History of responsa in Judaism spans a period of 1,700 years. Responsa constitute a special class of rabbinic literature, differing in form, but not necessarily in content, from Rabbinic commentaries devoted to the exegesis of the Bible, the Mishnah, the Talmud, and halakha (the codes of Jewish religious law). Responsa ( Latin: plural of responsum, "answers" comprise a body of written decisions and rulings given by Legal scholars in response to questions Rabbinic literature, in its broadest sense can mean the entire spectrum of Rabbinic writings throughout Jewish history See also Old testament, Septuagint, Targum, Peshitta The Tanakh (תַּנַ"ךְ (taˈnax or; also Tenakh or Tenak is The Mishnah or Mishna (he משנה "repetition" from the verb shanah he שנה or "to study and review" is a major work of Rabbinic Judaism The Talmud ( Hebrew: he תַּלְמוּד is a record of Rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs and history Halakha ( הלכה; alternative transliterations include Halocho and Halacha) is the collective body of Jewish Religious law In some Religions law can be thought of as the ordering principle of Reality; Knowledge as revealed by God defining and governing all human affairs [1] The codes themselves contain the rules for ordinary incidents of life. The responsa literature covers all these topics and more. The mode, style and subject matter have changed as a function of the travels of the Jewish people and of the development of other halakhic literature, particularly the codes.
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Talmudic era
The responsa of the first five centuries are not contained in special works; they are scattered through the writings of both Talmuds (the Babylonian Talmud and the Jerusalem Talmud. The Talmud ( Hebrew: he תַּלְמוּד is a record of Rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs and history Responsa ( Latin: plural of responsum, "answers" comprise a body of written decisions and rulings given by Legal scholars in response to questions The Talmud ( Hebrew: he תַּלְמוּד is a record of Rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs and history The Talmud ( Hebrew: he תַּלְמוּד is a record of Rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs and history The Jerusalem Talmud or Talmud Yerushalmi (תַּלְמוּד יְרוּשָׁלְמִי often the Yerushalmi for short is a collection Works devoted especially to responsa first appear in the post-Talmudic period. Many responsa have been lost, but those which are extant number hundreds of thousands, in almost a thousands known collections.
Pre-Mishnaic era
No responsa are known to exist from before the Mishnah (200 CE); it is doubtful whether any were written before this period. The Mishnah or Mishna (he משנה "repetition" from the verb shanah he שנה or "to study and review" is a major work of Rabbinic Judaism Events By Place World Human population reaches about 257 million There was a tradition which held that no halakha (law) should be written down (see Oral Torah). According to Rabbinic Judaism, the oral Torah, oral Law, or oral tradition ( is the oral tradition received in conjunction with the written Torah Even when the reluctance against writing down rulings became obsolete, letters of a legal nature might be written only in cases where laws might likewise be reduced to writing. While the rule prevailed that no laws should be written, no communications of legal content were made by means of letters. Questions were usually communicated orally, or proposed to the academy by a teacher, who transmitted the answer and decision by word of mouth. The rarity of letters on legal problems in the Tannaitic era (period during which the Mishnah covers) may be seen from a passage in the Tosefta (Ter. The Tosefta ( Aramaic: תוספתא is a secondary compilation of the Jewish oral law from the period of the Mishnah. ii. 13) which states that Rabbi Gamliel secretly dispatched a messenger with an answer to a question; for if he desired to keep his decision secret, he would probably have sent a letter had such replies been customary at that time. This article is about Gamaliel the Elder For other individuals and uses see Gamaliel (disambiguation Gamaliel the Elder (gəmā'lēəl or
Mishnaic era
In the Tannaitic period (100 BCE to 200 CE) statements, publications, contributions concerning the calendar, and notifications were the only documents regularly committed to writing. The Mishnah or Mishna (he משנה "repetition" from the verb shanah he שנה or "to study and review" is a major work of Rabbinic Judaism word /š n/ and /t n/ --> word /š n/ and /t n/ --> On the other hand, it can not positively be asserted that no ruling at all had been given in writing before the completion of the Mishnah: certain exceptions were doubtless made.
In the Talmud
Immediately after the completion of the Mishnah, when the prohibition or reluctance against writing halakhot had in great part disappeared, the responsa literature began to appear, traces being preserved in the Talmud. The Mishnah or Mishna (he משנה "repetition" from the verb shanah he שנה or "to study and review" is a major work of Rabbinic Judaism The Talmud ( Hebrew: he תַּלְמוּד is a record of Rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs and history Often questions were settled by a single letter, as was later the case with the Geonim, who exchanged a series of responsa. The replies were signed by pupils and colleagues, so that, strictly speaking, the responsa were issued by a board.
With the beginning of the third century of the common era, responsa begin to frequently appear in letters from Babylonia to Israel. By the end of the third century the correspondence between Israel and Babylonia had become more active, and the responsa from the one to the other had become far more numerous. These rulings from rabbis in Israel seem to have been regarded as authoritative and demanding obedience; and the threat was made to Rabbi Judah ben Ezekiel, head of the Academy of Pumbedita, that a letter would be brought from Jerusalem to annul his decision (Talmud, tractate Bava Batra 41b). Pumbedita (sometimes Pumbeditha, Pumpedita, or Pumbedisa) was the name of a city in ancient Babylonia that was a major center of Talmud Another teacher likewise protested against R. Judah's ruling, and warned him that he also would produce a letter from Jerusalem to refute him (Talmud, Shebu. 48b), the same experience befalling Mar Ukba (Talmud, Sanhedrin 29a).
