance of crystal shape is a precursor to modern crystallography, while mention of numerous other minerals presages mineralogy. In Materials science, a crystal is a Solid in which the constituent Atoms Molecules or Ions are packed in a regularly ordered repeating Crystallography is the experimental science of determining the arrangement of Atoms in Solids In older usage it is the scientific study of Crystals The Mineralogy is an Earth Science focused around the Chemistry, Crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of Minerals He also recognises that other minerals have characteristic crystal shapes, but in one example, confuses the crystal habit with the work of lapidaries. In Mineralogy, shape and size give rise to descriptive terms applied to the typical appearance or habit of Crystals The many terms used by mineralogists A lapidary (the word means "concerned with stones" is an Artisan who practices the craft of working forming and finishing stone, Mineral, He was also the first to recognise that amber was a fossilized resin from pine trees because he had seen samples with trapped insects within them. Amber is Fossil tree Resin, which is appreciated for its color and beauty
Science in India
- Further information: Indian mathematics, Indian astronomy, and History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent
Indian philosophers in ancient India developed atomic theories, which included formulating ideas about the atom in a systematic manner and propounding ideas about the atomic constitution of the material world. Indian mathematics &mdashwhich here is the mathematics that emerged in South Asia zero, Negative numbers, Arithmetic, and Algebra. Indian astronomy —the earliest textual mention of which is given in the religious literature of India (2nd millennium BCE—became an established tradition by the 1st millennium BCE HyderAlijpg|thumb|200px|right| Hyder Ali (c 1722-1782—the ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore till 1782—developed military rockets using metal cylinders to contain the combustion This article is about the history of South Asia prior to the Partition of British India in 1947 This article focuses on the historical models of the atom For a history of the study of how atoms combine to form molecules see History of the molecule. History See also Atomic theory, Atomism The concept that matter is composed of discrete units and cannot be divided into arbitrarily tiny The principle of relativity was also available in an early embryonic form in the Indian philosophical concept of "sapekshavad". A principle of relativity is a criterion for judging physical theories, stating that they are inadequate if they do not prescribe the exact same laws of physics in The literal translation of this Sanskrit word is "theory of relativity" (not to be confused with Einstein's theory of relativity). Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical This page is about the scientific concept of relativity for philosophical or sociological theories about relativity see Relativism. The wootz, crucible and stainless steels were invented in India, and were widely exported, resulting in "Damascus steel" by the year 1000. Wootz is a Steel characterized by a pattern of bands or sheets of micro Carbides within a tempered Martensite or Pearlite matrix Crucible steel describes a number of different techniques for making Steel Alloy by slowly heating and cooling pure Iron and Carbon (typically In Metallurgy, stainless steel is defined as a Steel Alloy with a minimum of 11 Steel is an Alloy consisting mostly of Iron, with a Carbon content between 0 Damascus steel is a hot- forged Steel used in Middle Eastern Swordmaking from about 1100 to 1700 AD [11]
The Hindus excel in the manufacture of iron, and in the preparations of those ingredients along with which it is fused to obtain that kind of soft iron which is usually styled Indian steel (Hindiah). They also have workshops wherein are forged the most famous sabres in the world. [12]
Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata (476-550), in his Aryabhatiya (499) and Aryabhata Siddhanta, worked out an accurate heliocentric model of gravitation, including elliptical orbits, the circumference of the earth, and the longitudes of planets around the Sun. Āryabhaṭa ( Devanāgarī: आर्यभट (AD 476 &ndash 550 is the first in the line of great mathematician-astronomers from the classical age of Indian mathematics Āryabhatīya, an astronomical treatise is the Magnum opus and only extant work of the 5th century Indian mathematician Aryabhata. In Astronomy, heliocentrism is the theory that the Sun is at the center of the Solar System. The Solar System consists of the Sun and those celestial objects bound to it by Gravity. Gravitation is a natural Phenomenon by which objects with Mass attract one another In Mathematics, an ellipse (from the Greek ἔλλειψις literally absence) is a Conic section, the locus of points in a The circumference is the distance around a closed Curve. Circumference is a kind of Perimeter. EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 He also introduced a number of trigonometric functions (including sine, versine, cosine and inverse sine), trigonometric tables, and techniques and algorithms of algebra. The versed sine, also called the versine and in Latin, the sinus versus ("flipped sine" or the sagitta ("arrow" is a Circle-trig6svg|300px|thumb|right|All of the Trigonometric functions of an angle θ can be constructed geometrically in terms of a unit circle centered at O. In Mathematics, Computing, Linguistics and related subjects an algorithm is a sequence of finite instructions often used for Calculation Algebra is a branch of Mathematics concerning the study of structure, relation, and Quantity. In the 7th century, Brahmagupta recognized gravity as a force of attraction. Brahmagupta ( (598–668 was an Indian mathematician and astronomer. Gravitation is a natural Phenomenon by which objects with Mass attract one another [13] He also lucidly explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit, along with the Hindu-Arabic numeral system now used universally throughout the world. In Mathematics and Computer science, a digit is a symbol (a number symbol e The Hindu-Arabic numeral system is a Positional Decimal Numeral system first documented in the ninth century Arabic translations of the two astronomers' texts were soon available in the Islamic world, introducing what would become Arabic numerals to the Islamic World by the 9th century. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language The Caliph is the Head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah The arabic numerals (often capitalized are the ten Digits (0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 which—along with the system [14][15]
The first 12 chapters of the Siddhanta Shiromani, written by Bhāskara in the 12th century, cover topics such as: mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the planets; the three problems of diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes of the planets; risings and settings; the moon's crescent; conjunctions of the planets with each other; conjunctions of the planets with the fixed stars; and the patas of the sun and moon. Bhaskara (1114 &ndash 1185 also known as Bhaskara II and Bhaskara Achārya ("Bhaskara the teacher" was an Indian mathematician The 13 chapters of the second part cover the nature of the sphere, as well as significant astronomical and trigometric calculations based on it.
During the 14th-16th centuries, the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics made significant advances in astronomy and especially mathematics, including fields such as trigonometry and calculus. Circle-trig6svg|300px|thumb|right|All of the Trigonometric functions of an angle θ can be constructed geometrically in terms of a unit circle centered at O. Calculus ( Latin, calculus, a small stone used for counting is a branch of Mathematics that includes the study of limits, Derivatives In particular, Madhava of Sangamagrama is considered the "founder of mathematical analysis". Mādhava of Sangamagrama (born as Irinjaatappilly Madhavan Namboodiri) (c Analysis has its beginnings in the rigorous formulation of Calculus. [16]
Science in China
- Further information: Chinese mathematics and List of Chinese inventions
China has a long and rich history of technological contribution. The Four Great Inventions of ancient China' (Chinese: 四大發明; Pinyin: Sì dà fā míng) are the compass, gunpowder, papermaking, and printing. The Four Great Inventions of ancient China ( meaning "four great inventions" are four inventions that are celebrated in Chinese culture for their historical Pinyin, more formally Hanyu pinyin, is the most common Standard Mandarin Romanization system in use A compass, magnetic compass or mariner's compass is a navigational instrument for determining direction relative to the earth's Magnetic poles It consists Gunpowder is a an explosive mixture of Sulfur, Charcoal and Potassium nitrate (also known as saltpetre/saltpeter that burns rapidly producing volumes Papermaking is the process of making Paper, a material which is used ubiquitously today for writing and packaging Printing is a process for reproducing text and image typically with ink on Paper using a printing press These four discoveries had an enormous impact on the development of Chinese civilization and a far-ranging global impact. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National According to English philosopher Francis Bacon, writing in Novum Organum,
Printing, gunpowder and the compass: These three have changed the whole face and state of things throughout the world; the first in literature, the second in warfare, the third in navigation; whence have followed innumerable changes, in so much that no empire, no sect, no star seems to have exerted greater power and influence in human affairs than these mechanical discoveries. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Francis Bacon 1st Viscount St Alban KC QC (22 January 1561 – 9 April 1626 was an English Philosopher, Statesman, and author The Novum Organum is a philosophical work by Francis Bacon published in 1620. Literature is the Art of written works Literally translated the word means "acquaintance with letters" (from Latin littera letter Navigation is the process of reading and controlling the movement of a craft or vehicle from one place to another " [17]
There are many notable contributors to the field of Chinese science throughout the ages. One of the best examples would be Shen Kuo (1031–1095), a polymath scientist and statesman who was the first to describe the magnetic-needle compass used for navigation, discovered the concept of true north, improved the design of the astronomical gnomon, armillary sphere, sight tube, and clepsydra, and described the use of drydocks to repair boats. Shen Kuo or Shen Kua ( (1031&ndash1095 style name Cunzhong and pseudonym Mengqi Weng, was a Polymathic Chinese A polymath ( Greek polymathēs, πολυμαθής "having learned much" is a person whose knowledge is not restricted to one subject area In Physics, magnetism is one of the Phenomena by which Materials exert attractive or repulsive Forces on other Materials. A compass, magnetic compass or mariner's compass is a navigational instrument for determining direction relative to the earth's Magnetic poles It consists Navigation is the process of reading and controlling the movement of a craft or vehicle from one place to another noted by the Chinese Polymath Shen Kuo in the 11th century and possibly the egyptians over 6 millenia ago The gnomon is the part of a Sundial that casts the Shadow. Gnomon (γνώμων is an Ancient Greek word meaning "indicator" "one who A water clock or clepsydra ( Greek kleptein to steal; hydro water) is any timekeeper operated by means of a regulated flow of liquid into (inflow A drydock is a narrow basin or vessel that can be flooded to allow a load to be floated in then drained to allow that load to come to rest on a dry platform After observing the natural process of the inundation of silt and the find of marine fossils in the Taihang Mountains (hundreds of miles from the Pacific Ocean), Shen Kuo devised a theory of land formation, or geomorphology. Silt is Soil or rock derived Granular material of a Grain size between sand and clay Marine is an Umbrella term. As an adjective it is usually applicable to things relating to the Sea or Ocean, such as Marine biology, Marine FOSSIL is a standard protocol for allowing serial communication for Telecommunications programs under the DOS Operating system. The Taihang Mountains ( are a Chinese Mountain range running down the eastern edge of the Loess Plateau in Henan, Shanxi and Hebei The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth 's Oceanic divisions Geomorphology (from Greek: γη ge, "earth" μορφή morfé, "form" and λόγος Logos, "knowledge" He also adopted a theory of gradual climate change in regions over time, after observing petrified bamboo found underground at Yan'an, Shaanxi province. Climate change is any long-term significant change in the “average weather” that a given region experiences In Geology, petrifaction or petrification is the process by which Organic material is converted into stone or a similar substance without Bamboo is a group of Woody perennial Evergreen Plants in the True grass family Poaceae, subfamily Yan'an ( is a city in the Shanbei region of Shaanxi province in China. ( Postal map spelling: Shensi) is a north-central province of the People's Republic of China, and includes portions of the Loess If not for Shen Kuo's writing, the architectural works of Yu Hao would be little known, along with the inventor of movable type printing, Bi Sheng (990-1051). Yu Hao ( fl 970 AD was an eminent Chinese Structural engineer and Architect during the Song Dynasty period ( 960 - 1279 Movable type is the system of Printing and Typography that uses movable components to reproduce the elements of a document (usually individual letters or punctuation Printing is a process for reproducing text and image typically with ink on Paper using a printing press Bì Shēng ( 990-1051 AD was the inventor of the first known Movable type Printing system Shen's contemporary Su Song (1020–1101) was also a brilliant polymath, an astronomer who created a celestial atlas of star maps, wrote a pharmaceutical treatise with related subjects of botany, zoology, mineralogy, and metallurgy, and had erected a large astronomical clocktower in Kaifeng city in 1088. Su Song ( style name: Zirong 子容 (1020&ndash1101 AD was a renowned Chinese statesman, astronomer, cartographer, Botany, plant science(s, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of Biology and is the scientific study of plant Life Zoology (from Greek ζῷον, zoon, "animal" + λόγος, " Logos " "knowledge" is the branch of Mineralogy is an Earth Science focused around the Chemistry, Crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of Minerals Metallurgy is a domain of Materials science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds, and their Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study A clock tower is a Tower built with one or more (often four Clock faces. Kaifeng ( formerly known as Bianliang ( Bianjing ( Daliang ( or simply Liang ( is a Prefecture-level city in eastern To operate the crowning armillary sphere, his clocktower featured an escapement mechanism and the world's oldest known use of an endless power-transmitting chain drive. In Mechanical watches and Clocks an escapement is a device which converts continuous rotational motion into an oscillating or back and forth motion Chain drive is a way of transmitting mechanical power from one place to another
The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries "learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe. The history of the missions of the Jesuits in China in the early modern era stands as one of the notable events in the early history of relations between China and Through their correspondence European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture. "[20] Western academic thought on the history of Chinese technology and science was galvanized by the work of Joseph Needham and the Needham Research Institute. Noel Joseph Terence Montgomery Needham, CH, FRS, FBA ( December 9, 1900 – March 24 1995) was a British Among the technological accomplishments of China were, according to the British scholar Needham, early seismological detectors (Zhang Heng in the 2nd century), the water-powered celestial globe (Zhang Heng), matches, the independent invention of the decimal system, dry docks, sliding calipers, the double-action piston pump, cast iron, the blast furnace, the iron plough, the multi-tube seed drill, the wheelbarrow, the suspension bridge, the winnowing machine, the rotary fan, the parachute, natural gas as fuel, the raised-relief map, the propeller, the crossbow, and a solid fuel rocket, the multistage rocket, the horse collar, along with contributions in logic, astronomy, medicine, and other fields. Seismometers (from Greek Seism - "the shakes" - and Metro - "I measure" are instruments that measure and record motions of the ground including Zhang Heng ( (CE 78–139 was an astronomer, mathematician, inventor, geographer, cartographer, artist, poet For the mechanical technology see Hydraulic machinery and Hydraulic cylinder Hydraulics is a topic of science and Engineering A match is a consumable Tool for lighting a Fire under controlled circumstances on demand A drydock is a narrow basin or vessel that can be flooded to allow a load to be floated in then drained to allow that load to come to rest on a dry platform A caliper ( British spelling also calliper) is a device used to measure the distance between two symmetrically opposing sides A piston is a component of Reciprocating engines Pumps and Gas compressors It is located in a cylinder and is made gas-tight by Piston Cast iron usually refers to grey cast iron, but identifies a large group of Ferrous Alloys which solidify with a Eutectic. A blast furnace is a type of metallurgical Furnace used for Smelting to produce metals generally Iron. Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 The plough ( American spelling plow; both plaʊ is a Tool used in Farming for initial cultivation of soil in preparation for sowing seed A seed drill is a device for planting Seeds in the soil Before the introduction of the seed drill the common practice was to "broadcast" seeds by hand A wheelbarrow is a small hand-propelled vehicle usually with just one Wheel, designed to be pushed and guided by a single person using two handles to the rear or a sail This article is concerned with a particular type of suspension bridge the suspended-deck type Wind winnowing is an agricultural method developed by ancient cultures for separating grain from Chaff. A mechanical fan is an electrically powered device used to produce an airflow for the purpose of creature comfort (particularly in the heat ventilation, exhaust A parachute is a device used to slow the motion of an object through an atmosphere by creating drag. Natural gas is a Gaseous Fossil fuel consisting primarily of Methane but including significant quantities of Ethane, Propane, A raised-relief map or terrain model is a three-dimensional representation usually of terrain A propeller is essentially a type of fan which transmits power by converting Rotational motion into Thrust for propulsion of a vehicle such as an A crossbow is a Weapon consisting of a bow mounted on a stock that shoots projectiles often called bolts A rocket or rocket vehicle is a Missile, Aircraft or other Vehicle which obtains Thrust by the reaction of the A horse collar is a part of a Horse harness device used to distribute load around a Horse 's neck and shoulders when pulling a wagon or plow Logic is the study of the principles of valid demonstration and Inference. Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the
