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All human societies have medical beliefs that provide explanations for birth, death, and disease. Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Childbirth (also called labour, birth, partus or parturition) is the culmination of a Human Pregnancy or Death is the termination of the biological functions that define living Organisms It refers both to a specific A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly Throughout history, illness has been attributed to witchcraft, demons, adverse astral influence, or the will of the gods. Witchcraft, in various historical anthropological religious and mythological contexts is the use of certain kinds of Supernatural or magical powers Astrology (from Greek grc ἄστρον astron, "constellation star" and grc -λογία -logia) is a group of Systems See also List of deities A deity is a Postulated Preternatural or Supernatural Being, who is always These ideas still retain some power, with faith healing and shrines still used in some places, although the rise of scientific medicine over the past millennium has altered or replaced many of the old beliefs. Faith healing is the attempt to use Religious or spiritual means such as Prayer, mental practices spiritual insights or other techniques to prevent A shrine, from the Latin scrinium (‘box’ also used as a desk like the French bureau) was originally a container usually made of precious materials used

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General overview of the history of medicine

Herbalism

Main article: Herbalism

See also Prehistoric Medicine

Although there is no actual record of when the use of plants for medicinal purposes first started, the first generally accepted use of plants as healing agents was depicted in the cave paintings discovered in the Lascaux caves in France, which have been radiocarbon dated to between 13,000 and 25,000 BC. Science is a body of empirical, theoretical, and practical knowledge about the natural world, produced by a global community of researchers The sociology and Philosophy of science, as well as the entire field of Science studies, have in the 20th century been preoccupied with the question of The Historiography of Science usually refers to the study of History of Science in its disciplinary aspects and practices (methods theories schools and Note The contents of this page are expected to change as consensus is reached The History of science in early cultures refers to the study of Protoscience in Ancient history, prior to the development of Science in the Middle The history of science in Classical Antiquity begins with the search for practical knowledge In the Middle Ages, Science progressed dramatically from the time of antiquity in areas as diverse as Astronomy, Medicine, and Mathematics During the Renaissance, the rediscovery of ancient scientific texts was accelerated after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, and the invention of Printing The period which many historians of science call the Scientific Revolution can be roughly dated as having begun in 1543 the year in which Nicolaus Copernicus published For the current in the 19th century German idealism see Naturphilosophie Natural philosophy or the philosophy of nature (from Astronomy is the oldest of the Natural sciences dating back to antiquity, with its origins in the religious, Mythological, and Astrological The history of biology traces the study of the living world from ancient to modern times The history of Chemistry begins with the discovery of Fire, then Metallurgy which allowed purification of metals and the making of alloys as well as the exploitation Ecology is generally spoken of as a new science having only become prominent in the second half of the 20th Century This article explores the History of Geography. Ancient geography See also Ancient Greek geography Ancient Greeks environment The history of geology is concerned with the development of the natural science of geology The history of Paleontology traces the effort to understand the history of life on Earth by studying the Fossil record left behind by living organisms The modern discipline of Physics emerged in the 17th century following in traditions of inquiry established by Galileo Galilei, René Descartes, Isaac For more see Social sciences#History of the social sciences In ancient philosophy there was no difference between the Liberal arts of mathematics The history of economic thought deals with different thinkers and theories in the field of Political economy and Economics from the ancient world to the present See also History of grammar Linguistics as a study endeavors to describe and explain the human faculty of Language. While the study of politics is first found in Ancient Greece and ancient India, political science is a late arrival in terms of Social sciences. The History of Psychology as a scholarly study of the mind and behavior dates back to the Middle Ages. Sociology is a relatively new academic discipline among other Social sciences including Economics, Political science, Anthropology, and The history of technology is the history of the Invention of Tools and techniques Agronomy and the related disciplines of Agricultural science today are very different from what they were before about 1950 The history of computer science began long before the modern discipline of Computer science that emerged in the twentieth century The history of Materials science is the study of how different materials were used as influenced by the History of Earth and the Culture of the This is a list of Timelines. Types of timelines Living graph Logarithmic timeline Herbalism is a traditional Medicinal or Folk medicine practice based on the use of Plants and Plant extracts Herbalism is also known as Prehistoric medicine is a term used to describe the use of Medicine before the invention of writing Lascaux is the setting of a complex of Caves in southwestern France famous for its prehistoric Cave paintings The original caves are located near Radiocarbon dating is a Radiometric dating method that uses the naturally occurring Radioisotope Carbon-14 (14C to determine the age of

Over time and with trial and error, a small base of knowledge was acquired within early tribal communities. As this knowledge base expanded over the generations, tribal culture developed into specialized areas. These 'specialized jobs' became what are now known as healers or shamans.