Geonim
During the Geonic period (650-1250 CE), the Babylonian schools were the chief centers of Jewish learning; the Geonim, the heads of these schools, were recognized as the highest authorities in Jewish law. Geonim ( Hebrew: גאונים also transliterated Gaonim) were the presidents of the two great rabbinical colleges of Sura Geonim ( Hebrew: גאונים also transliterated Gaonim) were the presidents of the two great rabbinical colleges of Sura Events By Place Asia The first Chinese Paper money is issued yet these banknotes will not become government-issued Babylon was a City-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq Halakha ( הלכה; alternative transliterations include Halocho and Halacha) is the collective body of Jewish Religious law Despite the difficulties which hampered the irregular communications of the period, Jews who lived even in most distant countries sent their inquiries concerning religion and law to these officials in Babylonia. In the latter centuries of the geonic period, from the middle of the tenth to the middle of the eleventh, their supremacy suffered, as the study of the Talmud received care in other lands. The inhabitants of these regions gradually began to submit their questions to the heads of the schools of their own countries. Eventually they virtually ceased sending their questions to Babylonian Geonim.
Characteristics
- Geonic responsa are written in three languages, Hebrew, Aramaic, and Arabic. Aramaic is a Semitic language with Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language In the earliest period Aramaic, the language of the Gemara, prevailed exclusively, but in the middle of the ninth century Hebrew began to appear in the responsa side by side with it. The Gemara (also transliterated Gemora or less commonly Gemorra) (from Aramaic גמרא gamar; literally " study" This innovation was due, on the one hand, to the study of Hebrew which spread through rabbinical circles as a result of the Karaite movement, and, on the other, to the fact that the rulings of the Geonim were sent to distant lands, where the inhabitants were unfamiliar with Aramaic; it thus became necessary to write to them in Hebrew, the dialect of the Mishnah. Karaite Judaism or Karaism (ˈkærəˌaɪt ˈkærəˌɪzəm) is a Jewish movement NOTE The word sect should not be used without defining it first and The Mishnah or Mishna (he משנה "repetition" from the verb shanah he שנה or "to study and review" is a major work of Rabbinic Judaism When Arabic became the prevailing language of the Jews, questions were frequently addressed to the Geonim in that tongue, whereupon the scholars of the academies used the same language in reply.
- Some of the responsa that have survived are in their original form, while others are extant only in extracts. The first collection appeared, together with brief geonic rulings, at Constantinople in 1516 under the title Halakot Pesukot min ha-Geonim ("Brief Rulings of the Geonim"), and in 1575 another corpus, entitled She'elot u-Teshubot me ha-Geonim, was published in the same city. Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS At Salonica in 1792 Nissim ben Hayyim edited a collection of geonic responsa under the title Shaare Tzedek ("Gates of Justice"), which contains 533 responsa arranged according to subject, and an index by the editor. For the majority of these responsa the name of the author is cited, and many of them are reproduced in their original form with their Talmudic proofs and disquisitions.
- The responsa are characterized by a more developed literary style than in the Talmudic era. The Talmud had been completed and was recognized as authoritative, and was accessible to scholars. The Talmud ( Hebrew: he תַּלְמוּד is a record of Rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs and history With an accurate knowledge of the Talmud, scholars might deduce for themselves rulings for any case which might present itself. Even in instances in which the questioner was not versed in the Talmud and the responsum was required to give only a brief decision on the case under consideration, the ruling was usually not a mere "yes" or "no," "permitted" or "forbidden," but rather it was generally the custom for the scholars who prepared responsa to cite a passage from the Talmud in support or proof of their decisions, or to controvert any possible opposition by an anticipated refutation. Many of these questions have little practical use, but are concerned with the correct explanation of passages of the Talmud.
Earlier Geonim
In the days of the earliest geonim the majority of the questions asked them were sent only from Babylonia and the neighboring lands, where the inhabitants were more or less acquainted with the Talmud and could visit the academies in the Kallah months to hear Talmudic explanations by leading scholars. Geonim ( Hebrew: גאונים also transliterated Gaonim) were the presidents of the two great rabbinical colleges of Sura The questions which were submitted in writing were accordingly limited to one or more specific cases, while the responsum to such a query gave in brief form the required ruling and a concise reason for it, together with a citation of an analogous Talmudic instance, and a refutation of any possible objection.
Later Geonim
More discursive were the responsa of the later geonim after the first half of the ninth century, when questions began to be sent from more distant regions, where the inhabitants were less familiar with the Talmud, even if they possessed it, and were less able to visit the Babylonian academies, the only seats of Talmudic learning. Talmudic difficulties were often the subject of these inquiries.
The later geonim did not restrict themselves to the Mishnah and Talmud, but used the decisions and responsa of their predecessors, whose sayings and traditions were generally regarded as authoritative. These responsa of the later geonim were often essays on Talmudic themes, and since a single letter often answered many questions, it frequently became book-length in size. The letters of the Geonim, which, for the most part, contained replies to many problems, assumed a definite and official form. They began with the statement that the questions had been correctly received, read, and considered, and that the corresponding answers had been given in the presence of the gaon and with his approval.