However, cultural factors prevented these Chinese achievements from developing into what could be called "science". [21] According to Needham, it was the religious and philosophical framework of the Chinese intellectuals which made them unable to believe in the ideas of laws of nature:
| “ | It was not that there was no order in nature for the Chinese, but rather that it was not an order ordained by a rational personal being, and hence there was no conviction that rational personal beings would be able to spell out in their lesser earthly languages the divine code of laws which he had decreed aforetime. The Taoists, indeed, would have scorned such an idea as being too naïve for the subtlety and complexity of the universe as they intuited it. Taoism (pronounced /ˈdaʊɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊɪzəm/ also spelled '''Daoism''') refers to a variety of related Philosophical and Religious traditions [22] | ” |
Science in the Middle Ages
With the division of the Empire, the Western Roman Empire lost contact with much of its past. In the Middle Ages, Science progressed dramatically from the time of antiquity in areas as diverse as Astronomy, Medicine, and Mathematics The Western Roman Empire refers to the western half of the Roman Empire, from its division by Diocletian in 285 the other half of the Roman Empire was the Eastern The Library of Alexandria, which had suffered since it fell under Roman rule,[23] had been destroyed by 642, shortly after the Arab conquest of Egypt. The Royal Library of Alexandria or Ancient Library of Alexandria in Alexandria, Egypt, was once the largest library in the ancient world At the commencement of the Muslim conquest of Egypt Egypt was part of the Byzantine Empire with its capital in Constantinople. [24][25] While the Byzantine Empire still held learning centers such as Constantinople, Western Europe's knowledge was concentrated in monasteries until the development of medieval universities in the 12th and 13th centuries. Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS This article concerns the buildings occupied by monastics. For the life inside monasteries and its historical roots see Monasticism. This article is about Western European institutions See also Medieval university (Asia and Byzantine university Medieval university The curriculum of monastic schools included the study of the few available ancient texts and of new works on practical subjects like medicine[26] and timekeeping. [27]
Meanwhile, in the Middle East, Greek philosophy was able to find some support under the newly created Arab Empire. Ancient Greek philosophy focused on the role of Reason and Inquiry. With the spread of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship, known as the Islamic Golden Age, lasted until the 14th century. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. The 7th century is the period from 601 to 700 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. The 8th century is the period from 701 to 800 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion This scholarship was aided by several factors. The use of a single language, Arabic, allowed communication without need of a translator. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Access to Greek and Latin texts from the Byzantine Empire along with Indian sources of learning provided Muslim scholars a knowledge base to build upon. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. This article is about the history of South Asia prior to the Partition of British India in 1947 In addition, there was the Hajj, which facilitated scholarly collaboration by bringing together people and new ideas from all over the Muslim world. The Hajj (حج is a pilgrimage to Mecca (Makkah It is the largest annual pilgrimage in the world The term Muslim world (or Islamic world) has several meanings
Science in the Islamic world
- See also: Timeline of Muslim scientists and engineers, Alchemy and chemistry in Islam, Islamic astronomy, Islamic mathematics, Islamic medicine, and Early Muslim sociology
Muslim scientists placed far greater emphasis on experiment than had the Greeks. In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions [28] This led to an early scientific method being developed in the Muslim world, where significant progress in methodology was made, beginning with the experiments of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) on optics from circa 1000, in his Book of Optics. Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized The Book of Optics ( Arabic: Kitab al-Manazir, Latin: De Aspectibus or Opticae Thesaurus Alhazeni [29] The most important development of the scientific method was the use of experiments to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation, which began among Muslim scientists. In Philosophy, empiricism is a theory of Knowledge which asserts that knowledge arises from Experience. Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the father of optics, especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light. Some have also described Ibn al-Haytham as the "first scientist" for his development of the modern scientific method. [30]
Rosanna Gorini writes:
| “ | "According to the majority of the historians al-Haytham was the pioneer of the modern scientific method. With his book he changed the meaning of the term optics and established experiments as the norm of proof in the field. His investigations are based not on abstract theories, but on experimental evidences and his experiments were systematic and repeatable. "[31] | ” |
Due to the development of the modern scientific method, Robert Briffault wrote in The Making of Humanity:
| “ | "What we call science arose as a result of new methods of experiment, observation, and measurement, which were introduced into Europe by the Arabs. Robert Briffault ( 1876 - 11 December 1948) was a French novelist historian social anthropologist and surgeon The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding [. . . ] Science is the most momentous contribution of Arab civilization to the modern world, but its fruits were slow in ripening. The term modern period or modern era (sometimes also modern times) is the period of history that followed the Middle Ages between c [. . . ] The debt of our science to that of the Arabs does not consist in startling discoveries or revolutionary theories; science owes a great deal more to Arab culture, it owes its existence. . . . The ancient world was, as we saw, pre-scientific. [. . . ] The Greeks systematized, generalized and theorized, but the patient ways of investigations, the accumulation of positive knowledge, the minute methods of science, detailed and prolonged observation and experimental inquiry were altogether alien to the Greek temperament. "[28] | ” |
In mathematics, the Persian mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi gave his name to the concept of the algorithm, while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr, the beginning of the title of one of his publications. layout and formatting it should ensure no clashes with the top of the infobox In Mathematics, Computing, Linguistics and related subjects an algorithm is a sequence of finite instructions often used for Calculation Algebra is a branch of Mathematics concerning the study of structure, relation, and Quantity. What is now known as Arabic numerals originally came from India, but Muslim mathematicians did make several refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of decimal point notation. The arabic numerals (often capitalized are the ten Digits (0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 which—along with the system In a positional Numeral system, the decimal separator is a Symbol used to mark the boundary between the integral and the fractional Sabian mathematician Al-Battani (850-929) contributed to astronomy and mathematics, while Persian scholar Al-Razi contributed to chemistry and medicine. The Sabians ( صابئين, צבאים) were a religious group layout and formatting it should ensure no clashes with the top of the infobox
In astronomy, Al-Battani improved the measurements of Hipparchus, preserved in the translation of Ptolemy's Hè Megalè Syntaxis (The great treatise) translated as Almagest. Hipparchus ( Greek; ca 190 BC &ndash ca 120 BC was a Greek Astronomer, Geographer, and Mathematician of the Hellenistic Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca Almagest is the Latin form of the Arabic name ( الكتاب المجسطي, al-kitabu-l-mijisti, i Al-Battani also improved the precision of the measurement of the precession of the earth's axis. The corrections made to the geocentric model by al-Battani, Ibn al-Haytham,[32] Averroes and the Maragha astronomers such as Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi and Ibn al-Shatir were later incorporated into the Copernican heliocentric model. In Astronomy, the geocentric model of the Universe is the superseded theory that the Earth is the center of the universe and other TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European Maragheh observatory ( Persian:رصدخانه مراغه Rasad Khaneh) is an Ancient Observatory, which was established in 1259 by Mu’ayyad al-Din al-’Urdi (d 1266 was an Arab Muslim astronomer, mathematician, architect and engineer working at the Maragheh Ala Al-Din Abu'l-Hasan Ali Ibn Ibrahim Ibn al-Shatir (1304 &ndash 1375 (ابن الشاطر was an Arab Muslim astronomer, mathematician, engineer See also Nicolaus Copernicus, Heliocentrism Earlier theories See also Heliocentrism Early traces of a Heliocentric model [33][34] Heliocentric theories may have also been discussed by several other Muslim astronomers such as Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi,[35] Abu-Rayhan Biruni, Abu Said al-Sijzi,[36] Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi, and 'Umar al-Katibi al-Qazwini. In Astronomy, heliocentrism is the theory that the Sun is at the center of the Solar System. Ja'far ibn Muḥammad Abū Ma'shar al-Balkhī ( 10 August 787 in Balkh, Afghanistan &ndash 9 March 886 in al-Wasit Abu Sa'id Ahmed ibn Mohammed ibn Abd al-Jalil al-Sijzi (short for al-Sijistani was a Persian astronomer and mathematician. TemplateInfobox Persian scholars --> Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi (1236 &ndash 1311 (قطبالدین شیرازی was a 13th [37]
Muslim chemists and alchemists played an important role in the foundation of modern chemistry. Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem meaning "earth") is the Science concerned with the composition structure and properties Scholars such as Will Durant[38] and Fielding H. Garrison[39] considered Muslim chemists to be the founders of chemistry. William James Durant ( November 5, 1885 &ndash November 7, 1981) was a prolific American popularizer in the fields of History Colonel Fielding Hudson Garrison, MD ( November 5, 1870 &ndash April 18, 1935) was an acclaimed medical historian, In particular, Geber is "considered by many to be the father of chemistry". For the 12th century astronomer see Jabir ibn Aflah. For the anonymous 14th century Spanish alchemist see Pseudo-Geber. [40][41] The works of Arabic scientists influenced Roger Bacon (who introduced the empirical method to Europe, strongly influenced by his reading of Arabic writers),[42] and later Isaac Newton. For the Nova Scotia premier see Roger Bacon (politician. Roger Bacon, O Sir Isaac Newton, FRS (ˈnjuːtən 4 January 1643 31 March 1727) Biography Early years See also Isaac Newton's early life and achievements [43]
Some of the other famous scientists from the Islamic world include al-Farabi (polymath), Abu al-Qasim (pioneer of surgery),[44] Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī (pioneer of Indology,[45] geodesy and anthropology),[46] Avicenna (pioneer of momentum[47] and medicine),[48] Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī (polymath), and Ibn Khaldun (forerunner of social sciences[49] such as demography,[50] cultural history,[51] historiography,[52] philosophy of history and sociology),[53] among many others. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abū Nasr Muhammad ibn al-Farakh al-Fārābi ( Nastaliq:) or Abū Nasr al-Fārābi A polymath ( Greek polymathēs, πολυμαθής "having learned much" is a person whose knowledge is not restricted to one subject area TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف Surgery (from the χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via chirurgiae meaning "hand work" is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental Indology refers to the academic study of the languages texts History and Cultures of the Indian subcontinent, and as such a subset of Asian studies Geodesy (dʒiːˈɒdɪsi also called geodetics, a branch of Earth sciences, is the scientific discipline that deals Anthropology (/ˌænθɹəˈpɒlədʒi/ from Greek grc ἄνθρωπος anthrōpos, "human" -λογία -logia) is the study of TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born In Classical mechanics, momentum ( pl momenta SI unit kg · m/s, or equivalently N · s) is the product Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Ibn Khaldūn or Ibn Khaldoun (full name أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون,, ( May 27, 1332 AD/732 AH &ndash March 19 The social sciences comprise academic disciplines concerned with the study of the social life of human groups and individuals including Anthropology, Communication studies Demography is the statistical study of all Populations. It can be a very general science that can be applied to any kind of dynamic population that is one that changes over The term cultural history (from the German term) refers both to an Academic discipline and to its subject matter Philosophy of history or historiosophy is an area of Philosophy concerning the eventual significance if any of human History. Sociology (from Latin: socius "companion" and the suffix -ology "the study of" from Greek λόγος lógos "knowledge"
Science in Medieval Europe
- Further information: Renaissance of the 12th century, Scholasticism, Medieval technology, and Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe
An intellectual revitalization of Europe started with the birth of medieval universities in the 12th century. In the Middle Ages, Science progressed dramatically from the time of antiquity in areas as diverse as Astronomy, Medicine, and Mathematics The Renaissance of the 12th century was a period of many changes during the High Middle Ages. Scholasticism was the dominant form of theology and philosophy in the Latin West in the Middle Ages, particularly in the 12th 13th and 14th centuries Medieval technology refers to the technology used in medieval Europe, which generally does not include the parts of Europe under Arab rule, such as Islamic Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe were numerous affecting such varied areas as art, architecture, medicine, argriculture, music This article is about Western European institutions See also Medieval university (Asia and Byzantine university Medieval university This article is about Western European institutions See also Medieval university (Asia and Byzantine university Medieval university The contact with the Islamic world in Spain and Sicily, and during the Reconquista and the Crusades, allowed Europeans access to scientific Greek and Arabic texts, including the works of Aristotle, Ptolemy, Geber, al-Khwarizmi, Alhazen, Avicenna, and Averroes. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or The Islamic conquest and rule of Sicily, Malta, and parts of Southern Italy was a process whose origin can be traced back through the general The Reconquista (a Spanish and Portuguese word for "Reconquest" Arabic: الاسترداد, "Recapturing" was a period The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca For the 12th century astronomer see Jabir ibn Aflah. For the anonymous 14th century Spanish alchemist see Pseudo-Geber. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European European scholars like Michael Scotus would learn Arabic in order to study these texts. Michael Scot ( Latin: Michael Scotus) (1175 &ndash 1232? was a Medieval mathematician and Scholar. The European universities aided materially in the translation and propagation of these texts and started a new infrastructure which was needed for scientific communities. The Renaissance of the 12th century saw a major search by European scholars for new learning which led them to the Arabic fringes of Europe especially to Islamic As well as this, Europeans began to venture further and further east (most notably, perhaps, Marco Polo) as a result of the Pax Mongolica. Marco Polo ( September 15 1254 – January 9 1324 at earliest but no later than June 1325 was a Venetian trader and explorer The Pax Mongolica or " Mongol Peace " is a phrase coined by Western scholars to describe the alleged stabilizing effects of the conquest of the Mongol This led to the increased influence of Indian and even Chinese science on the European tradition. Technological advances were also made, such as the early flight of Eilmer of Malmesbury (who had studied Mathematics in 11th century England),[54] and the metallurgical achievements of the Cistercian blast furnace at Laskill. Eilmer of Malmesbury (also known as Oliver due to a scribe's miscopying or Elmer) was an 11th-century English Benedictine monk best known England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland Metallurgy is a domain of Materials science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds, and their A blast furnace is a type of metallurgical Furnace used for Smelting to produce metals generally Iron. Laskill is a small hamlet situated 5 Miles (8 Kilometres north-west of Helmsley, North Yorkshire, England, on the road from [55][21][56]
At the beginning of the 13th century there were reasonably accurate Latin translations of the main works of almost all the intellectually crucial ancient authors, allowing a sound transfer of scientific ideas via both the universities and the monasteries. By then, the natural philosophy contained in these texts began to be extended by notable scholastics such as Robert Grosseteste, Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus and Duns Scotus. Scholasticism was the dominant form of theology and philosophy in the Latin West in the Middle Ages, particularly in the 12th 13th and 14th centuries Robert Grosseteste (c 1175 &ndash October 9, 1253) English statesman scholastic philosopher, Theologian and Bishop of For the Nova Scotia premier see Roger Bacon (politician. Roger Bacon, O Precursors of the modern scientific method, influenced by earlier contributions of the Islamic world, can be seen already in Grosseteste's emphasis on mathematics as a way to understand nature, and in the empirical approach admired by Bacon, particularly in his Opus Majus. The Opus Majus ( Latin for "Greater Work" is the most important work of Roger Bacon. According to Pierre Duhem, the Condemnation of 1277 led to the birth of modern science, because it forced thinkers to break from relying so much on Aristotle, and to think about the world in new ways. Pierre Maurice Marie Duhem ( 10 June 1861 – 14 September 1916) was a French physicist, mathematician and The Condemnations at the medieval University of Paris were enacted to restrict certain teachings as being heretical Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. [21]
The first half of the 14th century saw much important scientific work being done, largely within the framework of scholastic commentaries on Aristotle's scientific writings. Scholasticism was the dominant form of theology and philosophy in the Latin West in the Middle Ages, particularly in the 12th 13th and 14th centuries [58] William of Ockham introduced the principle of parsimony: natural philosophers should not postulate unnecessary entities, so that motion is not a distinct thing but is only the moving object[59] and an intermediary "sensible species" is not needed to transmit an image of an object to the eye. William of Ockham (also Occam, Hockham, or any of several other spellings ˈɒkəm (c Occam's razor (sometimes spelled Ockham's razor) is a principle attributed to the 14th-century English Logician and Franciscan Friar, [60] Scholars such as Jean Buridan and Nicole Oresme started to reinterpret elements of Aristotle's mechanics. Jean Buridan (in Latin, Johannes Buridanus; ca 1295 &ndash 1358 was a French Priest who sowed the seeds of the Copernican revolution Nicole Oresme, also known as Nicolas Oresme, Nicholas Oresme, or Nicolas d'Oresme (c In particular, Buridan developed the theory that impetus was the cause of the motion of projectiles, which was a first step towards the modern concept of inertia. The vis insita or innate force of matter is a power of resisting by which every body as much as in it lies endeavors to preserve in its present state whether it be of rest or of moving [61] The Oxford Calculators began to mathematically analyze the kinematics of motion, making this analysis without considering the causes of motion. The Oxford Calculators were a group of 14th-century thinkers almost all associated with Merton College, Oxford, who took a strikingly logico-mathematical Kinematics ( Greek κινειν, kinein, to move is a branch of Classical mechanics which describes the motion of objects without [62]
In 1348, the Black Death and other disasters sealed a sudden end to the previous period of massive philosophic and scientific development. The Black Death, or the Black Plague, was one of the deadliest Pandemics in human history widely thought to have been caused by a bacterium named Yersinia Yet, the rediscovery of ancient texts was improved after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, when many Byzantine scholars had to seek refuge in the West. The Fall of Constantinople refers to the capture of the Byzantine Empire's capital by the Ottoman Empire on Tuesday May 29, 1453 (Julian Calendar Meanwhile, the introduction of printing (from China) was to have great effect on European society. The facilitated dissemination of the printed word democratized learning and allowed a faster propagation of new ideas. New ideas also helped to influence the development of European science at this point: not least the introduction of Algebra. Algebra is a branch of Mathematics concerning the study of structure, relation, and Quantity. These developments paved the way for the Scientific Revolution, which may also be understood as a resumption of the process of scientific change, halted at the start of the Black Death. The period which many historians of science call the Scientific Revolution can be roughly dated as having begun in 1543 the year in which Nicolaus Copernicus published
Early modern science
- See also: Continuity thesis, Decline of Western alchemy, and Natural magic
The renewal of learning in Europe, that began with 12th century Scholasticism, came to an end about the time of the Black Death, and the initial period of the subsequent Italian Renaissance is sometimes seen as a lull in scientific activity. The period which many historians of science call the Scientific Revolution can be roughly dated as having begun in 1543 the year in which Nicolaus Copernicus published 17th century philosophy in the Western world is generally regarded as being the start of Modern philosophy, and a departure from the medieval approach In the History of ideas, the continuity thesis is the hypothesis that there was no radical discontinuity between the intellectual development of the Middle Ages and Alchemy encompasses several philosophical traditions spanning some four millennia and three continents Natural magic in the context of Renaissance magic is that part of the Occult which deals with Natural forces directly as opposed to Ceremonial magic Sir Isaac Newton, FRS (ˈnjuːtən 4 January 1643 31 March 1727) Biography Early years See also Isaac Newton's early life and achievements Classical mechanics is used for describing the motion of Macroscopic objects from Projectiles to parts of Machinery, as well as Astronomical objects Scholasticism was the dominant form of theology and philosophy in the Latin West in the Middle Ages, particularly in the 12th 13th and 14th centuries The Italian Renaissance began the opening phase of the Renaissance, a period of great cultural change and achievement in Europe that spanned the period from the end of the 14th The Northern Renaissance, on the other hand, showed a decisive shift in focus from Aristoteleian natural philosophy to chemistry and the biological sciences (botany, anatomy, and medicine). The Northern Renaissance is the term used to describe the Renaissance in Northern Europe, or more broadly in Europe outside Italy. [63] Thus modern science in Europe was resumed in a period of great upheaval: the Protestant Reformation and Catholic Counter-Reformation; the discovery of the Americas by Christopher Columbus; the Fall of Constantinople; but also the re-discovery of Aristotle during the Scholastic period presaged large social and political changes. The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time The Counter-Reformation (also Catholic Reformation denotes the period of Catholic revival from the pontificate of Pope Pius IV in 1560 to the close of the Christopher Columbus (1451 &ndash May 20 1506 was an Italian Navigator, colonizer The Fall of Constantinople refers to the capture of the Byzantine Empire's capital by the Ottoman Empire on Tuesday May 29, 1453 (Julian Calendar Thus, a suitable environment was created in which it became possible to question scientific doctrine, in much the same way that Martin Luther and John Calvin questioned religious doctrine. Martin Luther (November 10 1483 February 18 1546 was a German Monk, theologian, university professor Father of Protestantism, and church reformer John Calvin (or Jean Calvin) (10 July 1509 – 27 May 1564 was a French Protestant theologian during the Protestant Reformation and The works of Ptolemy (astronomy), Galen (medicine), and Aristotle (physics) were found not always to match everyday observations. Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. For example, an arrow flying through the air after leaving a bow contradicts Aristotle's laws of motion, which say that a moving object must be constantly under influence of an external force, as the natural state of earthly objects is to be at rest. Work by Vesalius on human cadavers also found problems with the Galenic view of anatomy. Andreas Vesalius ( Brussels, December 31, 1514 - Zakynthos, October 15, 1564) was an anatomist, Physician [64]
The willingness to question previously held truths and search for new answers resulted in a period of major scientific advancements, now known as the Scientific Revolution. The period which many historians of science call the Scientific Revolution can be roughly dated as having begun in 1543 the year in which Nicolaus Copernicus published The Scientific Revolution is traditionally held by most historians to have begun in 1543, when De Revolutionibus, by the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, was first printed. De revolutionibus orbium coelestium ( On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) first printed in 1543 in Nuremberg, is the seminal work on The thesis of this book was that the Earth moved around the Sun. The period culminated with the publication of the Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica in 1687 by Isaac Newton. The Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ( Latin: "mathematical principles of natural philosophy" often Principia Sir Isaac Newton, FRS (ˈnjuːtən 4 January 1643 31 March 1727) Biography Early years See also Isaac Newton's early life and achievements
Other significant scientific advances were made during this time by Galileo Galilei, Edmond Halley, Robert Hooke, Christiaan Huygens, Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, Gottfried Leibniz, and Blaise Pascal. Galileo Galilei (15 February 1564 &ndash 8 January 1642 was a Tuscan ( Italian) Physicist, Mathematician, Astronomer, and Philosopher Edmond Halley FRS (ˈɛdmənd ˈhɔːlɪ ( November 8, 1656 &ndash January 14, 1742) was an English Astronomer Robert Hooke, FRS (18 July 1635 – 3 March 1703 was an English Natural philosopher and Polymath who played an important role in the Christiaan Huygens (ˈhaɪgənz in English ˈhœyɣəns in Dutch) ( April 14, 1629 &ndash July 8, 1695) was a Dutch Tycho Brahe, born Tyge Ottesen Brahe ( December 14 1546 &ndash October 24 1601) was a Danish nobleman Johannes Kepler (ˈkɛplɚ ( December 27 1571 &ndash November 15 1630) was a German Mathematician, Astronomer Blaise Pascal (blɛz paskal (June 19 1623 &ndash August 19 1662 was a French Mathematician, Physicist, and religious Philosopher In philosophy, major contributions were made by Francis Bacon, Sir Thomas Browne, René Descartes, and Thomas Hobbes. Francis Bacon 1st Viscount St Alban KC QC (22 January 1561 – 9 April 1626 was an English Philosopher, Statesman, and author Sir Thomas Browne ( October 19, 1605 &ndash October 19, 1682) was an English author of varied works which disclose his wide learning Thomas Hobbes (born 5 April 1588died 4 December 1679 was an English philosopher, whose famous 1651 book Leviathan established the foundation The scientific method was also better developed as the modern way of thinking emphasized experimentation and reason over traditional considerations.
Age of Enlightenment
- Further information: Age of Enlightenment
The 17th century "Age of Reason" opened the avenues to the decisive steps towards modern science, which took place during the 18th century "Age of Enlightenment". The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century Directly based on the works of Newton, Descartes, Pascal and Leibniz, the way was now clear to the development of modern mathematics, physics and technology by the generation of Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790), Leonhard Euler (1707–1783), Georges-Louis Leclerc (1707–1788) and Jean le Rond d'Alembert (1717–1783), epitomized in the appearance of Denis Diderot's Encyclopédie between 1751 and 1772. Sir Isaac Newton, FRS (ˈnjuːtən 4 January 1643 31 March 1727) Biography Early years See also Isaac Newton's early life and achievements Blaise Pascal (blɛz paskal (June 19 1623 &ndash August 19 1662 was a French Mathematician, Physicist, and religious Philosopher Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and Physics (Greek Physis - φύσις in everyday terms is the Science of Matter and its motion. Technology is a broad concept that deals with a Species ' usage and knowledge of Tools and Crafts and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt Benjamin Franklin ( April 17 1790 was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States of America. Georges-Louis Leclerc fr Comte de Buffon ( September 7, 1707 April 16, 1788) was a French naturalist, mathematician biologist Denis Diderot ( October 5, 1713 – July 31, 1784) was a French Philosopher and writer Encyclopédie ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences des arts et des métiers (Encyclopedia or a systematic dictionary of the sciences arts and crafts was a general The impact of this process was not limited to science and technology, but affected philosophy (Immanuel Kant, David Hume), religion (notably with the appearance of positive atheism, and the increasingly significant impact of science upon religion), and society and politics in general (Adam Smith, Voltaire), the French Revolution of 1789 setting a bloody cesura indicating the beginning of political modernity. The history of Philosophy is the study of philosophical ideas and concepts through time Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg David Hume (26 April 1711 25 August 1776 Scottish Philosopher, Economist, and Historian is an important figure in Western philosophy The History of religions ( Religiongeschichteschule, school of religious history was a 19th century German school of thought which was the first to systematically Atheism The relationship between religion and science has long held interest for scholars particularly in the Philosophy of science, the Philosophy of religion, and Adam Smith ( baptised 16 June 1723 – 17 July 1790) was a Scottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of Political economy. François-Marie Arouet ( 21 November 1694 30 May 1778) better known by the Pen name Voltaire, was a French The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an Modernity is a term that refers to the Modern era. It is distinct from Modernism, and in different contexts refers to cultural and intellectual movements of the
Modern science
The Scientific Revolution established science as the preeminent source for the growth of knowledge. Albert Einstein ( German: ˈalbɐt ˈaɪ̯nʃtaɪ̯n; English: ˈælbɝt ˈaɪnstaɪn (14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955 was a German -born theoretical The early modern period is seen as a flowering of the Renaissance, in what is often known as the Scientific Revolution, viewed as a foundation of modern science. The early modern period is a term initially used by historians to refer mainly to the period roughly from 1500 to 1800 in Western Europe ( Early modern Europe) The period which many historians of science call the Scientific Revolution can be roughly dated as having begun in 1543 the year in which Nicolaus Copernicus published Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding During the 19th century, the practice of science became professionalized and institutionalized in ways which continued through the 20th century. As the role of scientific knowledge grew in society, it became incorporated with many aspects of the functioning of nation-states.