Indian medicine

Main article: Ayurveda

In Mehrgarh, Pakistan, archeologists made the discovery that the people of Indus Valley Civilization, even from the early Harappan periods (c. Ayurveda ( Devanāgarī: आयुर्वॆद the 'science of life' is a system of Traditional medicine native to India, and practiced in other Mehrgarh, ( Urdu: م‍ﮩ‍رگڑھ) one of the most important Neolithic (7000 BC to 3200 BC sites in Archaeology, lies on what Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and The Indus Valley Civilization (Mature period 2600&ndash1900 BCE abbreviated IVC, was an ancient Civilization that flourished in the Indus River basin 3300 BC), had knowledge of medicine and dentistry. Events The Great God "Krishna" who is worshiped in all forms as a boy lover warrior brother king teacher son husband etc Dentistry' is the "evaluation diagnosis prevention and/or treatment (nonsurgical surgical or related procedures of diseases disorders and/or conditions of the oral cavity The physical anthropologist who carried out the examinations, Professor Andrea Cucina from the University of Missouri-Columbia, made the discovery when he was cleaning the teeth from one of the men. Later research in the same area found evidence of teeth having been drilled, dating back 9,000 years. [1]

Ayurveda (the science of living), is the literate, scholarly system of medicine that originated over 2000 years ago in South Asia. Ayurveda ( Devanāgarī: आयुर्वॆद the 'science of life' is a system of Traditional medicine native to India, and practiced in other Its two most famous texts belong to the schools of Caraka and Suśruta. For the village in Azerbaijan see Çərəkə; for the book Charaka Samhita see Charaka Samhita. While these writings display some limited continuities with very ancient medical ideas known from the religious literature called the Vedas, historians have been able to demonstrate direct historical connections between early āyurveda and the early literature of the Buddhists and Jains. "Veda" redirects here For other uses see Veda (disambiguation. It seems that the earliest foundations of āyurveda were built on a synthesis of selected ancient herbal practices dating back to the early second millennium BC, together with a massive addition of theoretical conceptualizations, new nosologies and new therapies dating from about 400 BC onwards, and coming out of the communities of thinkers who included the Buddha and others. Nosology (from the Greek νόσος, nosos, "disease" + λόγος " Logos " is a branch of Medicine

According to the compendium of Caraka, the Carakasamhitā, health and disease are not predetermined and life may be prolonged by human effort. For the village in Azerbaijan see Çərəkə; for the book Charaka Samhita see Charaka Samhita. The Charaka Samhita Sutra is an ancient Indian Ayurvedic text on Internal medicine written by Charaka. The compendium of Suśruta, the Suśrutasamhitā defines the purpose of medicine to cure the diseases of the sick, protect the healthy, and to prolong life. Both these ancient compendia include details of the examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of numerous ailments. The Suśrutasamhitā is notable for describing procedures on various forms of surgery, including rhinoplasty, the repair of torn ear lobes, perineal lithotomy, cataract surgery, and several other excisions and other surgical procedures. Surgery (from the χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via chirurgiae meaning "hand work" is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental Rhinoplasty ( Rhinos, "Nose" + el ''Plassein'' "to shape" is a surgical procedure which is usually performed by either an Otolaryngologist

The āyurvedic classics spoke of eight branches of medicine: kāyācikitsā (internal medicine), śalyacikitsā (surgery including anatomy), śālākyacikitsā (eye, ear, nose, and throat diseases), kaumārabhṛtya (pediatrics), bhūtavidyā (spirit medicine), and agada tantra (toxicology), rasāyana (science of rejuvenation), and vājīkaraṇa (aphrodesiacs, mainly for men). Internal medicine is the medical specialty concerned with the diagnosis management and nonsurgical treatment of unusual or serious diseases Surgery (from the χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via chirurgiae meaning "hand work" is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental Anatomy (from the Greek anatomia, from ana separate apart from and temnein, to cut up cut open is a branch of Biology that is the consideration Eyes are organs that detect Light, and send signals along the Optic nerve to the visual areas of the brain The ear is the sense organ that detects Sounds The Vertebrate ear shows a common biology from Fish to Humans with variations Anatomically a nose is a protuberance in Vertebrates that houses the Nostrils or nares which admit and expel air for respiration in conjunction with the In Anatomy, the throat is the anterior part of the Neck, in front of the vertebral column. Pediatrics (also spelled paediatrics) is the branch of Medicine that deals with the medical care of Infants Children and Adolescents Toxicology (from the Greek words toxicos and logos) is the study of the adverse effects of Chemicals on living organisms

Apart from learning these, the student of Āyurveda was expected to know ten arts that were indispensable in the preparation and application of his medicines: distillation, operative skills, cooking, horticulture, metallurgy, sugar manufacture, pharmacy, analysis and separation of minerals, compounding of metals, and preparation of alkalis. The teaching of various subjects was done during the instruction of relevant clinical subjects. For example, teaching of anatomy was a part of the teaching of surgery, embryology was a part of training in pediatrics and obstetrics, and the knowledge of physiology and pathology was interwoven in the teaching of all the clinical disciplines. Embryology (from Greek grc ἔμβρυον embryon, "unborn embryo" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the development Obstetrics (from the Latin obstare, "to stand by" is the surgical speciality dealing with the care of a woman and her offspring during Pregnancy Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical Pathology (from Greek grc πάθος pathos, "fate harm" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study and