Rishonim
With the decline of the gaonate in the first half of the eleventh century, the Jews of various countries lost the central spiritual authorities who had hitherto given their decisions in doubtful problems. Geonim ( Hebrew: גאונים also transliterated Gaonim) were the presidents of the two great rabbinical colleges of Sura Thenceforth the appeal in religious and legal questions was to be made to the rabbinical authorities of one's own or a neighboring country, so that inquiries sent during this period to Babylonia were rare and exceptional. Posek ( Hebrew פוסק po·ˈseq pl Poskim, פוסקים is the term in Jewish law for "decider"—a legal scholar who decides the
Characteristics
- The questions were by no means restricted to practical problems, but many of them, in case the interpretation of a halakic or haggadic passage in the Talmud was the subject of inquiry, were theoretical in nature. Halakha ( הלכה; alternative transliterations include Halocho and Halacha) is the collective body of Jewish Religious law Aggadah ( Aramaic אגדה tales lore pl Aggadot or (Ashkenazi Aggados) refers to the homiletic and non-legalistic exegetical The word theory has many distinct meanings in different fields of Knowledge, depending on their methodologies and the context of discussion. In their discussion of theoretical problems the responsa of the Spanish scholars are noteworthy for the untrammeled scientific spirit which permeates them far more than is the case with those of the French school. Even in those responsa which are practical in bearing a distinction may be drawn between the two schools.
- The responsa of the epoch came from various countries, and from schools having different tendencies, thus showing the position and the type of spiritual life in general and of Talmudic learning in particular, since all these factors prevailed in the different countries at the time. Especially noteworthy is the divergence between the French and the Spanish school in the twelfth century, the second half of this period. For the most part the rulings of this period receive their basis or their confirmation from a passage in the Talmud, and in this motivation the difference between the French and the Spanish exegesis of the Talmud is clearly shown. The Talmud ( Hebrew: he תַּלְמוּד is a record of Rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs and history The Spanish school was the more logical, and strove for brevity and lucidity in the deduction of its rulings from the Talmud, while the French school was more dialectic, and frequently gave full play to casuistry at the expense of clearness.
Eleventh century
- The chief representative of the French school in the eleventh century was Solomon ben Isaac (Rashi), and many of his responsa have been preserved in the "Pardes" and in the Mahzor Vitry. For the astrological concept see Rāshi (Jyotiṣa. Rabbi Shlomo Yitzhaki, (רבי שלמה יצחקי better known by the acronym Rashi Simhah ben Samuel of Vitry, (d 1105 ( Hebrew: שמחה בן שמואל מויטרי) was a French Talmudist of the 11th and 12th centuries pupil of His decisions are written in Hebrew, without formulas either of introduction or of conclusion, although an interesting phrase which is peculiar to him and was apparently invented by him occurs once, running as follows: "I, the undersigned, was asked whether . . . thus have I heard from my teachers, and thus is my own opinion likewise inclined,. . . " the ruling being followed by the signature "Solomon b. Isaac," without any concluding formula (Vitry Mahzor, pp. 434-435).
- The leader of the Spanish school in the same century was Isaac Alfasi, who left many responsa, an entire collection being printed at Leghorn in 1780, under the title "She'elot u-Teshubot ha-RIF" (Rabbi Isaac Alfasi). Rabbi Isaac ben Jacob Alfasi (1013 - 1103 - also Isaac Hakohen, Alfasi or the Rif (רי"ף - was a Talmudist and Posek (decisor These decisions were written in Arabic, and were translated into Hebrew at an early date, being extant only in this version.
Twelfth century
- The chief representatives of the French school of the twelfth century were Jacob Tam, Abraham ben David of Posquières, and Eliezer ben Nathan of Mayence. R Tam redirects here For the character in Firefly, see River Tam. Rabbeinu Abraham ben David was a Provençal rabbi, a great commentator on the Talmud, Sefer Halachot of rabbi Yitzhak Alfasi and Eliezer ben Nathan ( Hebrew: אליעזר בן נתן) of Mayence (1090-1170 Ra'aven (ראב"ן was a Halakist and liturgical
- The responsa of Rabbi Tam are contained in his "Sefer ha-Yashar" as well as in the works of other authorities, such as Meir of Rothenburg and Mordechai ben Hillel, "the Mordecai". Meir of Rothenburg (c 1215 &ndash 2 May 1293) was a German Rabbi and Poet, a major author of the Tosafot Mordechai ben Hillel, also known as The Mordechai, (c 1250 &ndash 1298 was a 13th century German Rabbi and Posek.
- The responsa of Eliezer ben Nathan, contained in his "Even ha-Ezer," are partly exegetic in character and partly devoted to practical decisions.
- The responsa of Abraham ben David are included in the collection entitled "Tummat Yesharim" or "Temim De'im" (Venice, 1622). Particularly noteworthy is his injunction that Jewish law obligates Jews to follow the laws of the land, i. e. to follow the laws of the secular government in which a Jewish community found itself living. This ruling is based on the Talmudic saying: "The law of the land is valid" (ib. responsum No. 50).