The history of science is marked by a chain of advances in technology and knowledge that have always complemented each other. Technology is a broad concept that deals with a Species ' usage and knowledge of Tools and Crafts and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt Technological innovations bring about new discoveries and are bred by other discoveries which inspire new possibilities and approaches to longstanding science issues. Investing in science and technology is critical to ensuring prosperity and a high quality of life. Science and technology is a Term of art used to encompass the relationship between Science and Technology. Wealth derives from the old English word "weal" which means "well-being Quality of life is the degree of well-being felt by an individual or group of people Scientists are at the forefront of the development of scientific and technological innovations. A scientist, in the broadest sense refers to any person that engages in a systematic activity to acquire Knowledge or an individual that engages in such practices The primary objectives of these professionals are to create and develop novel research that can be used to solve problems for both the states' populations and individual entities like companies or other private organizations. Research is defined as Human activity based on Intellectual application in the investigation of Matter. A state is a political association with effective Sovereignty over a geographic Area and representing a Population. Generally a company is a form of Business organization. The precise definition varies
Natural sciences
Physics
The Scientific Revolution is a convenient boundary between ancient thought and classical physics. The modern discipline of Physics emerged in the 17th century following in traditions of inquiry established by Galileo Galilei, René Descartes, Isaac James Clerk Maxwell (13 June 1831 &ndash 5 November 1879 was a Scottish mathematician and theoretical physicist. Nicolaus Copernicus revived the heliocentric model of the solar system described by Aristarchus of Samos. In Astronomy, heliocentrism is the theory that the Sun is at the center of the Solar System. Aristarchus (Ἀρίσταρχος 310 BC - ca 230 BC) was a Greek Astronomer and Mathematician, born on the island of This was followed by the first known model of planetary motion given by Kepler in the early 17th century, which proposed that the planets follow elliptical orbits, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse. Johannes Kepler (ˈkɛplɚ ( December 27 1571 &ndash November 15 1630) was a German Mathematician, Astronomer In Mathematics, an ellipse (from the Greek ἔλλειψις literally absence) is a Conic section, the locus of points in a Galileo ("Father of Modern Physics") also made use of experiments to validate physical theories, a key element of the scientific method. Galileo Galilei (15 February 1564 &ndash 8 January 1642 was a Tuscan ( Italian) Physicist, Mathematician, Astronomer, and Philosopher
In 1687, Isaac Newton published the Principia Mathematica, detailing two comprehensive and successful physical theories: Newton's laws of motion, which led to classical mechanics; and Newton's Law of Gravitation, which describes the fundamental force of gravity. Sir Isaac Newton, FRS (ˈnjuːtən 4 January 1643 31 March 1727) Biography Early years See also Isaac Newton's early life and achievements The Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ( Latin: "mathematical principles of natural philosophy" often Principia Newton's laws of motion are three Physical laws which provide relationships between the Forces acting on a body and the motion of the Gravitation is a natural Phenomenon by which objects with Mass attract one another The behavior of electricity and magnetism was studied by Faraday, Ohm, and others during the early 19th century. Michael Faraday, FRS ( September 22 1791 – August 25 1867) was an English Georg Simon Ohm' was a German physicist As a high school teacher Ohm began his research with the recently invented Electrochemical cell, invented by Italian Count These studies led to the unification of the two phenomena into a single theory of electromagnetism, by Maxwell (known as Maxwell's equations). Electromagnetism is the Physics of the Electromagnetic field: a field which exerts a Force on particles that possess the property of James Clerk Maxwell (13 June 1831 &ndash 5 November 1879 was a Scottish mathematician and theoretical physicist. In Classical electromagnetism, Maxwell's equations are a set of four Partial differential equations that describe the properties of the electric
The beginning of the 20th century brought the start of a revolution in physics. The metric expansion of space is the averaged increase of metric (i The long-held theories of Newton were shown not to be correct in all circumstances. Beginning in 1900, Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Niels Bohr and others developed quantum theories to explain various anomalous experimental results, by introducing discrete energy levels. Albert Einstein ( German: ˈalbɐt ˈaɪ̯nʃtaɪ̯n; English: ˈælbɝt ˈaɪnstaɪn (14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955 was a German -born theoretical Niels Henrik David Bohr (nels ˈb̥oɐ̯ˀ in Danish 7 October 1885 – 18 November 1962 was a Danish Physicist who made fundamental contributions to understanding Not only did quantum mechanics show that the laws of motion did not hold on small scales, but even more disturbingly, the theory of general relativity, proposed by Einstein in 1915, showed that the fixed background of spacetime, on which both Newtonian mechanics and special relativity depended, could not exist. General relativity or the general theory of relativity is the geometric theory of Gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1916 SpaceTime is a patent-pending three dimensional graphical user interface that allows end users to search their content such as Google Google Images Yahoo! YouTube eBay Amazon and RSS Classical mechanics is used for describing the motion of Macroscopic objects from Projectiles to parts of Machinery, as well as Astronomical objects Special relativity (SR (also known as the special theory of relativity or STR) is the Physical theory of Measurement in Inertial In 1925, Werner Heisenberg and Erwin Schrödinger formulated quantum mechanics, which explained the preceding quantum theories. Werner Heisenberg (5 December 1901 in Würzburg &ndash1 February 1976 in Munich) was a German theoretical physicist best known for enunciating the Quantum mechanics is the study of mechanical systems whose dimensions are close to the Atomic scale such as Molecules Atoms Electrons The observation by Edwin Hubble in 1929 that the speed at which galaxies recede positively correlates with their distance, led to the understanding that the universe is expanding, and the formulation of the Big Bang theory by Georges Lemaître. Edwin Powell Hubble ( November 20, 1889 – September 28, 1953) was an American astronomer. The Big Bang is the cosmological model of the Universe that is best supported by all lines of scientific evidence and Observation. Georges Henri Joseph Édouard Lemaître ( July 17, 1894 &ndash June 20, 1966) was a Belgian Roman Catholic Priest
Further developments took place during World War II, which led to the practical application of radar and the development and use of the atomic bomb. Radar is a system that uses electromagnetic waves to identify the range altitude direction or speed of both moving and fixed objects such as Aircraft, ships A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from Nuclear reactions either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Though the process had begun with the invention of the cyclotron by Ernest O. Lawrence in the 1930s, physics in the postwar period entered into a phase of what historians have called "Big Science", requiring massive machines, budgets, and laboratories in order to test their theories and move into new frontiers. A cyclotron is a type of Particle accelerator. Cyclotrons accelerate Charged particles using a high- Frequency, alternating Voltage (potential Ernest Orlando Lawrence ( August 8, 1901 – August 27, 1958) was an American physicist and Nobel Laureate best known for his This article is about the term For the album see ''Big Science'' (album. The primary patron of physics became state governments, who recognized that the support of "basic" research could often lead to technologies useful to both military and industrial applications. Currently, general relativity and quantum mechanics are inconsistent with each other, and efforts are underway to unify the two.
Chemistry
The history of modern chemistry can be taken to begin with the distinction of chemistry from alchemy by Robert Boyle in his work The Sceptical Chymist, in 1661 (although the alchemical tradition continued for some time after this) and the gravimetric experimental practices of medical chemists like William Cullen, Joseph Black, Torbern Bergman and Pierre Macquer. The history of Chemistry begins with the discovery of Fire, then Metallurgy which allowed purification of metals and the making of alloys as well as the exploitation Alchemy a part of the Occult Tradition is both a philosophy and a practice with an ultimately unknown aim involving the improvement of the alchemist as well as the making of Robert Boyle was a Natural philosopher, chemist physicist inventor and early Gentleman scientist, noted for his work in Physics and Chemistry William Cullen ( 15 April 1710 – 5 February 1790) was a Scottish doctor and Chemist. Joseph Black ( April 16, 1728 &ndash December 6, 1799) was a Scottish Physicist and Chemist, known for his Torbern Olof Bergman ( March 20, 1735 Katrineberg, Sweden, &ndash July 8, 1784 Medevi, Sweden) was Pierre Joseph Macquer (1718&ndash1784 was an influential French chemist Another important step was made by Antoine Lavoisier (Father of Modern Chemistry) through his recognition of oxygen and the law of conservation of mass, which refuted phlogiston theory. Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the The law of conservation of mass/matter, also known as law of mass/matter conservation (or the Lomonosov - Lavoisier law says that the Mass of The phlogiston theory (from the Ancient Greek φλογιστόν phlŏgistón "burning up" from φλόξ phlóx "fire" first stated The theory that all matter is made of atoms, which are the smallest constituents of matter that cannot be broken down without losing the basic chemical and physical properties of that matter, was provided by John Dalton in 1803, although the question took a hundred years to settle as proven. John Dalton FRS (6 September 1766 &ndash 27 July 1844 was an English Chemist, Meteorologist and Physicist. Dalton also formulated the law of mass relationships. In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev composed his periodic table of elements on the basis of Dalton's discoveries. Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev (sometimes spelled Mendeleyev; Дми́трий Ива́нович Менделе́ев) ( &ndash) was a Russian chemist and The periodic table of the chemical elements is a tabular method of displaying the Chemical elements Although precursors to this table exist its invention is
The synthesis of urea by Friedrich Wöhler opened a new research field, organic chemistry, and by the end of the 19th century, scientists were able to synthesize hundreds of organic compounds. Urea is an Organic compound with the Chemical formula ( N[[hydrogen H]]22 C[[oxygen O]] Friedrich Wöhler (31 July 1800 - 23 September 1882 was a German Chemist, best-known for his synthesis of Urea, but also the first to isolate several Organic chemistry is a discipline within Chemistry which involves the scientific study of the structure properties composition reactions, and preparation The later part of the nineteenth century saw the exploitation of the Earth's petrochemicals, after the exhaustion of the oil supply from whaling. Whaling is the hunting of Whales and dates back to at least 6000 BC By the twentieth century, systematic production of refined materials provided a ready supply of products which provided not only energy, but also synthetic materials for clothing, medicine, and everyday disposable resources. Application of the techniques of organic chemistry to living organisms resulted in physiological chemistry, the precursor to biochemistry. Physiological chemistry is the Chemistry of the organs and tissues of the body and of the various physiological processes incident to life Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes in living Organisms It deals with the Structure and function of cellular components such as The twentieth century also saw the integration of physics and chemistry, with chemical properties explained as the result of the electronic structure of the atom. Linus Pauling's book on The Nature of the Chemical Bond used the principles of quantum mechanics to deduce bond angles in ever-more complicated molecules. Linus Carl Pauling (February 28 1901 – August 19 1994 was an American Scientist, Peace activist, Author and educator. Molecular geometry or molecular structure is the three- Dimensional arrangement of the Atoms that constitute a Molecule. Pauling's work culminated in the physical modelling of DNA, the secret of life (in the words of Francis Crick, 1953). Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) is a Nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known Francis Harry Compton Crick OM FRS (8 June 1916 – 28 July 2004 Ph In the same year, the Miller-Urey experiment demonstrated in a simulation of primordial processes, that basic constituents of proteins, simple amino acids, could themselves be built up from simpler molecules. The Miller-Urey experiment (or Urey-Miller experiment) was an Experiment that simulated hypothetical conditions present on the Early Earth and tested In Chemistry, an amino acid is a Molecule containing both Amine and Carboxyl Functional groups In Biochemistry, this
Geology
Geology existed as a cloud of isolated, disconnected ideas about rocks, minerals, and landforms long before it became a coherent science. Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit Theophrastus' work on rocks Peri lithōn remained authoritative for millennia: its interpretation of fossils was not overturned until after the Scientific Revolution. Theophrastus ( Greek:; 371 – c 287 BC a Greek native of Eressos in Lesbos, was the successor of Aristotle in the Peripatetic Chinese polymath Shen Kua (1031 - 1095) was the first to formulate hypotheses for the process of land formation. Shen Kuo or Shen Kua ( (1031&ndash1095 style name Cunzhong and pseudonym Mengqi Weng, was a Polymathic Chinese Based on his observation of fossils in a geological stratum in a mountain hundreds of miles from the ocean, he deduced that the land was formed by erosion of the mountains and by deposition of silt. In Geology and related fields a stratum (plural strata) is a layer of rock or Soil with internally consistent characteristics that distinguishes Deposition is the geological process by which material is added to a Landform or land mass
Geology was not systematically restructured during the Scientific Revolution, but individual theorists made important contributions. Plate tectonics (from Greek τέκτων tektōn "builder" or "mason" describes the large scale motions of Earth 's Lithosphere Seafloor spreading occurs at Mid-ocean ridges where new Oceanic crust is formed through volcanic activity and then gradually moves away from the ridge Continental drift is the movement of the Earth 's Continents relative to each other The period which many historians of science call the Scientific Revolution can be roughly dated as having begun in 1543 the year in which Nicolaus Copernicus published Robert Hooke, for example, formulated theory of earthquakes, and Nicholas Steno developed the theory of superposition and argued that fossils were the remains of once-living creatures. Robert Hooke, FRS (18 July 1635 – 3 March 1703 was an English Natural philosopher and Polymath who played an important role in the Nicolas Steno ( Danish: Niels Stensen; Latinized to Nicolaus Stenonis) ( January 10, 1638 - November 25, FOSSIL is a standard protocol for allowing serial communication for Telecommunications programs under the DOS Operating system. Beginning with Thomas Burnet's Sacred Theory of the Earth in 1685, natural philosophers began to explore the idea that the Earth had changed over time. Thomas Burnet (c 1635? - September 27 1715) theologian and writer on Cosmogony, was born at Croft near Darlington, and educated Burnet and his contemporaries interpreted Earth's past in terms of events described in the Bible, but their work laid the intellectual foundations for secular interpretations of Earth history.
Modern geology, like modern chemistry, gradually evolved during the 1700s and early 1800s. Benoît de Maillet and the Comte de Buffon argued that Earth was much older than the 6,000 years envisioned by biblical scholars. Benoît de Maillet ( April 12 1656 in Saint-Mihiel - January 30 1738 in Marseille) was a French anthropologist Georges-Louis Leclerc fr Comte de Buffon ( September 7, 1707 April 16, 1788) was a French naturalist, mathematician biologist Jean-Étienne Guettard and Nicolas Desmarest hiked central France and recorded their observations on some of the first geological maps. Jean-Étienne Guettard ( September 22, 1715 &ndash January 7, 1786) French naturalist and Mineralogist, was Nicolas Desmarest ( September 16, 1725 &ndash September 20, 1815) was a French Geologist. Abraham Werner created a systematic classification scheme for rocks and minerals--an achievement as significant for geology as that of Linnaeus was for biology. Abraham Gottlob Werner ( September 25, 1749 &ndash June 30, 1817) was a German Geologist who set out a now obsolete theory Carl Linnaeus (Latinized as Carolus Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as, May 23 new style (13 May old style 1707 who laid the foundations for Werner also proposed a generalized interpretation of Earth history, as did contemporary Scottish polymath James Hutton. James Hutton MD (3 June 1726 OS (14 June 1726 NS) Edinburgh 26 March 1797 was a Scottish Geologist, Georges Cuvier and Alexandre Brongniart, expanding on the work of Steno, argued that layers of rock could be dated by the fossils they contained: a principle first applied to the geology of the Paris Basin. Baron Georges Léopold Chrétien Frédéric Dagobert Cuvier ( August 23 1769 &ndash May 13, 1832) was a French naturalist Alexandre Brongniart (1770 &ndash 1847 was a French Chemist, Mineralogist, and Zoologist, who collaborated with Georges Cuvier on Nicolas Steno ( Danish: Niels Stensen; Latinized to Nicolaus Stenonis) ( January 10, 1638 - November 25, The use of index fossils became a powerful tool for making geological maps, because it allowed geologists to correlate the rocks in one locality with those of similar age in other, distant localities. Index fossils (also known as guide fossils or zone fossils are Fossils used to define and identify geologic periods (or faunal stages Over the first half of the nineteenth century, geologists such as Charles Lyell, Adam Sedgwick, and Roderick Murchison applied the new technique to rocks throughout Europe and eastern North America, setting the stage for more detailed, government-funded mapping projects in later decades. Sir Charles Lyell 1st Baronet, KT, FRS (14 November 1797 &ndash 22 February 1875 was a Scottish Lawyer, Geologist, and protagonist Adam Sedgwick ( 22 March 1785 &ndash 27 January 1873) was one of the founders of modern Geology. Sir Roderick Impey Murchison 1st Baronet KCB FRS ( 19 February, 1792 &ndash 22 October, 1871) was an influential
Midway through the 19th century, the focus of geology shifted from description and classification to attempts to understand how the surface of the Earth changed. The first comprehensive theories of mountain building were proposed during this period, as were the first modern theories of earthquakes and volcanoes. Louis Agassiz and others established the reality of continent-covering ice ages, and "fluvialists" like Andrew Crombie Ramsay argued that river valleys were formed, over millions of years by the rivers that flow through them. Jean Louis Rodolphe Agassiz ( May 28 1807 — December 14 1873) was a Swiss - American Zoologist, Glaciologist An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the Temperature of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere resulting in an expansion of continental Ice sheets Sir Andrew Crombie Ramsay ( 31 January 1814 &ndash 9 December 1891) was a Scottish Geologist. After the discovery of radioactivity, radiometric dating methods were developed, starting in the 1900s. Radioactive decay is the process in which an unstable Atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting ionizing particles and Radiation. Radiometric dating (often called radioactive dating) is a technique used to date materials usually based on a comparison between the observed abundance of a naturally occurring Alfred Wegener's theory of "continental drift" was widely dismissed when it was proposed in the 1910s, but new data gathered in the 1950s and 1960s led to the theory of plate tectonics, which provided a plausible mechanism for it. Alfred Lothar Wegener ( November 1, 1880 – November 2 or 3 1930 was a German Scientist and Meteorologist. Plate tectonics (from Greek τέκτων tektōn "builder" or "mason" describes the large scale motions of Earth 's Lithosphere Plate tectonics also provided a unified explanation for a wide range of seemingly unrelated geological phenomena. Plate tectonics (from Greek τέκτων tektōn "builder" or "mason" describes the large scale motions of Earth 's Lithosphere Since 1970 it has been the unifying principle in geology.