At the closing of the initiation, the guru gave a solemn address to the students where the guru directed the students to a life of chastity, honesty, and vegetarianism. A guru (गुरु গুরু is a person who is regarded as having great knowledge wisdom and authority in a certain area and uses it to guide others Vegetarianism is the practice of a diet that excludes Meat (including game and slaughter by-products Fish (including Shellfish and other sea The student was to strive with all his being for the health of the sick. He was not to betray patients for his own advantage. He was to dress modestly and avoid strong drink. He was to be collected and self-controlled, measured in speech at all times. He was to constantly improve his knowledge and technical skill. In the home of the patient he was to be courteous and modest, directing all attention to the patient's welfare. He was not to divulge any knowledge about the patient and his family. If the patient was incurable, he was to keep this to himself if it was likely to harm the patient or others.

The normal length of the student's training appears to have been seven years. Before graduation, the student was to pass a test. But the physician was to continue to learn through texts, direct observation (pratyaksha), and through inference (anumāna). In addition, the vaidyas attended meetings where knowledge was exchanged. The physicians were also enjoined to gain knowledge of unusual remedies from hillsmen, herdsmen, and forest-dwellers. A physician, medical practitioner or medical doctor who practices Medicine, and is concerned with maintaining or restoring human Health

Egyptian medicine

Main article: Ancient Egyptian medicine

Medical information contained in the Edwin Smith Papyrus [2] may date to a time as early as 3000 BC [3]. Ancient Egyptian Medicine refers to the practices of healing common in Ancient Egypt from Circa 3300 BC until the Persian The Edwin Smith Papyrus is the only surviving copy of part of an Ancient Egyptian Textbook on trauma Surgery. The 30th century BC is a Century which lasted from the year 3000 BC to 2901 BC The earliest known surgery in Egypt was performed in Egypt around 2750 BC (see surgery). Surgery (from the χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via chirurgiae meaning "hand work" is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental The History of Ancient Egypt spans the period from the early predynastic settlements of the northern Nile Valley to the Roman conquest in 30 The 28th century BC is a Century which lasted from the year 2800 BC to 2701 BC Surgery (from the χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via chirurgiae meaning "hand work" is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental Imhotep in the 3rd dynasty is sometimes credited with being the founder of ancient Egyptian medicine and with being the original author of the Edwin Smith papyrus, detailing cures, ailments and anatomical observations. Imhotep (sometimes spelled Immutef, Im-hotep, or Ii-em-Hotep, circa ( fl Third Dynasty The Third Dynasty of Ancient Egypt is the first dynasty of the Old Kingdom. Papyrus (/pəˈpaɪrəs/ (Rhymes -aɪrəs)is a thick paper-like material produced from the Pith of the papyrus plant Cyperus papyrus Anatomy (from the Greek anatomia, from ana separate apart from and temnein, to cut up cut open is a branch of Biology that is the consideration The Edwin Smith papyrus is regarded as a copy of several earlier works and was written circa 1600 BC. It is an ancient textbook on surgery almost completely devoid of magical thinking and describes in exquisite detail the examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of numerous ailments [4].

Conversely, the Ebers papyrus [5] (c. The Ebers Papyrus of about 1550 BC is among the most important Medical papyri of Ancient Egypt. 1550 BC) is full of incantations and foul applications meant to turn away disease-causing demons, and other superstition. The Ebers papyrus also provides our earliest possible documentation of ancient awareness of tumors, but ancient medical terminology being badly understood, cases pEbers 546 and 547 for instance may refer to simple swellings. See also Cancer A tumor or tumour is the name for a swelling or lesion formed by an abnormal growth of cells (termed neoplastic

The Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus [6] treats women's complaints, problems with conception. Thirty four cases detailing diagnosis and treatment survive, some of them fragmentarily [7]

Medical institutions, referred to as Houses of Life are known to have been established in ancient Egypt since as early as the 1st Dynasty [8]. Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now The first dynasty of Ancient Egypt is often combined with the second dynasty under the group title Early Dynastic Period of Egypt. By the time of the 19th Dynasty some workers enjoyed such benefits as medical insurance, pensions and sick leave. The Eighteenth Nineteenth, and Twentieth Dynasties of ancient Egypt are often combined under the group title New Kingdom. The term health insurance is generally used to describe a form of Insurance that pays for medical expenses A pension is a steady income given to a person upon Retirement, typically in the form of a guaranteed annuity. Sick leave (or sickness pay or sick pay) is an employee benefit in the form of paid leave which can be taken during periods of sickness to attend doctor visits or [8]