- The chief representatives of the Spanish school in the twelfth century were Joseph ibn Migash and Maimonides. Sephardi Jews ( Hebrew: ספרדי, Standard Səfardi Tiberian Səp̄arədî; plural Joseph ben Meir ibn Migash or Migas (1077 - 1141 ( יוסף בן מאיר הלוי אבן מיגאש) was a Rabbi, Posek, and Rosh Yeshiva Moses Maimonides ( March 30 1135 – December 13 1204) also known as the Rambam, was a Rabbi, Physician, and The responsa of ibn Migash include both practical decisions and explanations of difficult passages in the Mishnah and the Talmud, the first group being written in Arabic and later translated into Hebrew, while the greater portion of the second category was composed by the author himself in the Talmudic Hebrew idiom. The Mishnah or Mishna (he משנה "repetition" from the verb shanah he שנה or "to study and review" is a major work of Rabbinic Judaism The Talmud ( Hebrew: he תַּלְמוּד is a record of Rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs and history Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language The Talmud ( Hebrew: he תַּלְמוּד is a record of Rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs and history
Thirteenth century
In this period the difference between the Spanish and the Franco-German forms of responsa vanished. On the one hand, the scientific spirit of the Spanish school partially entered the academies of southern France, and, on the other hand, the dialecticism of the French rabbis steadily increased in influence in Spain.
- The chief representatives of the Spanish responsa in the thirteenth century were Nahmanides (Rabbi Moshe ben Nahman), Rabbi Solomon ben Adret, and Rabbi Nissim ben Reuben. Nahmanides (1194 &ndash c 1270 was a Catalan Rabbi, philosopher, Physician, Kabbalist and biblical commentator. Shlomo ben Aderet ( Hebrew: שלמה בן אדרת) (or Solomon son of Aderet) (1235 — 1310 was a Medieval Rabbi, halakhist Rabbi Nissim ben Reuven (1320 - 1380 Hebrew: נסים בן ראובן) of Girona, Catalonia was an influential Talmudist and authority
- Very few responsa by Nahmanides have been preserved; those which are extant are contained in a work entitled "She'elot u-Teshubot" in which are included in great part the responsa of Solomon ben Adret. To him came questions from the most distant communities. His responsa number about three thousand, and in content are partly practical and partly devoted to exegesis, ethics, and religious philosophy. The exegetic rulings interpreted difficult passages of the Bible, the Talmud, and the works of older authors, while the practical responsa comprised decisions as to the ritual, civil and marital law, communal relations, and the contemporary political affairs of the Jews.
- The responsa of Solomon ben Adret fall into five parts. The first part (Bologna, 1539) contains 1,255 responsa; part two, entitled "Sefer Toledot Olam" (Leghorn, 1654), contains 405; part three (ib. 1778) contains 445; part four (Salonica, 1803) contains 330; and part five (Leghorn, 1805) contains 298. Other responsa by him are included in the "She'elot u-Teshuvot. " A few examples of his decisions may be given. When asked concerning many discrepancies between the books of Chronicles and the other books of the Bible, he replied as follows (i. , No. 12): "A change in phraseology without an alteration of meaning is not surprising. Even in the Pentateuch apparent discrepancies of this kind are found, so that one of the sons of Simeon is called Zohar in Gen. xlvi. 10 and Ex. vi. 15, and Zerah in Num. xxvi. 13, but since both names signify 'magnificent,' the double nomenclature is explained. " In responsum No. 395 he describes his abolition of several superstitious customs, one of which was to kill an old cock, and to hang its head at the door on the occasion of the birth of a boy. Particularly noteworthy is responsum No. 548, in which he gives a decision regarding a marvelous child at Avila, who had originally been idiotic, but later frequently fell into trances during which he composed works whose contents he declared had been communicated to him by an angel.
- The chief representative of the German school in the thirteenth century was Rabbi Meir ben Baruch of Rothenburg. Meir of Rothenburg (c 1215 &ndash 2 May 1293) was a German Rabbi and Poet, a major author of the Tosafot Many of his responsa have been preserved, the oldest collection being the "She'elot u-Teshubot" (Cremona, 1557) with 315 responsa, while another corpus, which contained 1,022 responsa, appeared under the same title at Prague in 1608. A collection of unedited responsa was issued at Lemberg in 1860, and in 1891 Moses Bloch published at Berlin a new corpus of unedited responsa of Meïr of Rothenburg under the title "Sefer Sha'are Teshubot Maharam. Moses Löb Bloch (born at Ronsperg, Bohemia, now Poběžovice, Czech Republic, February 15[[ 815]] died 1909 was a Hungarian rabbi " Maharam, famously, rules that a man may not hit his wife [1], "since,he may not hit another man, despite not owing him honour, whereas he owes her honour. . . ". The special interest of Meïr's responsa is the picture which they give of the condition of the German Jews of his time, and of their sufferings from the caprice of princes and from heavy taxation. The collections of the responsa of Meïr of Rothenburg contain also the rulings of other older and contemporary rabbis of the Franco-German school.
Fourteenth century
The principal representatives of the fourteenth century were Asher ben Jehiel (RoSH) and Isaac ben Sheshet Barfat. Asher ben Jehiel ( Hebrew, אשר בן יחיאל, or Asher ben Yechiel sometimes Asheri) (1250 or 1259 &ndash 1328 was an eminent Rabbi and Isaac ben Sheshet Perfet (1326 &ndash 1408 ( Hebrew: יצחק בן ששת) was a Spanish Talmudic authority also know by his acronym Rivash
- The responsa of the RoSH first appeared at Constantinople in 1517 under the title "She'elot u-Teshubot," while an enlarged edition was published at Venice in 1607. Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS Venice ( Italian: Venezia, Venetian: Venesia or Venexia) is a city in Northern Italy, the capital of the This collection of responsa is arranged according to 108 subjects, each of which has a special chapter, called "kelal," while at the head of every rubric stands a résumé of its contents and a numerical list of the responsa treating of each subject. This arrangement, however, was not the work of Asher himself, but was made probably by one of his pupils, possibly by his son Rabbi Judah. From the responsa of Rabbi Asher may be gleaned many curious customs of the Spanish communities. To a question addressed to him from Burgos, Asher responded (No. 68, 10) that according to Talmudic law no arrests could be made for debt, even in cases where the debtor had pledged his own person, although, on the other hand, he noted that it was the custom of the communities in Spain to imprison one who had failed to pay his quota of the royal tax until he should discharge his debt.