Geologists' embrace of plate tectonics was part of a broadening of the field from a study of rocks into a study of the Earth as a planet. Plate tectonics (from Greek τέκτων tektōn "builder" or "mason" describes the large scale motions of Earth 's Lithosphere Other elements of this transformation include: geophysical studies of the interior of the Earth, the grouping of geology with meteorology and oceanography as one of the "earth sciences", and comparisons of Earth and the solar system's other rocky planets. Meteorology (from Greek grc μετέωρος metéōros, "high in the sky" and grc -λογία -logia) is the Interdisciplinary Oceanography (from the greek words Ωκεανός meaning Ocean and γράφω meaning to write also called oceanology or
Astronomy
Aristarchus of Samos published work on how to determine the sizes and distances of the Sun and the Moon, and Eratosthenes used this work to figure the size of the Earth. Astronomy is the oldest of the Natural sciences dating back to antiquity, with its origins in the religious, Mythological, and Astrological Aristarchus (Ἀρίσταρχος 310 BC - ca 230 BC) was a Greek Astronomer and Mathematician, born on the island of On the Sizes and Distances the Sun and Moon is the only extant work written by Aristarchus of Samos, an ancient Greek astronomer who lived circa 310 BC Eratosthenes of Cyrene ( Greek; 276 BC - 194 BC was a Greek Mathematician, Poet, athlete, Geographer and Hipparchus later discovered the precession of the Earth. Hipparchus ( Greek; ca 190 BC &ndash ca 120 BC was a Greek Astronomer, Geographer, and Mathematician of the Hellenistic In Astronomy, Precession refers to the movement of the rotational axis of a body such as a planet with respect to Inertial space.
Advances in astronomy and in optical systems in the 19th century resulted in the first observation of an asteroid (1 Ceres) in 1801, and the discovery of Neptune in 1846. Asteroids, sometimes called Minor planets or planetoids', are bodies—primarily of the inner Solar System —that are smaller than planets but Ceres (ˈsɪəriːz Neptune ( English|AmE] ] is the eighth and farthest Planet from the Sun in the Solar System.
George Gamow, Ralph Alpher, and Robert Hermann had calculated that there should be evidence for a Big Bang in the background temperature of the universe. George Gamow (pronounced as ˈgamof ( March 4, 1904 &ndash August 19, 1968), born Georgiy Antonovich Gamov (Георгий Антонович Ralph Asher Alpher ( February 3, 1921 - August 12, 2007) was a U Robert Herman ( August 29, 1914 - February 13, 1997) was a United States scientist best known for his work with Ralph Alpher [65] In 1964, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson[66] discovered a 3 kelvin background hiss in their Bell Labs radiotelescope, which was evidence for this hypothesis, and formed the basis for a number of results that helped determine the age of the universe. Arno Allan Penzias (born April 26, 1933) is an American Physicist and Nobel laureate in physics. Robert Woodrow Wilson (born January 10, 1936) is an American Astronomer, Nobel laureate in physics, who with Arno Allan Bell Laboratories (also known as Bell Labs and formerly known as AT&T Bell Laboratories and Bell Telephone Laboratories) is the Research organization A radio telescope is a form of directional Radio antenna used in Radio astronomy and in tracking and collecting data from Satellites The age of the Universe is the time elapsed between the theory of the Big Bang and the present day
Supernova SN1987A was observed by astronomers on Earth both visually, and in a triumph for neutrino astronomy, by the solar neutrino detectors at Kamiokande. SN 1987A was a Supernova in the outskirts of the Tarantula Nebula in the Large Magellanic Cloud, a nearby Neutrino astronomy is the branch of astronomy that observes astronomical objects with neutrino detectors in special observatories The is a Neutrino Physics Laboratory located underground in the Mozumi Mine of the Kamioka Mining and Smelting Co But the solar neutrino flux was a fraction of its theoretically-expected value. Introduction The Sun is a natural Nuclear fusion reactor powered by a Proton-proton chain reaction which converts four Hydrogen nuclei This discrepancy forced a change in some values in the standard model for particle physics. The Standard Model of Particle physics is a theory that describes three of the four known Fundamental interactions together with the Elementary particles Particle physics is a branch of Physics that studies the elementary constituents of Matter and Radiation, and the interactions between them
Biology, medicine, and genetics
In 1847, Hungarian physician Ignác Fülöp Semmelweis dramatically reduced the occurrency of puerperal fever by the simple experiment of requiring physicians to wash their hands before attending to women in childbirth. The history of biology traces the study of the living world from ancient to modern times The history of molecular biology begins in the 1930s with the convergence of various previously distinct biological disciplines Biochemistry, Genetics, Microbiology All human societies have medical beliefs that provide explanations for birth, Death, and Disease. Evolutionary thought, the idea that species change over time has roots in antiquity in the ideas of the Greeks, Romans, Chinese and Muslims DNA replication is the process of copying a double-stranded DNA molecule to form two double-stranded molecules Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis ( July 1, 1818 &ndash August 13, 1865) also Ignac Semmelweis (born Semmelweis Ignác Fülöp Puerperal fever (from the Latin puer, child) also called childbed fever, can develop into puerperal sepsis, which is a serious This discovery predated the germ theory of disease. The germ theory, also called the pathogenic theory of medicine, is a Theory that proposes that Microorganisms are the cause of many Diseases. However, Semmelweis' findings were not appreciated by his contemporaries and came into use only with discoveries by British surgeon Joseph Lister, who in 1865 proved the principles of antisepsis. Joseph Lister 1st Baron Lister, OM, FRS ( 5 April 1827 &ndash 10 February 1912) was an English surgeon Antiseptics (from Greek αντί - anti, '"against" + σηπτικός - septikos, "putrefactive" are antimicrobial Lister's work was based on the important findings by French biologist Louis Pasteur. Louis Pasteur (27 December 1822 – 28 September 1895 a French Chemist and Microbiologist, is best known for remarkable breakthroughs in the causes and Pasteur was able to link microorganisms with disease, revolutionizing medicine. He also devised one of the most important methods in preventive medicine, when in 1880 he produced a vaccine against rabies. Generally speaking preventive medicine is the part of Medicine engaged with preventing Disease rather than curing it A vaccine is a biological preparation which is used to establish or improve immunity to a particular disease Rabies (from rabies “madness rage fury” Also known as “ hydrophobia ” is a viral Zoonotic neuroinvasive disease that Pasteur invented the process of pasteurization, to help prevent the spread of disease through milk and other foods. Pasteurization is the process of heating Liquids for the purpose of destroying bacteria, Protozoa, Molds and Yeasts The process was
Perhaps the most prominent and far-reaching theory in all of science has been the theory of evolution by natural selection put forward by the British naturalist Charles Darwin in his book On the Origin of Species in 1859. eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 Natural selection is the process by which favorable Heritable traits become more common in successive Generations of a Population of Charles Robert Darwin (February 12 1809 &ndash April 19 1882 was an English naturalist, who realised and demonstrated that all Species of life Charles Darwin 's On the Origin of Species (published 24 November 1859) is a seminal work in Scientific literature and arguably the Darwin proposed that the features of all living things, including humans, were shaped by natural processes over long periods of time. Implications of evolution on fields outside of pure science have led to both opposition and support from different parts of society, and profoundly influenced the popular understanding of "man's place in the universe". theory of transmutation had early origins in the speculations and hypotheses of Erasmus Darwin, and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck. In the early 20th century, the study of heredity became a major investigation after the rediscovery in 1900 of the laws of inheritance developed by the Moravian[67] monk Gregor Mendel in 1866. Moravia (Morava; Morawy Moravie Moravia is a historical region in central Europe in the east of the Czech Republic, one of the former Czech lands. Gregor Johann Mendel ( July 20, 1822 &ndash January 6, 1884) was Mendel's laws provided the beginnings of the study of genetics, which became a major field of research for both scientific and industrial research. Genetics (from Ancient Greek grc-Latn genetikos, “genitive” and that from grc-Latn genesis, “origin” a discipline of Biology, is By 1953, James D. Watson, Francis Crick and Rosalind Franklin clarified the basic structure of DNA, the genetic material for expressing life in all its forms. Francis Harry Compton Crick OM FRS (8 June 1916 – 28 July 2004 Ph Rosalind Elsie Franklin ( 25 July, 1920 Notting Hill, London – 16 April, 1958 Chelsea London) was an Genetic material is used to store the genetic information of an organic life form [68] In the late 20th century, the possibilities of genetic engineering became practical for the first time, and a massive international effort began in 1990 to map out an entire human genome (the Human Genome Project) has been touted as potentially having large medical benefits. Genetic engineering, Recombinant DNA technology, genetic modification/manipulation (GM and gene splicing are terms that apply to the direct In classical genetics the genome of a Diploid Organism including Eukarya refers to a full set of chromosomes or genes in a Gamete, thereby The Human Genome Project (HGP was an international Scientific research project with a primary goal to determine the sequence of chemical base pairs which make up DNA
Ecology
The discipline of ecology typically traces its origin to the synthesis of Darwinian evolution and Humboldtian biogeography, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Ecology (from Greek grc οἶκος oikos, "house(hold" and grc -λογία -logia) is the scientific study of eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 Humboldtian science is a term given to the movement in Science in the 19th century Biogeography is the study of the distribution of Biodiversity over Space and Time. Equally important in the rise of ecology, however, were microbiology and soil science—particularly the cycle of life concept, prominent in the work Louis Pasteur and Ferdinand Cohn. Microbiology (from Greek grc μῑκρος mīkros, "small" grc βίος bios, " Life " and grc -λογία Soil science is the study of Soil as a Natural resource on the surface of the Earth including soil formation, classification and mapping In Ecology and Earth science, a biogeochemical cycle is a circuit or pathway by which a Chemical element or Molecule moves through both biotic Louis Pasteur (27 December 1822 – 28 September 1895 a French Chemist and Microbiologist, is best known for remarkable breakthroughs in the causes and Ferdinand Julius Cohn (24 January 1828 &ndash 25 June 1898 was a German Biologist. The word ecology was coined by Ernst Haeckel, whose particularly holistic view of nature in general (and Darwin's theory in particular) was important in the spread of ecological thinking. Ernst Heinrich Philipp August Haeckel ( February 16, 1834 — August 9, 1919)also written von Haeckel, was an eminent German In the 1930s, Arthur Tansley and others began developing the field of ecosystem ecology, which combined experimental soil science with physiological concepts of energy and the techniques of field biology. Sir Arthur George Tansley ( August 15, 1871 - November 25, 1955) was an English Botanist who was a pioneer in the science Ecosystem ecology is the integrated study of biotic and Abiotic components of Ecosystems and their interactions within an ecosystem framework Natural history is the Scientific research of Plants or Animals leaning more towards the Observational than Experimental methods The history of ecology in the 20th century is closely tied to that of environmentalism; the Gaia hypothesis in the 1960s and more recently the scientific-religious movement of Deep Ecology have brought the two closer together. Environmentalism is a broad philosophy and Social movement centered on a concern for the conservation and improvement of the environment. The Gaia hypothesis is an ecological Hypothesis proposing that the Biosphere and the physical components of the Earth ( Atmosphere Deep ecology is a recent branch of ecological Philosophy ( Ecosophy) that considers Humankind an integral part of its environment.
Social sciences
Successful use of the scientific method in the physical sciences led to the same methodology being adapted to better understand the many fields of human endeavor. For more see Social sciences#History of the social sciences In ancient philosophy there was no difference between the Liberal arts of mathematics From this effort the social sciences have been developed.
Political science
While the study of politics is first found in Western culture in Ancient Greece, political science is a late arrival in terms of social sciences. While the study of politics is first found in Ancient Greece and ancient India, political science is a late arrival in terms of Social sciences. Western culture (sometimes equated with Western Civilization) are terms which are used to refer to Cultures of European origin The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca The social sciences comprise academic disciplines concerned with the study of the social life of human groups and individuals including Anthropology, Communication studies However, the discipline has a clear set of antecedents such as moral philosophy, political philosophy, political economy, history, and other fields concerned with normative determinations of what ought to be and with deducing the characteristics and functions of the ideal state. Ethics is a major branch of Philosophy, encompassing right conduct and good life Political philosophy is the study of questions about the City, Government, Politics, Liberty, Justice, Property, Rights Political economy originally was the term for studying production buying and selling and their relations with law custom and government Normative has specialized meanings in several academic disciplines A state is a political association with effective Sovereignty over a geographic Area and representing a Population. In each historic period and in almost every geographic area, we can find someone studying politics and increasing political understanding.
The antecedents of politics trace their roots back even earlier than Plato and Aristotle, particularly in the works of Homer, Hesiod, Thucydides, Xenophon, and Euripides. Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Homer ( Ancient Greek:, Homēros) is a legendary ancient Greek epic Poet, traditionally said to be the author of the epic poems the Hesiod ( Greek: Hesiodos) was an early Greek Poet and Rhapsode, who presumably lived around 700 BCE Thucydides ( C 460 BC &ndash C 395 BC) ( Greek Θουκυδίδης Thoukydídēs) was a Greek Xenophon (Ancient Greek, Modern Greek "Ξενοφών" "Ξενοφώντας" ca Euripides ( Ancient Greek:) (ca 480 BC–406 BC was the last of the three great tragedians of classical Athens (the other two being Aeschylus Later, Plato analyzed political systems, abstracted their analysis from more literary- and history- oriented studies and applied an approach we would understand as closer to philosophy. Literature is the Art of written works Literally translated the word means "acquaintance with letters" (from Latin littera letter Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Similarly, Aristotle built upon Plato's analysis to include historical empirical evidence in his analysis.
During the rule of Rome, famous historians such as Polybius, Livy and Plutarch documented the rise of the Roman Republic, and the organization and histories of other nations, while statesmen like Julius Caesar, Cicero and others provided us with examples of the politics of the republic and Rome's empire and wars. Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Polybius (ca 203 &ndash 120 BC, Greek) was a Greek historian of the Hellenistic Period noted for his book called The Histories Titus Livius (traditionally 59 BC &ndash AD 17 known as Livy in English, was a Roman historian who wrote a monumental history of Rome Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Greek: Μέστριος Πλούταρχος c A republic is a State or Country that is not led by a hereditary Monarch, but in which the people (or at least a part of its people have impact on its A statesman or stateswoman or statesperson is usually a Politician or other notable figure of State who has had a long and respected career in Marcus Tullius Cicero ( Classical Latin ˈkikeroː usually ˈsɪsərəʊ in English January 3, 106 BC &ndash December 7, 43 BC was a Roman The study of politics during this age was oriented toward understanding history, understanding methods of governing, and describing the operation of governments.
With the fall of the Roman Empire, there arose a more diffuse arena for political studies. The Decline of the Roman Empire, leading to the Fall of the Roman Empire, or the Fall of Rome, was the end of the Western Roman Empire. The rise of monotheism and, particularly for the Western tradition, Christianity, brought to light a new space for politics and political action. For the Celtic Frost album see Monotheist (album In Theology, monotheism (from Greek grc [[wiktμόνος μόνος]] Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings During the Middle Ages, the study of politics was widespread in the churches and courts. Works such as Augustine of Hippo's The City of God synthesized current philosophies and political traditions with those of Christianity, redefining the borders between what was religious and what was political. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings Most of the political questions surrounding the relationship between church and state were clarified and contested in this period.