The earliest known physician is also credited to ancient Egypt: Hesyre, “Chief of Dentists and Physicians” for King Djoser in the 27th century BC. The History of Ancient Egypt spans the period from the early predynastic settlements of the northern Nile Valley to the Roman conquest in 30 Hesy-Ra, alt Hesire, was an official Physician, possibly the first known in history and Scribe who lived during the Third dynasty of Egypt Netjerikhet or Djoser ( Turin King List "Dsr-it" Manetho "Tosarthros" is the best-known Pharaoh of the Third dynasty The 27th century BC is a Century which lasted from the year 2700 BC to 2601 BC [8] Also, the earliest known woman physician, Peseshet, practiced in Ancient Egypt at the time of the 4th dynasty. Peseshet, who lived under the Fourth Dynasty, is often credited with being the earliest known female Physician in ancient Egypt. Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now The fourth dynasty of Ancient Egypt is characterized as a Golden age of the Old Kingdom. Her title was “Lady Overseer of the Lady Physicians. ” In addition to her supervisory role, Peseshet graduated midwives at an ancient Egyptian medical school in Sais. [8]

See also the article on ancient Egyptian medicine posted at Indiana University: Medicine in Ancient Egypt.

Babylonian medicine

Further information: Babylonia - Medicine

The oldest Babylonian texts on medicine date back to the Old Babylonian period in the first half of the 2nd millennium BC. Babylonia was an Amorite state in lower Mesopotamia (modern southern Iraq) with Babylon as its capital Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the The 2nd millennium BC marks the transition from the Middle to the Late Bronze Age. The most extensive Babylonian medical text, however, is the Diagnostic Handbook written by the physician Esagil-kin-apli of Borsippa,[9] during the reign of the Babylonian king Adad-apla-iddina (1069-1046 BC). Borsippa (modern Birs Nimrud site Iraq) was an important ancient city of Sumer, built on both sides of a lake about 17 The following is a list of the kings of Babylonia, a major city and empire in ancient lower Mesopotamia, compiled from the traditional Babylonian king lists and modern [10]

Along with contemporary ancient Egyptian medicine, the Babylonians introduced the concepts of diagnosis, prognosis, physical examination, and prescriptions. Ancient Egyptian Medicine refers to the practices of healing common in Ancient Egypt from Circa 3300 BC until the Persian Diagnosis is the identification by Process of elimination, of the nature of anything Prognosis (older Greek πρόγνωσις modern Greek πρόγνωση - literally fore-knowing foreseeing) is a medical term denoting the Physical examination or clinical examination is the process by which a Health care provider investigates the body of a Patient for signs In addition, the Diagnostic Handbook introduced the methods of therapy and aetiology and the use of empiricism, logic and rationality in diagnosis, prognosis and therapy. Therapy (in Greek: θεραπεία) or treatment, is the attempted Remediation of a health problem usually following a Diagnosis Etiology (alternatively aetiology, aitiology) is the study of causation. In Philosophy, empiricism is a theory of Knowledge which asserts that knowledge arises from Experience. Logic is the study of the principles of valid demonstration and Inference. Rationality as a term is related to the idea of Reason, a word which following Webster's may be derived as much from older terms referring to The text contains a list of medical symptoms and often detailed empirical observations along with logical rules used in combining observed symptoms on the body of a patient with its diagnosis and prognosis. A symptom' (from Greek σύμπτωμα, "accident misfortune that which befalls" from συμπίπτω, "I befall" from Observation is either an activity of a living being (such as a Human) which senses and assimilates the Knowledge of a Phenomenon, or the recording of data A patient is any person who receives medical attention care or treatment. [11]

The Diagnostic Handbook was based on a logical set of axioms and assumptions, including the modern view that through the examination and inspection of the symptoms of a patient, it is possible to determine the patient's disease, its aetiology and future development, and the chances of the patient's recovery. In traditional Logic, an axiom or postulate is a proposition that is not proved or demonstrated but considered to be either self-evident, or subject An inspection is most generally an organised examination or formal evaluation exercise A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly The symptoms and diseases of a patient were treated through therapeutic means such as bandages, creams and pills. A bandage is a piece of material used either to support a medical device such as a dressing or splint, or on its own to provide support to the body A cream is a topical preparation usually for application to the Skin. [9]

Persian medicine

Main article: Ancient Iranian Medicine
Further information: Islamic medicine and Science and technology in Iran

The practice and study of medicine in Persia has a long and prolific history. The practice and study of Medicine in Persia has a long and prolific history Science and technology in Iran, formerly known as Persia, have a history like the country itself The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Persia's position at the crossroads of the East and the West frequently placed it in the midst of developments in both ancient Greek and Indian medicine. Many contributions were added to this body of knowledge in both pre- and post-Islamic Iran as well.

The first generation of Persian physicians was trained at the Academy of Jundishapur, where the teaching hospital has sometimes been claimed to have been invented. The Academy of Gundishapur (in دانشگاه گنديشاپور Dânešgâh Gondišâpur was a renowned academy of learning in the city of Gundeshapur during Late antiquity Rhazes, for example, became the first physician to systematically use alcohol in his practice as a physician.

The Comprehensive Book of Medicine (Large Comprehensive, Hawi, "al-Hawi" or "The Continence") was written by the Iranian chemist Rhazes (known also as Razi), the "Large Comprehensive" was the most sought after of all his compositions. In it, Rhazes recorded clinical cases of his own experience and provided very useful recordings of various diseases.