- The 518 responsa of Isaac ben Sheshet were published at Constantinople in 1546-47 as "She'elot u-Teshuvot". Isaac ben Sheshet Perfet (1326 &ndash 1408 ( Hebrew: יצחק בן ששת) was a Spanish Talmudic authority also know by his acronym Rivash These responsa contain many disquisitions illustrative of the conditions of the times, including rulings on marriage and marital relations in the case of Jews who had been forcibly baptized, as well as other decisions relating to those who had been compelled to accept Christianity (e. g. , Nos. 1, 4, 6, 11, 12, 43). Especially interesting are the responsa which describe the prevailing customs and regulations of the communities of the period, as in No. 158, which contains a noteworthy account of the usages observed in many places with regard to the seven days of mourning after the death of a kinsman.
Acharonim
This section covers responsa written during fifteenth to the eighteenth century, and includes responsa of Italian, Turkish, German, and Polish rabbis. This period is the richest in the responsa literature. It would therefore be impossible to enumerate all the collections; this section presents a survey of the chief representatives of each century and country.
Characteristics
These rulings are different from those of the previous periods in the nature of the problems presented, in the method of treatment, and in the arrangement of subject-matter.
- Since the respondents now belonged to the Acharonim (later rabbinic authorities) and no longer enjoyed the independence of the Rishonim (earlier rabbinic authorities) they sought to base their decisions on the older authorities. The field had already been thoroughly worked, and the respondent was consequently obliged to have studied it in all its aspects, and to have made a careful search for the question propounded to him or one analogous to it.
- In former times the questions had been devoted to many departments of knowledge, both sacred and profane, being concerned with halakic and exegetic themes as well as with ethical and philosophical problems, so that there was scarcely a subject of human activity or thought on which the responsa might not expatiate. In this period, on the other hand, the responsa were restricted almost entirely to legal regulations. Since the pronouncement of judgment was regarded as a religious duty, and since in most countries the Jews were unwilling to submit to a non-Jewish court, legal questions formed a large part of the responsa.
- In the older rulings systematic sequence was almost entirely lacking, but the responsa of the new period had as models the "Arba'ah Turim" of Jacob ben Asher and, after the sixteenth century, the Shulkhan Arukh of Joseph Caro, so that many of the responsa were arranged according to these two works, while among the later scholars this practice became the rule. Systematic was a Hard rock band from San Jose California. The band was one of the first signings to Metallica drummer Lars Ulrich 's Arba'ah Turim (ארבעה טורים often called simply the Tur, is an important Halakhic code, composed by Yaakov ben Asher Jacob ben Asher, in Hebrew Ya'akov ben Asher, (1270-ca 1340 ( Toledo, Spain) was an influential Medieval rabbinic authority The Shulchan Aruch (שולחן ערוך literally " Set Table " (also Shulhan Aruch or Shulchan Arukh) is a Codification Yosef ben Ephraim Caro (sometimes Joseph Caro) (1488 ( Portugal) - March 24, 1575 ( Safed, Ottoman Empire) was one of the
- While the decisions of the earlier epochs had been so lucid that the reader could easily follow them, the responsa of this period had changed completely, for the pilpulistic methods which had been in vogue since the middle of the fifteenth century in the study of the Talmud and the halakic works forced their way into responsa literature as well. Pilpul ( Hebrew: פלפול loosely meaning "sharp analysis" refers to a method of studying the Talmud through intense textual analysis in attempts to either The responsa are remarkable for the hair-splitting dialectics which characterizes them, and often robs them of lucidity. In classical Philosophy, dialectic (διαλεκτική is controversy the exchange of arguments and counter-arguments respectively advocating Propositions
Fifteenth century
- The most important German respondents of the fifteenth century were Israel Isserlein and Israel Bruna. Rabbi Israel Isserlin ben Petahiah (1390-1460 was a Talmudist, and Halakhist, best known for his Terumat HaDeshen, which served Israel Bruna (1400 - 1480 was a German Rabbi and Posek (decisor on Jewish Law)
- The collection of the responsa of Israel Isserlein, "Terumat ha-Deshen," comprises 354 decisions, which are important as describing many characteristic features of the time. Rabbi Israel Isserlin ben Petahiah (1390-1460 was a Talmudist, and Halakhist, best known for his Terumat HaDeshen, which served Several of them (Nos. 341-346) discuss the apportionment of the taxes and the assessments, while others are concerned with the attitude to be observed toward a repentant apostate (No. 198). Particularly interesting is the responsum (No. 197) devoted to the problem whether Jews might so disguise themselves as to escape recognition in countries where they were absolutely forbidden to reside. Antisemitism (alternatively spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism; also rarely known as judeophobia) is the Prejudice against or hostility He was lenient in cases of widows who lacked a divorce document agunah[2]
- The responsa of Israel Bruna, entitled "She'elot u-Teshuvot" (Stettin, 1860), likewise contain many interesting allusions to contemporary conditions, as in the case of No. Aguna ( Hebrew: עגונה, plural agunot; literally 'anchored or chained' is a halachic term for a Jewish woman who is "chained" Israel Bruna (1400 - 1480 was a German Rabbi and Posek (decisor on Jewish Law) 71, which discusses the problem whether the Jews might attend races.