In the Middle East and later other Islamic areas, works such as the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam and Epic of Kings by Ferdowsi provided evidence of political analysis, while the Islamic aristotelians such as Avicenna and later Maimonides and Averroes, continued Aristotle's tradition of analysis and empiricism, writing commentaries on Aristotle's works. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam ( Persian: رباعیات عمر خیام The Rubáiyát ( Arabic: رباعیات is a collection of Poems Hakīm Abū l-Qāsim Firdawsī Tūsī ( more commonly transliterated as Ferdowsi, (935&ndash1020 was a highly revered Persian Poet. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Moses Maimonides ( March 30 1135 – December 13 1204) also known as the Rambam, was a Rabbi, Physician, and Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. In Philosophy, empiricism is a theory of Knowledge which asserts that knowledge arises from Experience.
During the Italian Renaissance, Niccolò Machiavelli established the emphasis of modern political science on direct empirical observation of political institutions and actors. The Italian Renaissance began the opening phase of the Renaissance, a period of great cultural change and achievement in Europe that spanned the period from the end of the 14th A central concept in Science and the Scientific method is that all Evidence must be empirical, or empirically based that is dependent on evidence Observation is either an activity of a living being (such as a Human) which senses and assimilates the Knowledge of a Phenomenon, or the recording of data Institutions are structures and mechanisms of Social order and Cooperation governing the Behavior of a Set of Individuals Later, the expansion of the scientific paradigm during the Enlightenment further pushed the study of politics beyond normative determinations. The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century In particular, the study of statistics, to study the subjects of the state, has been applied to polling and voting. Statistics is a mathematical science pertaining to the collection analysis interpretation or explanation and presentation of Data. A state is a political association with effective Sovereignty over a geographic Area and representing a Population. Polymerase (DNA directed lambda, also known as POLL, is a human Gene.
In the 20th century, the study of ideology, behaviouralism and international relations led to a multitude of 'pol-sci' subdisciplines including voting theory, game theory (also used in economics), psephology, political geography/geopolitics, political psychology/political sociology, political economy, policy analysis, public administration, comparative political analysis and peace studies/conflict analysis. A voting system allows voters to choose between options often in an Election where candidates are selected for public office. Game theory is a branch of Applied mathematics that is used in the Social sciences (most notably Economics) Biology, Engineering, Psephology (from Greek psephos ψῆφος 'pebble' which the Greeks used as ballots is the Statistical analysis of Elections Psephology uses compilations Political geography is the field of Human geography that is concerned with the study of both the spatially uneven outcomes of Political processes and the ways in which Geopolitics is the study that analyzes Geography, History and Social science with reference to Spatial politics and patterns at various scales Political psychology is an interdisciplinary Academic field dedicated to the relationship between Psychology and Political science, with a focus on the Political sociology is the study of power and the intersection of personality social structure and Politics. Political economy originally was the term for studying production buying and selling and their relations with law custom and government Policy analysis can be defined as "determining which of various alternative policies will most achieve a given set of goals in light of the relations between the policies and the goals" Public administration can be broadly described as the development implementation and study of branches of government Policy. Peace and conflict studies is an " Academic field which identifies and analyzes the violent and nonviolent behaviors as well as the structural mechanisms
Linguistics
Historical linguistics emerged as an independent field of study at the end of the 18th century. See also History of grammar Linguistics as a study endeavors to describe and explain the human faculty of Language. Historical linguistics (also called diachronic linguistics) is the study of language change Sir William Jones proposed that Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, Gothic, and Celtic languages all shared a common base. Sir William Jones ( September 28, 1746 &ndash April 27, 1794) was an English philologist and student of ancient India Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Gothic is an extinct Germanic language that was spoken by the Goths. The Celtic languages are descended from Proto-Celtic, or "Common Celtic" a branch of the greater Indo-European Language family. After Jones, an effort to catalog all languages of the world was made throughout the 19th century and into the 20th century. Publication of Ferdinand de Saussure's Cours de linguistique générale spawned the development of descriptive linguistics. Ferdinand de Saussure (fɛʁdinɑ̃ də soˈsyːʁ ( November 26, 1857 – February 22, 1913) was a Swiss linguist Course in General Linguistics ( Cours de linguistique générale) is the influential book compiled by Charles Bally and Albert Sechehaye Descriptive linguistics is the work of analyzing and describing how Language is spoken (or how it was spoken in the past by a group of people in a speech community Descriptive linguistics, and the related structuralism movement caused linguistics to focus on how language changes over time, instead of just describing the differences between languages. For the use of structuralism in biology see Structuralism (biology Structuralism is an approach to the human sciences that attempts to analyze Noam Chomsky further diversified linguistics with the development of generative linguistics in the 1950s. Avram Noam Chomsky (noʊm ˈtʃɑmski born December 7 1928 is an American linguist, Philosopher, cognitive scientist, Political Generative linguistics is a school of thought within Linguistics that makes use of the concept of a Generative grammar. His effort is based upon a mathematical model of language that allows for the description and prediction of valid syntax. In Linguistics, syntax (from Ancient Greek grc συν- syn-, "together" and grc τάξις táxis, "arrangement" is the Additional specialties such as sociolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, and computational linguistics have emerged from collaboration between linguistics and other disciplines. Sociolinguistics is the study of the effect of any and all aspects of Society, including cultural norms expectations and context on the way Language is used In Linguistics and Cognitive science, cognitive linguistics (CL refers to the school of linguistics that understands language creation learning and usage Computational linguistics is an Interdisciplinary field dealing with the statistical and/or rule-based modeling of Natural language from a computational
Economics
The basis for classical economics forms Adam Smith's An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, published in 1776. The history of economic thought deals with different thinkers and theories in the field of Political economy and Economics from the ancient world to the present Supply and demand is an Economic model describing effects on price and quantity in a Market. Classical economics is widely regarded as the first modern school of economic thought. Adam Smith ( baptised 16 June 1723 – 17 July 1790) was a Scottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of Political economy. An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations is the Magnum opus of the Scottish economist Adam Smith. Smith criticized mercantilism, advocating a system of free trade with division of labour. Mercantilism is the idea that a colony should export more goods than it imports and that a colony should sell at higher prices and buy at lower prices Division of labour or specialization is the specialization of cooperative labour in specific circumscribed tasks and roles intended to increase the Productivity He postulated an "Invisible Hand" that large economic systems could be self-regulating through a process of enlightened self-interest. The invisible hand is a Metaphor coined by the Economist Adam Smith. Karl Marx developed an alternative economical system, called Marxian economics. Note Marxian economics is not restricted to Marxist economics as it includes the economic thought of those inspired by Marx's works who do not identify with Marxian economics is based on the labor theory of value and assumes the value of good to be based on the amount of labor required to produce it. The labor theories of value (LTV are theories in Economics according to which the values of Commodities are related to the labor needed to Under this assumption, capitalism was based on employeers not paying the full value of workers labor to create profit. Capitalism is the Economic system in which the Means of production are owned by private Persons and operated for Profit and where The Austrian school responded to Marxian economics by viewing entrepreneurship as driving force of economic development. The Austrian School, also known as the “ Vienna School ” or the “ Psychological School ” is a heterodox school of economics that advocates Entrepreneurship is the practice of starting new Organizations or revitalizing mature Organizations particularly new Businesses generally in response to identified This replaced the labor theory of value by a system of supply and demand. Supply and demand is an Economic model describing effects on price and quantity in a Market.
In the 1920s, John Maynard Keynes prompted a division between microeconomics and macroeconomics. John Maynard Keynes 1st Baron Keynes CB (ˈkeɪnz "cains" (5 June 1883 &ndash 21 April 1946 was a British Economist whose ideas Microeconomics is a branch of Economics that studies how individuals households and firms and some states make decisions to allocate limited resources typically in markets Macroeconomics is a branch of Economics that deals with the performance structure and behavior of a national or regional Economy as a whole Under Keynesian economics macroeconomic trends can overwhelm economic choices made by individuals. In Economics Keynesian economics (ˈkeɪnziən also Keynesianism and Keynesian Theory) is based on the ideas of twentieth-century British economist Governments should promote aggregate demand for goods as a means to encourage economic expansion. In Economics, aggregate demand is the total demand for final goods and services in the economy ( Y) at a given time and Price level. Following World War II, Milton Friedman created the concept of monetarism. Milton Friedman (July 31 1912 November 16 2006 was an American Nobel Laureate Economist and Public intellectual. Monetarism is a school of economic thought concerning the determination of national income and monetary Economics. Monetarism focuses on using the supply and demand of money as a method for controlling economic activity. In the 1970s, monetarism has adapted into supply-side economics which advocates reducing taxes as a means to increase the amount of money available for economic expansion. Supply-side economics is an arguably heterodox school of Macroeconomic thought that argues that economic growth can be most effectively created using incentives for
Other modern schools of economic thought are New Classical economics and New Keynesian economics. New classical macroeconomics emerged as a school in Macroeconomics during the 1970s New Keynesian economics is a school of contemporary Macroeconomics that strives to provide microeconomic foundations for Keynesian economics. New Classical economics was developed in the 1970s, emphasizing solid microeconomics as the basis for macroeconomic growth. New Keynesian economics was created partially in response to New Classical economics, and deals with how inefficiencies in the market create a need for control by a central bank or government.
Psychology
The end of the 19th century marks the start of psychology as a scientific enterprise. The History of Psychology as a scholarly study of the mind and behavior dates back to the Middle Ages. The year 1879 is commonly seen as the start of psychology as an independent field of study. In that year Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research (in Leipzig). Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt ( August 16 1832 - August 31 1920) was a German medical doctor psychologist physiologist and professor This sort of fix restores section edit linkpoints to where they belong Other important early contributors to the field include Hermann Ebbinghaus (a pioneer in memory studies), Ivan Pavlov (who discovered classical conditioning), and Sigmund Freud. Hermann Ebbinghaus ( January 24, 1850 – February 26, 1909) was a German psychologist who pioneered the experimental study For other uses see Pavlov (disambiguation. Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (Иван Петрович Павлов September 14, 1849 &ndash February Classical Conditioning (also Pavlovian or Respondent Conditioning) is a form of Associative learning that was first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov Sigmund Freud (ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt born Sigismund Shlomo Freud (May 6 1856 &ndash September 23 1939 was an Austrian Psychiatrist who founded Freud's influence has been enormous, though more as cultural icon than a force in scientific psychology.
The 20th century saw a rejection of Freud's theories as being too unscientific, and a reaction against Edward Titchener's atomistic approach of the mind. Edward Bradford Titchener DSc PhD LLD LittD ( January 11, 1867 - August 3, 1927) was an Englishman and a student of Wilhelm This led to the formulation of behaviorism by John B. Watson, which was popularized by B.F. Skinner. Behaviorism or Behaviourism, also called the learning perspective (where any physical action is a behavior is a philosophy of Psychology based on the John Broadus Watson ( January 9, 1878 &ndash September 25, 1958) was an American psychologist who established the psychological Burrhus Frederic Skinner ( March 20, 1904 &ndash August 18 1990) was an influential American Psychologist, author Behaviorism proposed epistemologically limiting psychological study to overt behavior, since that could be reliably measured. Epistemology (from Greek επιστήμη - episteme, "knowledge" + λόγος, " Logos " or theory of knowledge Scientific knowledge of the "mind" was considered too metaphysical, hence impossible to achieve.
The final decades of the 20th century have seen the rise of a new interdisciplinary approach to studying human psychology, known collectively as cognitive science. Cognitive science may be broadly defined as the multidisciplinary study of mind and behavior Cognitive science again considers the mind as a subject for investigation, using the tools of evolutionary psychology, linguistics, computer science, philosophy, and neurobiology. Evolutionary psychology ( EP) attempts to explain mental and psychological traits such as Memory, Perception, Linguistics is the scientific study of Language, encompassing a number of sub-fields Computer science (or computing science) is the study and the Science of the theoretical foundations of Information and Computation and their Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Neurobiology is the study of cells of the Nervous system and the organization of these cells into functional circuits that process information and mediate behavior New methods of visualizing the activity of the brain, such as PET scans and CAT scans, began to exert its influence as well. Positron emission tomography ( PET) is a Nuclear medicine imaging technique which produces a three-dimensional image or map of functional processes in the Computed tomography (CT is a Medical imaging method employing Tomography. These new forms of investigation assume that a wide understanding of the human mind is possible, and that such an understanding may be applied to other research domains, such as artificial intelligence.
Sociology
Ibn Khaldun can be regarded as the earliest scientific systematic sociologist. Sociology is a relatively new academic discipline among other Social sciences including Economics, Political science, Anthropology, and Ibn Khaldūn or Ibn Khaldoun (full name أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون,, ( May 27, 1332 AD/732 AH &ndash March 19 [69] The modern sociology, emerged in the early 19th century as the academic response to the modernization of the world. Among many early sociologists (e. g. , Émile Durkheim), the aim of sociology was in structuralism, understanding the cohesion of social groups, and developing an "antidote" to social disintegration. Émile Durkheim ( April 15, 1858 – November 15, 1917) was a French Sociologist whose contributions were instrumental In the Social sciences, specifically Sociology and Sociocultural anthropology, functionalism (also called functional analysis) is a Sociological Max Weber was concerned with the modernization of society through the concept of rationalization, which he believed would trap individuals in an "iron cage" of rational thought. Maximilian Carl Emil Weber (maks 'veːbɐ (21 April 1864 &ndash 14 June 1920 was a German political economist and sociologist who was considered In Sociology, rationalization is the process whereby an increasing number of social actions and interactions become based on considerations of efficiency or calculation rather Some sociologists, including Georg Simmel and W. E. B. Du Bois, utilized more microsociological, qualitative analyses. Georg Simmel (March 1 1858 &ndash September 28 1918 was one of the first generation of German sociologists. William Edward Burghardt Du Bois (duːˈbɔɪz ( February 23, 1868 August 27, 1963) was an American Civil rights activist Microsociology is one of the main branches of Sociology (contrast with Macrosociology and Mesosociology) which concerns itself with the nature of everyday This microlevel approach played an important role in American sociology, with the theories of George Herbert Mead and his student Herbert Blumer resulting in the creation of the symbolic interactionism approach to sociology. George Herbert Mead ( February 27, 1863 – April 26, 1931) was an American Philosopher, Sociologist and Psychologist Personal History Herbert Blumer was born March 7, 1900 in St Louis Missouri. Symbolic interactionism is a major sociological perspective that is influential in many areas of the discipline
American sociology in the 1940s and 1950s was dominated largely by Talcott Parsons, who argued that aspects of society that promoted structural integration were therefore "functional". Talcott Parsons ( December 13, 1902 - May 8, 1979) was an American sociologist, who served on the faculty of Harvard University This structural functionalism approach was questioned in the 1960s, when sociologists came to see this approach as merely a justification for inequalities present in the status quo. Structural functionalism also known as a social systems paradigm is a Sociological paradigm which addresses what Social functions various elements In reaction, conflict theory was developed, which was based in part on the philosophies of Karl Marx. For a position in the religion-science debate with a similar name see Conflict thesis Conflict theory emphasizes the role that a person's Conflict theorists saw society as an arena in which different groups compete for control over resources. Symbolic interactionism also came to be regarded as central to sociological thinking. Erving Goffman saw social interactions as a stage performance, with individuals preparing "backstage" and attempting to control their audience through impression management. Erving Goffman ( June 11, 1922 – November 19, 1982) was a Canadian and American sociologist and writer In Sociology and Social psychology, impression management is the process through which people try to control the impressions other people form of them While these theories are currently prominent in sociological thought, other approaches exist, including feminist theory, post-structuralism, rational choice theory, and postmodernism. Feminist theory is the extension of Feminism into theoretical or philosophical, ground Post-structuralism encompasses the intellectual developments of continental philosophers and critical theorists who wrote with tendencies of twentieth-century Rational choice theory, also known as rational action theory, is a framework for understanding and often formally modeling social and economic behavior Postmodernism literally means 'after the modernist movement' While " Modern " itself refers to something "related to the present" the movement of modernism
Anthropology
Anthropology can best be understood as an outgrowth of the Age of Enlightenment. This article appears to require substantial work to meet Wikipedia's standards The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century It was during this period that Europeans attempted systematically to study human behaviour. Traditions of jurisprudence, history, philology and sociology developed during this time and informed the development of the social sciences of which anthropology was a part.