The "Kitab fi al-jadari wa-al-hasbah" by Rhazes, with its introduction on measles and smallpox was also very influential in Europe. Measles (rubeola is a Disease caused by a virus specifically a Paramyxovirus of the genus Morbillivirus. Smallpox is an Infectious disease unique to humans caused by either of two virus variants named Variola major and Variola minor.

The Mutazilite philosopher and physician Ibn Sina (also known as Avicenna in the western world) was another influential figure. Muʿtazilah ( Arabic المعتزلة al-mu`tazilah) is a theological school of thought within Sunni Islam. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language A physician, medical practitioner or medical doctor who practices Medicine, and is concerned with maintaining or restoring human Health TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born His The Canon of Medicine, sometimes considered the most famous book in the history of medicine, remained a standard text in Europe up until its Age of Enlightenment. The Canon of Medicine ( Arabic: القانون في الطب Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb " The Law of Medicine " Persian The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century

Chinese medicine

Main article: Traditional Chinese medicine

China also developed a large body of traditional medicine. Traditional Chinese medicine (also known as TCM,) includes a range of traditional medical practices originating in China. Much of the philosophy of traditional Chinese medicine derived from empirical observations of disease and illness by Taoist physicians and reflects the classical Chinese belief that individual human experiences express causative principles effective in the environment at all scales. Traditional Chinese medicine (also known as TCM,) includes a range of traditional medical practices originating in China. Taoism (pronounced /ˈdaʊɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊɪzəm/ also spelled '''Daoism''') refers to a variety of related Philosophical and Religious traditions These causative principles, whether material, essential, or mystical, correlate as the expression of the natural order of the universe.

During the golden age of his reign from 2696 to 2598 B. C, as a result of a dialogue with his minister Ch'i Pai, the Yellow Emperor is supposed by Chinese tradition to have composed his Neijing (內經) Suwen (素問) or Basic Questions of Internal Medicine. Huangdi, or the Yellow Emperor, is a Legendary Chinese sovereign and cultural hero who is considered in Chinese mythology to be the Huangdi Neijing ( also known as The Inner Canon of Huangdi or Inner Canon of the Yellow Emperor, is the seminal medical text of

During the Han dynasty, Chang Chung-Ching, who was mayor of Chang-sha near the end of the second century A. D. , wrote a Treatise on Typhoid Fever, which contains the earliest known reference to Neijing Suwen. Huangdi Neijing ( also known as The Inner Canon of Huangdi or Inner Canon of the Yellow Emperor, is the seminal medical text of The Jin Dynasty practitioner and advocate of acupuncture and moxibustion, Huang-fu Mi (215-282 A. The Jìn Dynasty ( 265 – 420) one of the Six Dynasties, followed the Three Kingdoms period and preceded the Southern and Northern Dynasties History Antiquity In China, the practice of acupuncture can perhaps be traced as far back as Moxibustion ( is an Oriental medicine therapy utilizing moxa, or Mugwort Herb. D), also quotes the Yellow Emperor in his Chia I Ching, ca. Huangdi, or the Yellow Emperor, is a Legendary Chinese sovereign and cultural hero who is considered in Chinese mythology to be the 265 A. D. During the Tang dynasty, Wang Ping claimed to have located a copy of the originals of the Neijing Suwen, which he expanded and edited substantially. This work was revisited by an imperial commission during the eleventh century A. D. , and the result is our best extant representation of the foundational roots of traditional Chinese medicine.

Hebrew medicine

Most of our knowledge of ancient Hebrew medicine during the 1st millennium BCE comes from the Torah, i. The 1st millennium BC encompasses the Iron Age and sees the rise of successive empires term " Torah " ( Hebrew: תּוֹרָה "teaching" or "instruction" sometimes translated as "Law" most commonly refers to e. the Five Books of Moses, which contain various health related laws and rituals, such as isolating infected people (Leviticus 13:45-46), washing after handling a dead body (Numbers 19:11-19) and burying excrement away from camp (Deuteronomy 23:12-13). Moses ( Latin: Moyses,; Greek: grc Mωυσής in both the Septuagint and the New Testament; Arabic: ar موسىٰ While the observance of these statutes would have and do lead to several health benefits, Jewish belief commands that these rituals and prohibitions be kept purely to fulfill the will of God with no ulterior motive. Max Neuberger, writing in his "History of Medicine" says"

"The commands concern prophylaxis and suppression of epidemics, suppression of venereal disease and prostitution, care of the skin, baths , food, housing and clothing, regulation of labour , sexual life , discipline of the people , etc. Many of these commands, such as Sabbath rest, circumcision, laws concerning food (interdiction of blood and pork), measures concerning menstruating and lying-in women and those suffering from gonorrhoea, isolation of lepers, and hygiene of the camp, are, in view of the conditions of the climate, surprisingly rational. "(Neuburger: History of Medicine, Oxford University Press, 1910, Vol. I, p. 38).