- In Italy the chief representatives of the fifteenth century were Joseph Colon and Judah Minz. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Joseph Colon ben Solomon Trabotto, also known as Maharik, (c 1420&ndash1480 was a 15th century rabbi who is considered Italy 's foremost Judaic scholar Judah ben Eliezer ha-Levi Minz (ca 1405-1508 also known as Mahari Minz, was the most prominent Italian Rabbi of his time
- Especially important in the responsal literature of this century were the Turkish rabbis, among whom the chief were Jacob Berab, Levi ben Chabib, Elijah Mizrachi, and Moses Alashkar. Jacob Berab, also Jacob Berav, Yaakov Berav, Yaakov Bei Rav, Talmudist and Rabbi; born at Moqueda near Toledo Elijah Mizrachi ( Hebrew: אליהו מזרחי) (c 1455 &ndash 1525 or 1526 was a Talmudist and Posek, an authority on Halakha The responsa of Moses Alashkar (printed at Sabbionetta in 1554) are those which discuss the problem whether a converted Jew may be compelled by means of the provincial court to give his Jewish wife a bill of divorce according to Jewish procedure (No. Moses ben Isaac Alashkar (15th-16th century was a rabbi who lived in Egypt, but subsequently resided in Jerusalem. Sabbioneta is a town in Lombardy, Italy, in the Province of Mantua, about 30 km north of Parma, not far from the N In Jewish Law a get ( גט, plural gittim or gittin) is a Divorce document which is presented by a husband to his wife Betrothal ( shiddukhin) In Jewish law (halakha Betrothal (shiddukhin or Engagement is defined as the mutual promise between 75, pp. 136b-137a), and the question of the covering of the head and the concealment of the hair in the case of a married woman (No. Tzniut or Tznius (also Tzeniut) ( Hebrew: צניעות " Modesty " is a term used within Judaism and has its greatest influence 35, pp. 94 et seq. ).
Sixteenth century
- The chief Polish representatives of the sixteenth century were Moses Isserles, Solomon Luria, and Meir Lublin; the responsa of these scholars throw a flood of light on the condition of the Jews of the period, who evidently took high rank in Poland and were not unfamiliar with military arts, since they offered their services to the duke or to the prince on the outbreak of a war (comp. Moses Isserles is commonly known as "the Rema" ( Hebrew: רמ"א Solomon Luria ( 1510 - November 7, 1574) ( Hebrew: שלמה לוריא) was one of the great Ashkenazic poskim Meir Lublin or Meir ben Gedalia (1558-1616 was a Polish rabbi Talmudist and Posek ("decisor of Jewish law " responsum. No. 43 of Meïr Lublin).
- The chief Turkish respondents of this period were Joseph Caro, Joseph ibn Leb, Samuel of Modena, and David abi Zimra. Yosef ben Ephraim Caro (sometimes Joseph Caro) (1488 ( Portugal) - March 24, 1575 ( Safed, Ottoman Empire) was one of the Of the responsa of the last-named, which are contained in several collections and which are characterized by lucidity and strict logic, one (iv. 92) may be noted as especially interesting in that it discusses the problem whether a Jew is permitted to abjure his religion and accept Islam when threatened with death. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Abi Zimra considers the question in detail, and determines the cases in which a Jew may thus save his life and the contingencies in which he should rather choose death.
- The only important Italian respondent of the sixteenth century was Menahem Azariah da Fano, whose responsa were edited at Dyhernfurth in 1788. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Menahem Azariah da Fano (also called Immanuel da Fano (born 1548 in Fano; died at Mantua 1620 was an Italian rabbi Talmudist, and Cabalist
Seventeenth century
In the seventeenth century rabbis of various countries prepared responsa, but the Polish scholars were in the great majority. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland
- The chief German representative of responsal literature was Yair Hayyim Bacharach. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe.
- Among the Italian respondents the most important was Samuel Aboab, whose decisions appeared at Venice in 1702 under the title "Debar Shemu'el". Samuel Aboab (1610 &ndash August 22, 1694) son of Abraham Aboab, was a very prominent Rabbi of the seventeenth century
- Of the Turkish authorities the most prominent were Joseph ben Moses di Trani (MaHaRIT) and Jacob Alfandari.
- The principal Polish rabbis of the seventeenth century who wrote responsa were Aaron Samuel Kaidanover and Menahem Mendel Krochmal. Aaron Samuel ben Israel Kaidanover (1614 in Vilna - December 1, 1676 in Chmielnik) ( Hebrew: אהרן שמואל קאידנוור Menahem Mendel ben Abraham Krochmal (c 1600-1661 was a Moravian rabbi born in Cracow. The decisions of the former, which were published at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1683 under the title "Emunat Shemu'el," afford a glimpse of the plight of the German Jews of the time. The responsa of Menahem Mendel Krochmal appeared posthumously; the most noteworthy of his rulings is one (No. 2) in which he decided in favor of universal suffrage in the community, making no distinction between rich and poor, taxed and untaxed, learned and ignorant, but giving all an equal share in the choice of the rabbi, the dayan, and the president. A beth din, beit din or beis din ( Hebrew: בית דין "house of judgment" plural battei din) is a Rabbinical
Eighteenth century
In the eighteenth century the rabbis of various countries contributed to responsa literature, but the most important were still the Polish scholars.