At the same time, the romantic reaction to the Enlightenment produced thinkers such as Johann Gottfried Herder and later Wilhelm Dilthey whose work formed the basis for the culture concept which is central to the discipline. Johann Gottfried von Herder ( August 25, 1744 December 18, 1803) was a German philosopher, Poet, and Literary Wilhelm Dilthey (ˈdɪltaɪ November 19, 1833 &ndash October 1, 1911) was a German Historian, Psychologist Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate" generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic Traditionally, much of the history of the subject was based on colonial encounters between Europe and the rest of the world, and much of 18th- and 19th-century anthropology is now classed as forms of scientific racism. Scientific racism denotes the use of scientific or ostensibly scientific findings and methods to support or validate racist attitudes and worldviews
During the late 19th-century, battles over the "study of man" took place between those of an "anthropological" persuasion (relying on anthropometrical techniques) and those of an "ethnological" persuasion (looking at cultures and traditions), and these distinctions became part of the later divide between physical anthropology and cultural anthropology, the latter ushered in by the students of Franz Boas. Anthropometry ( Greek άνθρωπος man and μέτρον measure literally meaning "measurement of humans" in Physical anthropology, refers to the Ethnology (from the Greek ἔθνος, ethnos meaning "habit custom convention" is the branch of Anthropology that compares and Biological anthropology, or physical anthropology is a branch of Anthropology that studies the mechanisms of biological Evolution, genetic inheritance Cultural anthropology is one of four fields of Anthropology (the holistic study of humanity) as it developed in the United States. Franz Boas ( July 9, 1858 &ndash December 21, 1942) was a German - American anthropologist and a pioneer of modern
In the mid-20th century, much of the methodologies of earlier anthropological and ethnographical study were reevaluated with an eye towards research ethics, while at the same time the scope of investigation has broadened far beyond the traditional study of "primitive cultures" (scientific practice itself is often an arena of anthropological study).
The emergence of paleoanthropology, a scientific discipline which draws on the methodologies of paleontology, physical anthropology and ethology, among other disciplines, and increasing in scope and momentum from the mid-20th century, continues to yield further insights into human origins, evolution, genetic and cultural heritage, and perspectives on the contemporary human predicament as well. Paleoanthropology, which combines the disciplines of Paleontology and Physical anthropology, is the study of ancient humans as found in Fossil hominid Methodology (also called manner) is defined as "the analysis of the principles of methods rules and postulates employed by a discipline" Palaeontology redirects here For the Scientific journal, see Palaeontology (journal. Biological anthropology, or physical anthropology is a branch of Anthropology that studies the mechanisms of biological Evolution, genetic inheritance Ethology ( from Greek ἦθος ethos, "character" and λόγος logos, "knowledge") is the scientific study of Animal
Emerging disciplines
During the 20th century, a number of interdisciplinary scientific fields have emerged. Three examples will be given here:
Communication studies combines animal communication, information theory, marketing, public relations, telecommunications and other forms of communication. Communication studies is an Academic field that deals with processes of communication commonly defined as the sharing of Symbols over distances in space and time Animal communication is any Behaviour on the part of one Animal that has an effect on the current or future behaviour of another animal Information theory is a branch of Applied mathematics and Electrical engineering involving the quantification of Information. In popular usage "marketing" is the promotion of products especially Advertising and Branding However in professional usage the term has a wider meaning of Public relations (PR is the practice of managing the flow of Information between an Organization and its Publics Public relations - often referred
Computer science, built upon a foundation of theoretical linguistics, discrete mathematics, and electrical engineering, studies the nature and limits of computation. Computer science (or computing science) is the study and the Science of the theoretical foundations of Information and Computation and their Theoretical linguistics is the branch of Linguistics that is most concerned with developing models of linguistic knowledge Discrete mathematics, also called finite mathematics, is the study of mathematical structures that are fundamentally discrete in the sense of not supporting or requiring the Electrical engineering, sometimes referred to as electrical and electronic engineering, is a field of Engineering that deals with the study and application of Subfields include computability, computational complexity, database design, computer networking, artificial intelligence, and the design of computer hardware. In Computer science, computability theory is the branch of the Theory of computation that studies which problems are computationally solvable using different Computational complexity theory, as a branch of the Theory of computation in Computer science, investigates the problems related to the amounts of resources A Computer Database is a structured collection of records or data that is stored in a computer system Computer networking is the Engineering Discipline concerned with communication between Computer systems or devices Networking routers Typical PC hardware A typical Personal computer consists of a case or chassis in a tower shape (desktop and the following parts Motherboard One area in which advances in computing have contributed to more general scientific development is by facilitating large-scale archiving of scientific data. Scientific data archiving refers to the long-term storage of scientific data and methods Contemporary computer science typically distinguishes itself by emphasising mathematical 'theory' in contrast to the practical emphasis of software engineering. Software engineering is the application of a systematic disciplined quantifiable approach to the development operation and maintenance of Software.
Materials science has its roots in metallurgy, minerology, and crystallography. Materials Science or Materials Engineering is an interdisciplinary field involving the properties of matter and its applications to various areas of Science and Metallurgy is a domain of Materials science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds, and their Mineralogy is an Earth Science focused around the Chemistry, Crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of Minerals Crystallography is the experimental science of determining the arrangement of Atoms in Solids In older usage it is the scientific study of Crystals The It combines chemistry, physics, and several engineering disciplines. The field studies metals, ceramics, plastics, semiconductors, and composite materials. The word ceramic is derived from the Greek word κεραμικός ( keramikos) A semiconductor' is a Solid material that has Electrical conductivity in between a conductor and an insulator; it can vary over that Composite materials (or composites for short are engineered Materials made from two or more constituent materials with significantly different physical or chemical
Academic study
As an academic field, history of science began with the publication of William Whewell's History of the Inductive Sciences (first published in 1837). The history of science and technology ( HST) is a field of History which examines how humanity's understanding of the natural world ( Science The history of science and technology ( HST) is a field of History which examines how humanity's understanding of the natural world ( Science William Whewell ( May 24, 1794 &ndash March 6, 1866) was an English Polymath, Scientist, Anglican Priest A more formal study of the history of science as an independent discipline was launched by George Sarton's publications, Introduction to the History of Science (published in 1927) and the Isis journal (founded in 1912). George Alfred Leon Sarton (1884-1956 was a Belgian -American Polymath, historian of science, and father of the writer May Sarton. Isis is an Academic journal published by The University of Chicago Press devoted to the History of science, History of medicine The history of mathematics, history of technology, and history of philosophy are distinct areas of research and are covered in other articles. The area of study known as the history of mathematics is primarily an investigation into the origin of new discoveries in Mathematics and to a lesser extent an investigation The history of technology is the history of the Invention of Tools and techniques The history of Philosophy is the study of philosophical ideas and concepts through time Mathematics is closely related to but distinct from natural science (at least in the modern conception). Technology is likewise closely related to but clearly differs from the search for empirical truth. Philosophy differs from science in its engagement in analysis and normative discourse, among other differences. Philosophical analysis is a general term for techniques typically used by philosophers in the analytic tradition that involve "breaking down" (i Normative has specialized meanings in several academic disciplines In practice science, mathematics, technology, and philosophy are obviously deeply entwined, and clear lines demarcating them are not evident until the 19th century (when science first became professionalized). This article is about people called professionals For the Movie, see The Professional or Leon. History of science has therefore been deeply informed by the histories of mathematics, technology, and philosophy—even as those fields have become increasingly autonomous.
Theories and sociology of the history of science
Much of the study of the history of science has been devoted to answering questions about what science is, how it functions, and whether it exhibits large-scale patterns and trends. The sociology and Philosophy of science, as well as the entire field of Science studies, have in the 20th century been preoccupied with the question of [70] The sociology of science in particular has focused on the ways in which scientists work, looking closely at the ways in which they "produce" and "construct" scientific knowledge. Sociology of science is the subfield of Sociology that deals with the practice of Science. Since the 1960s, a common trend in science studies (the study of the sociology and history of science) has been to emphasize the "human component" of scientific knowledge, and to de-emphasize the view that scientific data are self-evident, value-free, and context-free. Science studies is an interdisciplinary research area that seeks to situate scientific Expertise in a broad social historical and philosophical context [71]
A major subject of concern and controversy in the philosophy of science has been the nature of theory change in science. Philosophy of science is the study of assumptions foundations and implications of Science. Karl Popper argued that scientific knowledge is progressive and cumulative; Thomas Kuhn, that scientific knowledge moves through "paradigm shifts" and is not necessarily progressive; and Paul Feyerabend, that scientific knowledge is not cumulative or progressive and that there can be no demarcation in terms of method between science and any other form of investigation. Sir Karl Raimund Popper ( July 28 1902 &ndash September 17 1994) was an Austrian and British Philosopher and a professor Thomas Samuel Kuhn (surname ˈkuːn July 18, 1922 &ndash June 17, 1996) was an American intellectual who wrote extensively Paradigm shift, sometimes known as extraordinary science or revolutionary science, is the term first used by Thomas Kuhn in his influential Paul Karl Feyerabend ( January 13, 1924 – February 11, 1994) was an Austrian born Philosopher of science best known for The demarcation problem in the Philosophy of science is about how and where to draw the lines around Science. [72]
Since the publication of Kuhn's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions in 1970,[73] historians, sociologists, and philosophers of science have debated the meaning and objectivity of science. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions ( 1962) by Thomas Kuhn, is an analysis of the History of science.
See also
References
- ^ W. History is the study of the past particularly the written record Those who study history as a Profession are called Historians Etymology The history of science and technology ( HST) is a field of History which examines how humanity's understanding of the natural world ( Science The area of study known as the history of mathematics is primarily an investigation into the origin of new discoveries in Mathematics and to a lesser extent an investigation The modern discipline of Physics emerged in the 17th century following in traditions of inquiry established by Galileo Galilei, René Descartes, Isaac The history of Philosophy is the study of philosophical ideas and concepts through time The history of technology is the history of the Invention of Tools and techniques Philosophy of history or historiosophy is an area of Philosophy concerning the eventual significance if any of human History. See also Timeline of scientific experiments and List of famous discoveries The following is a list of historically important scientific This is a list of Nobel Prize Laureates awarded for their outstanding contributions to Humanitarian causes for Peace, work in Literature The following entries cover events related to Science or Technology which occurred in the listed year This article presents a list of discoveries and includes famous observation. Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Fields of science are widely-recognized categories of specialized expertise within Science, and typically embody their own Terminology and Nomenclature. In Science, the term natural science refers to a naturalistic approach to the study of the Universe, which is understood as obeying rules or law of The University of Cambridge has an undergraduate degree programme in Natural sciences termed the Natural Sciences Tripos ( NST or Behavioural science (or Behavioral science) is a term that encompasses all the disciplines that explore the activities of and interactions among Organisms in the natural The social sciences comprise academic disciplines concerned with the study of the social life of human groups and individuals including Anthropology, Communication studies The history of technology is the history of the Invention of Tools and techniques Philosophy of science is the study of assumptions foundations and implications of Science. Imre Lakatos ( November 9, 1922 – February 2, 1974) was a Philosopher of mathematics and science, Naïve empiricism is a term used in several ways in different fields Science studies is an interdisciplinary research area that seeks to situate scientific Expertise in a broad social historical and philosophical context The sociology and Philosophy of science, as well as the entire field of Science studies, have in the 20th century been preoccupied with the question of This is a list of Timelines. Types of timelines Living graph Logarithmic timeline The Timeline below shows the date of publication of major scientific theories and discoveries along with the discoverer The Timeline below shows the date of publication of major scientific Experiments See also Timeline of scientific discoveries, Timeline of technological This Timeline of the history of scientific method shows an overview of the Cultural inventions that have contributed to the development of the Scientific method. Independent discoveries in Science, termed "multiples" by Robert K C. Dampier Wetham, Science, in Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed. (New York: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc, 1911); M. Clagett, Greek Science in Antiquity (New York: Collier Books, 1955); D. Pingree, Hellenophilia versus the History of Science, Isis 83, 559 (1982); Pat Munday, entry "History of Science", New Dictionary of the History of Ideas (Charles Scribner's Sons, 2005). Pat Munday is an environmentalist writer and college professor living in Butte Montana
- ^ Paul Hoffman, The man who loved only numbers: the story of Paul Erdös and the search for mathematical truth, (New York: Hyperion), 1998, p. Paul Hoffman (born 1956 is a prominent author and host of the PBS television series Great Minds of Science. 187. ISBN 0-7868-6362-5
- ^ Homer's Odyssey stated that "the Egyptians were skilled in medicine more than any other art". This article is about the contemporary North African ethnic group [1]
- ^ F. M. Cornford, Principium Sapientiae: The Origins of Greek Philosophical Thought, (Gloucester, Mass. Francis Macdonald Cornford ( 27 February 1874 &ndash 3 January 1943) was an English classical scholar and Poet , Peter Smith, 1971), p. 159.
- ^ G. E. R. Lloyd, Early Greek Science: Thales to Aristotle, (New York: W. Sir Geoffrey Ernest Richard Lloyd (born 25 January 1933) is a historian of Ancient Science and Medicine at the University of Cambridge. W. Norton, 1970), pp. 144-6.
- ^ Lloyd (1973), p. 177.
- ^ Greek Science, many editions, such as the paperback by Penguin Books. Copyrights in 1944, 1949, 1953, 1961, 1963. The first quote above comes from Part 1, Chapter 1; the second, from Part 2, Chapter 4.
- ^ Boyer (1991). Carl Benjamin Boyer ( November 3, 1906 – April 26, 1976) has been called the " Gibbon of math history"he "Euclid of Alexandria", , 119. “The Elements of Euclid not only was the earliest major Greek mathematical work to come down to us, but also the most influential textbook of all times. [. . . ]The first printed versions of the Elements appeared at Venice in 1482, one of the very earliest of mathematical books to be set in type; it has been estimated that since then at least a thousand editions have been published. Perhaps no book other than the Bible can boast so many editions, and certainly no mathematical work has had an influence comparable with that of Euclid's Elements. ”
- ^ Calinger, Ronald (1999). A Contextual History of Mathematics. Prentice-Hall, 150. ISBN 0-02-318285-7. “Shortly after Euclid, compiler of the definitive textbook, came Archimedes of Syracuse (ca. 287–212 B. C. ), the most original and profound mathematician of antiquity. ”
- ^ O'Connor, J. J. and Robertson, E. F. (February 1996). A history of calculus. University of St Andrews. The University of St Andrews is the oldest University in Scotland and third oldest in the English-speaking world, having been founded between Retrieved on 2007-08-07. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 322 BC - Battle of Crannon between Athens and Macedon following the death of Alexander the Great.