Greco-Roman medicine

Main articles: Medicine in ancient Greece, Medicine in ancient Rome, Medical community of ancient Rome, Byzantine medicine, and Medieval medicine

Since the discovery in 1991 of the frozen and preserved body of Ötzi the Iceman in the Austrian-Italian Alps, it has been thought that the history of medicine moved further back in time. The first known Greek medical school opened in Cnidus in 700 BC Ancient Roman Medicine combined various techniques using different tools and rituals Medical community as used in this article refers to medical institutions and services offered to populations under the jurisdiction of the late Roman Republic and the Roman Byzantine medicine is the medicine practiced in the Byzantine Empire from about 400 AD to 1453 AD For contemporary medicine practiced outside of Europe see Islamic medicine, Byzantine medicine, Traditional Chinese medicine, and Ayurveda Ötzi the Iceman ( pronounced) Frozen Fritz, and Similaun Man are modern nicknames of a well-preserved natural Mummy of a man He was aged about 46 and had over 40 tattoos, most of them in locations where medical analysis also showed he had disease or pain such as arthritis. His death occurred in 3300 BC and his body, held in the museum in Bolzano, is the oldest preserved European mummy. For the mathematician see Bernard Bolzano; for other uses see Bolzano (disambiguation. A mummy is a Corpse whose Skin and Flesh have been preserved by either intentional or Incidental exposure to Chemicals extreme

Hippocratic Corpus, is a collection of around seventy early medical works from ancient Greece strongly associated with the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates and his teachings.
Hippocratic Corpus, is a collection of around seventy early medical works from ancient Greece strongly associated with the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates and his teachings. The Hippocratic Corpus (Latin Corpus Hippocraticum) Hippocratic Collection, or Hippocratic Canon, is a collection of around seventy early medical works The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca Hippocrates of Cos II or Hippokrates of Kos ( ca. 460 BC – ca

As societies developed in Europe and Asia, belief systems were replaced with a different natural system. The Greeks, from Hippocrates, developed a humoral medicine system where treatment was to restore the balance of humours within the body. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca Hippocrates of Cos II or Hippokrates of Kos ( ca. 460 BC – ca Many ancient philosophies used a set of archetypal classical "elements" to explain patterns in Nature. Ancient Medicine is a treatise on medicine, written roughly 400 BC by Hippocrates. On Ancient Medicine or Tradition in Medicine is a treatise in the Hippocratic Corpus, a collection of ancient Greek medical texts Events By place Persian Empire Artaxerxes II King of Persia appoints Tissaphernes to take over all the districts in Similar views were espoused in China and in India. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country (See Medicine in ancient Greece for more details. The first known Greek medical school opened in Cnidus in 700 BC )[12][13] In Greece, through Galen until the Renaissance the main thrust of medicine was the maintenance of health by control of diet and hygiene. Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere This article is primarily about the human diet For a discussion of animal diets see List of feeding behaviours. Hygiene refers to practices associated with ensuring good health and cleanliness Anatomical knowledge was limited and there were few surgical or other cures, physicians relied on a good relation with patients and dealt with minor ailments and soothing chronic conditions and could do little when epidemic diseases, growing out of urbanization and the domestication of animals, then raged across the world. Anatomy (from the Greek anatomia, from ana separate apart from and temnein, to cut up cut open is a branch of Biology that is the consideration A physician, medical practitioner or medical doctor who practices Medicine, and is concerned with maintaining or restoring human Health Urbanizationn (also spelled urbanisation) is the physical growth of Urban areas into rural or natural land as a result of population in-migration to an existing Domestication (from Latin domesticus) refers to the process whereby a Population of Animals

Hippocrates, regarded as the father of modern medicine,[14][15] and his followers were first to describe many diseases and medical conditions. Hippocrates of Cos II or Hippokrates of Kos ( ca. 460 BC – ca He is given credit for the first description of clubbing of the fingers, an important diagnostic sign in chronic suppurative lung disease, lung cancer and cyanotic heart disease. In Medicine, clubbing, finger clubbing, or digital clubbing is a deformity of the Fingers and fingernails that is associated with a Lung cancer is a Disease of uncontrolled Cell growth in tissues of the Lung. A cyanotic heart defect is a group-type of Congenital heart defects ( CHD s For this reason, clubbed fingers are sometimes referred to as "Hippocratic fingers". [16] Hippocrates was also the first physician to describe Hippocratic face in Prognosis. The Hippocratic face ( facies Hippocratica in Latin) is the change produced in the Face by impending Death, or long Sickness, excessive Shakespeare famously alludes to this description when writing of Falstaff's death in Act II, Scene iii. William Shakespeare ( baptised Sir John Falstaff is a Fictional character who appears in three plays by William Shakespeare as a companion to Prince Hal the future King Henry V. of Henry V. [17][18]