- The chief representative of Germany was Jacob Emden, whose responsa form the collection entitled "She'elot Ya'abeẓ" (Lemberg, 1884). Jacob Emden ( (the Yabets) was a Jewish Rabbi and notable Talmudist and prominent opponent of the Shabbethaians.
- Among the many noteworthy Polish scholars are Meir Eisenstadt and Ezekiel Landau. Meir ben Izsak Eisenstadt (also Meir Ash c 1670&ndash1744 was the author of Responsa and other works of Rabbinic literature. Yechezkel ben Yehuda Landau (8 October 1713 &ndash 29 April 1793 Hebrew: יחזקאל לנדא) was an influential authority in Halakha (Jewish
- The Responsa of Meir Eisenstadt, entitled "Panim Me'irot" contains one (ii. , No. 152) "particularly interesting" ruling, in which he stigmatizes as presumptuous arrogance the practice of ostentatiously wearing white garments in the fashion of the Kabbalists, while the general custom was to wear black clothing. Kabbalah (קַבָּלָה lit "receiving" is a discipline and school of thought discussing the mystical aspect of Judaism.
- The collection of responsa by Ezekiel Landau, known as "Noda' bi-Yehudah," was esteemed by rabbis and scholars, as distinguished both for its logical discussion and for its independence with regard to the rulings of later authorities as contrasted with its adherence to the writings of earlier scholars.
Nineteenth century to early twentieth century
In this period, many responsa deal with problems taken from modern experience. Responsa have been inspired or necessitated by economic growth, social movements, and advances in technology, which wrought sweeping changes in the lives and living conditions of the Jews in different countries, as well as within Judaic streams; e. Technology is a broad concept that deals with a Species ' usage and knowledge of Tools and Crafts and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt g. , those of Reform Judaism and Zionism. Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently subjected to vandalism and the insertion of personal opinions History of Zionism|Timeline of Zionism|World Zionist Organization|Zionist political violence Zionism is an international political movement that originally supported the
The movements for the reform of Judaism evoked many responsa in reply to questions concerning the location of the bimah, organ accompaniments, the covering of the head in the synagogue, the seating of men and women together, and prayers in the vernacular. A bimah (among Ashkenazim derived from Greek) almemar (from Arabic al-minbar) or tebah (among Sephardim is the elevated Conservative Judaism (also known as Masorti Judaism in Israel and Europe) is a modern stream of Judaism that arose out
Jewish settlement in Palestine had occasioned many responsa on questions connected with agriculture and horticulture in the Holy Land, including the problems of the cessation of all labor in the fields during the Sabbatical year and the use of etrogs from Israel. Palestine is a name which has been widely used since Roman times to refer to the region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture Horticulture is the art and science of plant cultivation Horticulturists (or horticuluralists) work and conduct research in the fields of Plant propagation The Holy Land ( Arabic: الأرض المقدسة al-Arḍ ul-Muqaddasah;Ancient Aramaic: ארעא קדישא Ar'a Qaddisha; Hebrew: ארץ_הקודש A sabbatical (from the Latin sabbaticus, from the Greek sabbatikos, from Hebrew shabbathon, i Balady Citron is a variety of Israeli Citron, or Etrog, grown in Palestine for Jewish ritual purposes
Following are representative examples:
- In a responsum ("Hatam Sofer, Orah; Hayyim,"No. 28) Moses Sofer discussed the problem whether the "bimah" might be removed from the center and placed near the Ark, as is now the case in all Reform and even in many Orthodox synagogues, but which was then interdicted as an innovation. Rabbi Moshe Sofer, (Moses Schreiber also known by his main work Chasam Sofer, ( trans A bimah (among Ashkenazim derived from Greek) almemar (from Arabic al-minbar) or tebah (among Sephardim is the elevated In another responsum (ib. "Yoreh De'ah," No. 128) he debated whether a Jewish sculptor was permitted by his religion to carve human figures.