- ^ C. S. Smith, A History of Metallography, University Press, Chicago (1960); Juleff 1996; Srinivasan, Sharda and Srinivasa Rangnathan 2004
- ^ Henry Yule quoted the 12th century Arab Edrizi. Sir Henry Yule ( May 1, 1820 - December 30, 1889) was a Scottish Orientalist.
- Srinivasan, Sharda and Srinivasa Rangnathan. 2004. India’s Legendry Wootz Steel. Bangalore: Tata Steel. 2004
- ^ Mainak Kumar Bose, Late Classical India, A. Mukherjee & Co. , 1988, p. 277.
- ^ Ifrah, Georges. 1999. The Universal History of Numbers : From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer, Wiley. ISBN 0-471-37568-3.
- ^ O'Connor, J. J. and E. F. Robertson. 2000. 'Indian Numerals', MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews, Scotland.
- ^ George G. Joseph (1991). The crest of the peacock. London. London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom.
- ^ (Novum Organum, Liber I, CXXIX - Adapted from the 1863 translation)
- ^ Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. Page 208.
- ^ Sivin, Nathan (1995). Science in Ancient China. Brookfield, Vermont: VARIORUM, Ashgate Publishing. III, page 32.
- ^ Agustín Udías, Searching the Heavens and the Earth: The History of Jesuit Observatories. (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2003). p. 53
- ^ a b c Thomas Woods, How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization, (Washington, DC: Regenery, 2005), ISBN 0-89526-038-7
- ^ Joseph Needham, Science and Civilization in China, volume 1. For the California legislator see Tom Woods (politician. Thomas E Noel Joseph Terence Montgomery Needham, CH, FRS, FBA ( December 9, 1900 – March 24 1995) was a British Cambridge University Press, 1954. 581.
- ^ Plutarch, Life of Caesar 49. Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Greek: Μέστριος Πλούταρχος c 3.
- ^ Abd-el-latif (1203): "the library which 'Amr ibn al-'As burnt with the permission of 'Umar. Abd-al-latif, Abd-el-latif or Abd-ul-Latif (1162 &ndash 1231 also known as al-Baghdadi ( Arabic, عبداللطيف البغدادي ˤAmr ibn al-ˤĀs (عمرو بن العاص (born c583 - d January 6, 664 CE was an Arab Military commander who is most noted for leading Umar (a=عمر بن الخطاب|t=`Umar ibn al-Khattāb c 581-83 CE &ndash 7 November, 644) also known as Umar the Great or Omar the Great "
- ^ Europe: A History, p 139. Oxford: Oxford University Press 1996. ISBN 0-19-820171-0
- ^ Linda E. Voigts, "Anglo-Saxon Plant Remedies and the Anglo-Saxons", Isis, 70 (1979): 250-268; reprinted in Michael H. Shank, The Scientific Enterprise in Antiquity and the Middle Ages, Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr. , 2000, pp. 163-181. ISBN 0-226-74951-7.
- ^ Faith Wallis, Bede: The Reckoning of Time, Liverpool: Liverpool Univ. Pr. , 2004, pp. xviii-xxxiv. ISBN 0-85323-693-3.
- ^ a b Robert Briffault (1928). Robert Briffault ( 1876 - 11 December 1948) was a French novelist historian social anthropologist and surgeon The Making of Humanity, p. 190-202. G. Allen & Unwin Ltd.
- ^ David Agar (2001). Arabic Studies in Physics and Astronomy During 800 - 1400 AD. University of Jyväskylä. The University of Jyväskylä (Jyväskylän yliopisto is a University in Jyväskylä, Finland.
- ^ Bradley Steffens (2006), Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist, Morgan Reynolds Publishing, ISBN 1599350246.
- ^ Rosanna Gorini (2003). "Al-Haytham the Man of Experience. First Steps in the Science of Vision", International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine. Institute of Neurosciences, Laboratory of Psychobiology and Psychopharmacology, Rome, Italy.
- ^ Rosen, Edward (1985), "The Dissolution of the Solid Celestial Spheres", Journal of the History of Ideas 46 (1): 19-20 & 21
- ^ “Nicolaus Copernicus”, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2004, <http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanford/entries/copernicus/index.html>. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (SEP is a freely-accessible Online encyclopedia of Philosophy maintained by Stanford University. Retrieved on 22 January 2008
- ^ Saliba, George (1994), A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam, New York University Press, 254 & 256-257, ISBN 0814780237
- ^ Bartel Leendert van der Waerden (1987). George Saliba has been Professor of Arabic and Islamic Science at the Department of Middle East and Asian Languages and Cultures Columbia University, New York University Press (or NYU Press) founded in 1916 is a University press that is part of New York University. Bartel Leendert van der Waerden ( February 2 1903, Amsterdam, Netherlands – January 12 1996, Zürich, "The Heliocentric System in Greek, Persian and Hindu Astronomy", Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 500 (1), 525–545 [534-537].
- ^ Nasr, Seyyed H. (1st edition in 1964, 2nd edition in 1993), An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines (2nd ed. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Seyyed Hossein Nasr ( Persian سید حسین نصر) an Iranian ), 1st edition by Harvard University Press, 2nd edition by State University of New York Press, 135-136, ISBN 0791415155
- ^ Baker, A. Harvard University Press ( HUP) is a Publishing house, a division of Harvard University, that is highly respected in Academic publishing. The State University of New York Press (or SUNY Press) founded in 1966 is a University press that is part of State University of New York system & L. Chapter (2002), "Part 4: The Sciences", in Sharif, M. M. , “A History of Muslim Philosophy”, Philosophia Islamica
- ^ Will Durant (1980). William James Durant ( November 5, 1885 &ndash November 7, 1981) was a prolific American popularizer in the fields of History The Age of Faith (The Story of Civilization, Volume 4), p. The Story of Civilization by Will and Ariel Durant is an eleven-volume set of books 162-186. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0671012002.
- ^ Fielding H. Garrison, An Introduction to the History of Medicine with Medical Chronology, Suggestions for Study and Biblographic Data, p. Colonel Fielding Hudson Garrison, MD ( November 5, 1870 &ndash April 18, 1935) was an acclaimed medical historian, 86
- ^ Derewenda, Zygmunt S. (2007), “On wine, chirality and crystallography”, Acta Crystallographica Section A: Foundations of Crystallography 64: 246-258 [247]
- ^ John Warren (2005). "War and the Cultural Heritage of Iraq: a sadly mismanaged affair", Third World Quarterly 26 (4-5): 815-830
- ^ Lindberg, David C. (1967), “Alhazen's Theory of Vision and Its Reception in the West”, Isis 58 (3): 321–341
- ^ Faruqi, Yasmeen M. Isis is an Academic journal published by The University of Chicago Press devoted to the History of science, History of medicine (2006), “Contributions of Islamic scholars to the scientific enterprise”, International Education Journal 7 (4): 391–396
- ^ A. Martin-Araguz, C. Bustamante-Martinez, Ajo V. Fernandez-Armayor, J. M. Moreno-Martinez (2002). "Neuroscience in al-Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine", Revista de neurología 34 (9), p. 877-892.
- ^ Zafarul-Islam Khan, At The Threshhold Of A New Millennium – II, The Milli Gazette.
- ^ Akbar S. Ahmed (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist", RAIN 60, p. 9-10.
- ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Islamic Conception Of Intellectual Life", in Philip P. Wiener (ed. ), Dictionary of the History of Ideas, Vol. 2, p. 65, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1973-1974.
- ^ Cas Lek Cesk (1980). "The father of medicine, Avicenna, in our science and culture: Abu Ali ibn Sina (980-1037)", Becka J. 119 (1), p. 17-23.
- ^ Akbar Ahmed (2002). "Ibn Khaldun’s Understanding of Civilizations and the Dilemmas of Islam and the West Today", Middle East Journal 56 (1), p. 25.
- ^ H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", Cooperation South Journal 1.
- ^ Mohamad Abdalla (Summer 2007). "Ibn Khaldun on the Fate of Islamic Science after the 11th Century", Islam & Science 5 (1), p. 61-70.
- ^ Salahuddin Ahmed (1999). A Dictionary of Muslim Names. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 1850653569.
- ^ Dr. S. W. Akhtar (1997). "The Islamic Concept of Knowledge", Al-Tawhid: A Quarterly Journal of Islamic Thought & Culture 12 (3).
- ^ William of Malmesbury, Gesta regum Anglorum / The history of the English kings, ed. Biography The education William received at Malmesbury Abbey included a smattering of Logic and Physics; Moral philosophy and History, and trans. R. A. B. Mynors, R. M. Thomson, and M. Winterbottom, 2 vols. , Oxford Medieval Texts (1998–9)
- ^ R. Oxford is currently bidding for the 2010 Wikimania Conference Oxford () is a city, and the County town of Oxfordshire, W. Vernon, G. McDonnell and A. Schmidt, 'An integrated geophysical and analytical appraisal of early iron-working: three case studies' Historical Metallurgy 31(2) (1998), 72-5 79.
- ^ David Derbyshire, Henry "Stamped Out Industrial Revolution", The Daily Telegraph (21 June 2002)
- ^ The compass in this 13th century manuscript is a symbol of God's act of Creation. For "The Daily Telegraph" in Australia see The Daily Telegraph (Australia. Events 524 - Godomar, King of the Burgundians defeats the Franks at the Battle of Vézeronce. See also 2002 (disambiguation Year 2002 ( MMII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. A compass or pair of compasses is a Technical drawing instrument that can be used for inscribing Circles or arcs They can also be used as A manuscript is any Document that is Written by hand as opposed to being printed or reproduced in some other way
* Thomas Woods, How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization, (Washington, DC: Regenery, 2005), ISBN 0-89526-038-7 - ^ Edward Grant, The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional, and Intellectual Contexts, (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. For the California legislator see Tom Woods (politician. Thomas E Pr. , 1996), pp. 127-31.
- ^ Edward Grant, A Source Book in Medieval Science, (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Pr. , 1974), p. 232
- ^ David C. Lindberg, Theories of Vision from al-Kindi to Kepler, (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr. , 1976), pp. 140-2.
- ^ Edward Grant, The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional, and Intellectual Contexts, (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr. , 1996), pp. 95-7.
- ^ Edward Grant, The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional, and Intellectual Contexts, (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr. , 1996), pp. 100-3.
- ^ Alan Debus, Man and Nature in the Renaissance, (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr. , 1978).
- ^ Precise titles of these landmark books can be found in the collections of the Library of Congress. The Library of Congress is the De facto National library of the United States and the research arm of the United States Congress A list of these titles can be found in Leonard C. Bruno (1989), The Landmarks of Science. Leonard C Bruno (born 1944 is Science Manuscript Historian and subject specialist in the Manuscript Division at the Library of Congress. ISBN 0-8160-2137-6
- ^ Alpher, Herman, and Gamow. Nature 162,774 (1948). Nature is a prominent Scientific journal, first published on 4 November 1869
- ^ Wilson's 1978 Nobel lecture
- ^ Henig, Robin Marantz (2000). The Monk in the Garden : The Lost and Found Genius of Gregor Mendel, the Father of Genetics. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-97765-7. “The article, written by an obscure Moravian monk named Gregor Mendel. . . ”
- ^ James D. Watson and Francis H. Crick. "Letters to Nature: Molecular structure of Nucleic Acid. " Nature 171, 737–738 (1953). Nature is a prominent Scientific journal, first published on 4 November 1869
- ^ Muhammed Abdullah Enan, Ibn Khaldun: His Life and Works, The Other Press, 2007, pp. 104–105. ISBN 9839541536.
- ^ What is this thing called science?
- ^ The Sociology of Science: Theoretical and Empirical Investigations By Robert King Merton
- ^ Science Teaching: The Role of History and Philosophy of Science By Michael Robert Matthews
- ^ Summary on Google books
Further reading
- Joseph Agassi (2007) Science and History: A Reassessment of the Historiography of Science (Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, 253) Kluwer Academic. Joseph Agassi (born in Jerusalem on May 7, 1927) is an Israeli academic with contributions in Logic, scientific method and Philosophy ISBN 1-4020-5631-1 (Forthcoming, currently Agassi,J. Towards an Historiography of Science Wesleyan University Press, 1963.
- Thomas S. Kuhn (1996). Thomas Samuel Kuhn (surname ˈkuːn July 18, 1922 &ndash June 17, 1996) was an American intellectual who wrote extensively The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (3rd ed. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions ( 1962) by Thomas Kuhn, is an analysis of the History of science. ). University of Chicago Press. The University of Chicago Press is the largest University press in the United States ISBN 0-226-45807-5
- Howard Margolis (2002). It Started with Copernicus. New York: McGraw-Hill. The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc, ( is a Publicly traded corporation headquartered in Rockefeller Center in New York City. ISBN 0-07-138507-X
- Joseph Needham. Noel Joseph Terence Montgomery Needham, CH, FRS, FBA ( December 9, 1900 – March 24 1995) was a British Science and Civilisation in China. Multiple volumes (1954–2004).
- Bertrand Russell (1945). Bertrand Arthur William Russell 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970 was a British Philosopher, Historian A History of Western Philosophy: And Its Connection with Political and Social Circumstances from the Earliest Times to the Present Day. New York: Simon and Schuster. Simon & Schuster Inc, a division of CBS Corporation, is a Publisher founded in New York in 1924 by Richard L
- John L. Heilbron, ed. , The Oxford companion to the history of modern science (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003).
- Deepak Kumar (2006). Deepak Kumar (born 1952 is an Indian historian and philosopher of science who is Professor of History of Science and Education Jawaharlal Nehru University Science and the Raj: A Study of British India, 2nd edition. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-568003-0
- George Rousseau and Roy Porter, eds. , The Ferment of Knowledge: Studies in the Historiography of Science (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980). ISBN 0-521-22599-X
- Caroline L. Herzenberg. 1986. Women Scientists from Antiquity to the Present Locust Hill Press ISBN 0-933951-01-9
- Nina Byers and Gary Williams, ed. (2006) OUT OF THE SHADOWS: Contributions of 20th Century Women to Physics, Cambridge University Press ISBN 0-5218-2197-1
External links
- A History of Science, Vols 1–4, online text
- MIT STS.002 – Toward the Scientific Revolution. From MIT OpenCourseWare, class materials for the history of science up to and including Isaac Newton. Sir Isaac Newton, FRS (ˈnjuːtən 4 January 1643 31 March 1727) Biography Early years See also Isaac Newton's early life and achievements
- Contributions of 20th century Women to Physics ("CWP")
- History of Science Society ("HSS")
- The official site of the Nobel Foundation. Features biographies and info on Nobel laureates
- The Institute and Museum of the History of Science in Florence, Italy
- The Vega Science Trust Free to view videos of scientists including Feynman, Perutz, Rotblat, Born and many Nobel Laureates.
- The CNRS History of Science and Technology Research Center in Paris. This center develop differents websites about history of science & tech. : Ampère, Lamarck, Buffon, etc.
Dapyx Software network: MP3 Explorer | Ebook Manager | Zenithic