- In a responsum Joseph Saul Nathanson discussed the problem of the transfer of a corpse from one place of burial to another ("Sho'el u-Meshib," i. Joseph Saul Nathanson ( 1808 - 1875) ( Hebrew: יוסף שאול בן אריה הלוי) was a Polish Rabbi and Posek , No. 231). In another responsum (ib. iii. , No. 373) he replied in the affirmative to a question sent him from New York asking whether a Protestant church might be changed into a synagogue. He was one of the first to permit the use of machinery in baking Matzah [2]. Matza (also Matzah, Matzoh, or Matsah) מַצָּה in Ashkenazi matzo or matzoh, and in Yiddish, matze
- Isaac Schmelkes passed judgment ("Bet-Yitzchak," i. , Przemysl, 1901, No. 29) on the question of civil marriage, which is permitted by the laws of Hungary between Jews and non-Jews, and he debated also (ib. ii. , Przemysl, 1895, No. 31) whether electric lights may be used for Hanukkah, and (ib. " Electric Light " is a song by Infernal, scheduled to be their next single after " Whenever You Need Me " off their album Electric Hanukkah (חנוכה alt Chanukah) also known as the Festival of Lights, is an eight-day Jewish holiday commemorating the rededication of the No. 58) whether the telephone or the phonograph may be used on the Sabbath. Basic principle A traditional landline telephone system also known as "plain old telephone service" (POTS, commonly handles both signaling and audio information Shabbat or Shabbos ( Hebrew: שַׁבָּת, shabbāt, shabbes, "rest/inactivity" is the Weekly Sabbath
Twentieth century
Responsa of Orthodox Judaism
Orthodox Judaism maintains and teaches all of its members from an early age, that the 613 mitzvot are immutable and cannot be changed. Responsa ( Latin: plural of responsum, "answers" comprise a body of written decisions and rulings given by Legal scholars in response to questions Orthodox Judaism is the formulation of Judaism that adheres to a relatively strict interpretation and application of the laws and ethics first canonized See also Mitzvah See also Biblical law in Christianity The 613 Mitzvot ("commandments" (also " 613 Mitzvos Enormous emphasis is placed on study and knowledge of the Talmud by everyone and to be familiar with the rulings, or at to at least understand the centrality, of the Geonim, Rishonim, and Achronim in the formulation and application of the Torah's and Talmud's teachings as a "guide to life". The Talmud ( Hebrew: he תַּלְמוּד is a record of Rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs and history Geonim ( Hebrew: גאונים also transliterated Gaonim) were the presidents of the two great rabbinical colleges of Sura They adhere to Jewish law as systematized through the definitive text of the Shulkhan Arukh. The Shulchan Aruch (שולחן ערוך literally " Set Table " (also Shulhan Aruch or Shulchan Arukh) is a Codification It has a number of channels whereby Halakhic decisions and policies are formulated and taught. Halakha ( הלכה; alternative transliterations include Halocho and Halacha) is the collective body of Jewish Religious law Thus, Hasidim will follow in the direction of their rebbes. Hasidic Judaism (also Chasidic, etc from the Hebrew: he '''''חסידות''''', Chassidus, meaning "piety" from the Hebrew Rebbe (רבי (pronounced in English which means master teacher or mentor is a Yiddish word derived from the identical Hebrew word Rabbi Most non-Hasidim (that were known as the Mitnagdim) will follow the directions of respected poskim who evaluate all cases as they arise in modern circumstances. Misnagdim or mitnagdim is a Hebrew word ( מתנגדים) meaning "opponents" Posek ( Hebrew פוסק po·ˈseq pl Poskim, פוסקים is the term in Jewish law for "decider"—a legal scholar who decides the Modern Orthodox Judaism stresses the importance of "consulting your local Orthodox rabbi" whenever there is any doubt about what the correct behavior should be in any situation in life according to the directions of Jewish law. Modern Orthodox Judaism (or Modern Orthodox or Modern Orthodoxy) is a movement within Orthodox Judaism that attempts to synthesize traditional observance
Notable collections of Responsa published in the 20th Century include those by Moshe Feinstein, Ovadia Yosef, Eliezer Waldenberg and Yechiel Yaakov Weinberg. Moshe Feinstein ( March 3, 1895 – March 23, 1986) was a Lithuanian Orthodox Rabbi, scholar and Posek Rabbi Ovadia Yossef ( עובדיה יוסף) (born in 1920 in Basra, Iraq) is a Haredi Rabbi, Talmudic scholar a recognized Rabbi Eliezer Yehuda Waldenberg ( December 10 1915 - November 21 2006 was known as the Tzitz Eliezer after his monumental halachic Rabbi Yechiel Yaakov Weinberg (1878-1966 was a noted European Orthodox Rabbi, Posek ("decisor" One of the latest laws developed in the Responsa, was when Israeli astronaut, Ilan Ramon, asked if he should do the Sabbath in accordance with Earth time, or space time, as space time has the Sabbath approximately every 4 minutes. The rabbis concluded that he was to celebrate the Sabbath in accordance with Earth time.
Conservative and Masorti responsa
Conservative Judaism theorizes that Orthodoxy had "deviated" from "historical Judaism" through an "excessive concern" with "recent codifications of Jewish law". Conservative responsa are the body of Responsa literature of Conservative Judaism (also known as Masorti Judaism) Conservative Judaism (also known as Masorti Judaism in Israel and Europe) is a modern stream of Judaism that arose out The Conservative movement's Committee on Jewish Law and Standards made up of its most learned rabbis and scholars makes a conscious effort to use historical sources to determine what kind of changes occurred, how and why they occurred, and in what historical context. The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards is the central authority on Halakha (Jewish law and tradition within Conservative Judaism; it is one of the most active With this information they believe that can better understand a proper way for rabbis to interpret and apply Jewish law to our conditions today.
See also
References
- She'elot U-Teshubot, jewishencyclopedia. Halakha ( הלכה; alternative transliterations include Halocho and Halacha) is the collective body of Jewish Religious law Rabbi (pronunciation, although in English usually) in Judaism, means a religious ‘teacher’ or more literally ‘my great one’ when addressing any master According to Rabbinic Judaism, the oral Torah, oral Law, or oral tradition ( is the oral tradition received in conjunction with the written Torah Posek ( Hebrew פוסק po·ˈseq pl Poskim, פוסקים is the term in Jewish law for "decider"—a legal scholar who decides the com
- Hebrew Literature, 1911encyclopedia. org
Notes
- ^ Oesterley, W. O. E. & Box, G. H. (1920) A Short Survey of the Literature of Rabbinical and Mediæval Judaism, Burt Franklin:New York.
- ^ Jewish Encyclopedia on Isserlein
External links
- The Bar Ilan Responsa project
- Orthodox Responsa Index
- The Responsa of Professor Louis Ginzberg
- Masorti and Conservative Jewish responsa
- Topical index of non-binding Reform Jewish responsa
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