Hippocrates began to categorize illnesses as acute, chronic, endemic and epidemic, and use terms such as, "exacerbation, relapse, resolution, crisis, paroxysm, peak, and convalescence. In Medicine, an acute disease is a disease with either or both of a rapid onset a short course (as opposed to a chronic course In Medicine, a chronic disease is a Disease that is long-lasting or recurrent In Epidemiology, an Infection is said to be endemic (from Greek en- in or within + demos people in a Population when In Epidemiology, an epidemic (from Greek epi- upon + demos people is a classification of a disease that appears as new cases in a A relapse (etymologically "who falls again" occurs when a person is affected again by a condition that affected them in the past Convalescence is the gradual recovery of Health and strength after Illness. "[19][20] Another of Hippocrates's major contributions may be found in his descriptions of the symptomatology, physical findings, surgical treatment and prognosis of thoracic empyema, i. An empyema is a collection of Pus within a naturally existing anatomical cavity e. suppuration of the lining of the chest cavity. Pus is a whitish-yellow yellow or yellow-brown substance produced during Inflammatory responses of the body that can be found in regions of Pyogenic bacterial His teachings remain relevant to present-day students of pulmonary medicine and surgery. In Medicine, pulmonology (aka pneumology) is the specialty that deals with Diseases of the Lungs and the Respiratory tract. [21] Hippocrates was the first documented chest surgeon and his findings are still valid. Cardiothoracic surgery is the field of Medicine involved in surgical treatment of Diseases affecting organs inside the Thorax (the chest [21]

Galen performed many audacious operations—including brain and eye surgeries— that were not tried again for almost two millennia. Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or Surgery (from the χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via chirurgiae meaning "hand work" is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental Later, in medieval Europe, Galen's writings on anatomy became the mainstay of the medieval physician's university curriculum along; but they suffered greatly from stasis and intellectual stagnation. In the 1530s, however, Belgian anatomist and physician Andreas Vesalius took on a project to translate many of Galen's Greek texts into Latin. Andreas Vesalius ( Brussels, December 31, 1514 - Zakynthos, October 15, 1564) was an anatomist, Physician Vesalius's most famous work, De humani corporis fabrica, was greatly influenced by Galenic writing and form. De humani corporis fabrica libri septem ( On the fabric of the human body in seven books) is a textbook of human anatomy written by Andreas Vesalius [22] The works of Galen and Avicenna, especially The Canon of Medicine which incorporated the teachings of both, were translated into Latin, and the Canon remained the most authoritative text on anatomy in European medical education until the 16th century. Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome.

Romans invented numerous surgical instruments, including the first instruments unique to women,[23] as well as the surgical uses of forceps, scalpel, cautery, cross-bladed scissors, surgical needle, sound, and specula. Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC A surgical instrument is a specially designed tool or device for performing specific actions of carrying out desired effects during a Surgery or operation such as modifying Forceps are a handheld hinged instrument used for grasping and holding objects A scalpel is a small but extremely sharp knife used for Surgery, anatomical Dissection, and various Arts and crafts. Cauterize redirects here For the band see Cauterize (band Cauterization is a medical term describing the burning of the body to remove Scissors are hand operated cutting instruments consisting of a pair of Metal Blades connected in such a way that the blades meet and cut materials placed In Medicine, sounds are instruments for probing and dilating passages within the body the best-known examples of which are urethral sounds and uterine speculum is a medical tool for investigating body cavities with a form dependent on the body cavity for which it is designed [24][25] Romans were also pioneers in the cataract surgery. Cataract surgery is the removal of the lens of the Eye (also called "crystalline" that has developed an opacification which is referred to as a [26].

Medieval medicine was an evolving mixture of the scientific and the spiritual. Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding In the early Middle Ages, following the fall of the Roman Empire, standard medical knowledge was based chiefly upon surviving Greek and Roman texts, preserved in monasteries and elsewhere. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Ideas about the origin and cure of disease were not, however, purely secular, but were also based on a spiritual world view, in which factors such as destiny, sin, and astral influences played as great a part as any physical cause. A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly Secularity ( adjective form secular) is the state of being separate from Religion. Spirituality, in a narrow sense concerns itself with matters of the Spirit, a concept closely tied to religious belief and Faith, a transcendent reality

Oribasius was the greatest Byzantine compiler of medical knowledge. Oribasius or Oreibasius ( Greek:Ορειβάσιος (c 320-400 was a Greek medical writer and the personal physician of the Roman emperor Julian Several of his works, along with many other Byzantine physicians, were translated into Latin, and eventually, during the Enlightenment and Age of Reason, into English and French. Byzantine medicine is the medicine practiced in the Byzantine Empire from about 400 AD to 1453 AD The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century 17th century philosophy in the Western world is generally regarded as being the start of Modern philosophy, and a departure from the medieval approach The last great Byzantine Physician was Actuarius, who lived in the early 14th Century in Constantinople. Joannes Zacharias Actuarius ( c 1275 – c 1328 son of Zacharias was a Byzantine Physician in Constantinople. Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS

Medicine was notably not one of the seven classical Artes liberales, and was consequently looked upon more as a handicraft than as a science. The term liberal arts refers to a particular type of educational Curriculum broadly defined as a Classical education. Medicine did, nevertheless, establish itself as a faculty, along with law and theology in the first European Universities from the 12th century. Law is a system of rules enforced through a set of Institutions used as an instrument to underpin civil obedience politics economics and society Theology is the study of a god or the gods from a religious perspective This article is about Western European institutions See also Medieval university (Asia and Byzantine university Medieval university Rogerius Salernitanus composed his Chirurgia, laying the foundation for modern Western surgical manuals up to the modern time. Rogerius (before 1140-c 1195 also called Rogerius Salernitanus, Roger Frugard, Roger Frugardi, Roggerio Frugardo, Rüdiger Frutgard The development of modern neurology began in the 16th century with Vesalius, who described the anatomy of the brain and much else; he had little notion of function, thinking that it lay mainly in the ventricles. Andreas Vesalius ( Brussels, December 31, 1514 - Zakynthos, October 15, 1564) was an anatomist, Physician The ventricular system is a set of structures in the Brain continuous with the Central canal of the Spinal cord. [27]

Islamic medicine

An Arabic manuscript, dated 1200 CE, titled Anatomy of the Eye, authored by al-Mutadibih.
An Arabic manuscript, dated 1200 CE, titled Anatomy of the Eye, authored by al-Mutadibih. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language
Main article: Islamic medicine
Further information: Ophthalmology in medieval Islam, Bimaristan, and Unani

The Islamic civilization rose to primacy in medical science as Muslim physicians contributed significantly to the field of medicine, including anatomy, ophthalmology, pharmacology, pharmacy, physiology, surgery, and the pharmaceutical sciences. Ophthalmology was one of the foremost branches in medieval Islamic medicine. Bimaristan is a Middle Persian and modern Persian ( بیمارستان bīmārestān) word meaning Hospital, with Bimar- Unani IPA: (in Arabic, Hindi, Persian, Pashtu, Urdu, etc means " Greek " A physician, medical practitioner or medical doctor who practices Medicine, and is concerned with maintaining or restoring human Health Anatomy (from the Greek anatomia, from ana separate apart from and temnein, to cut up cut open is a branch of Biology that is the consideration Ophthalmology is the branch of Medicine which deals with the diseases and surgery of the visual pathways including the Eye, Brain Pharmacology (from Greek grc φάρμακον pharmakon, "drug" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of how Drugs Pharmacy (from the Greek φάρμακον 'pharmakon' = drug is the Health profession that links the Health sciences with the chemical sciences Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical Surgery (from the χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via chirurgiae meaning "hand work" is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental The pharmaceutical sciences are a group of Interdisciplinary areas of study involved with the design action delivery disposition and use of Drugs This field draws The Arabs further developed Greek and Roman medical practices. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC Galen and Hippocrates were pre-eminent authorities. Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or Hippocrates of Cos II or Hippokrates of Kos ( ca. 460 BC – ca [28] The translation c. 830-870 of 129 works of ancient Greek physician Galen into Arabic by Hunayn ibn Ishaq and his assistants, and in particular Galen's insistence on a rational systematic approach to medicine, set the template for Islamic medicine, which rapidly spread throughout the Arab Empire. Events By Place Europe Earliest date of composition for the Historia Brittonum, attributed to Nennius, and known for Events By Place Europe Prague Castle is founded The Great Summer Army invades England and conquers The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions A physician, medical practitioner or medical doctor who practices Medicine, and is concerned with maintaining or restoring human Health Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Hunayn ibn Ishaq (Hunein Bit Ishak أبو زيد حنين بن إسحاق العبادي; known in Latin as Johannitius (809-873 was a famous and influential Muslim physicians set up some of the earliest dedicated hospitals, which later spread to Europe during the Crusades, inspired by the hospitals in the Middle East. A hospital is an institution for Health care providing treatment by specialised staff and equipment and often but not always providing for The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents [29]

Al-Kindi wrote De Gradibus, in which he demonstrated the application of mathematics to medicine, particularly in the field of pharmacology. ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c De Gradibus was an Arabic book published by the Arab physician Al-Kindi (c This includes the development of a mathematical scale to quantify the strength of drugs, and a system that would allow a doctor to determine in advance the most critical days of a patient's illness. A drug, broadly speaking is any chemical substance that when absorbed into the body [30] Razi (Rhazes) (865-925) recorded clinical cases of his own experience and provided very useful recordings of various diseases. A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly His Comprehensive Book of Medicine, which introduced measles and smallpox, was very influential in Europe. Measles (rubeola is a Disease caused by a virus specifically a Paramyxovirus of the genus Morbillivirus. Smallpox is an Infectious disease unique to humans caused by either of two virus variants named Variola major and Variola minor. In his Doubts about Galen, Razi was also the first to prove both Galen's theory of humorism and Aristotle's theory of classical elements false using an experimental method. Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or Humorism, or humoralism, was a theory of the makeup and workings of the human body adopted by Greek and Roman physicians and philosophers Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Many ancient philosophies used a set of archetypal classical "elements" to explain patterns in Nature. [31]

Abu al-Qasim (Abulcasis), regarded as the father of modern surgery,[32] wrote the Kitab al-Tasrif (1000), a 30-volume medical encyclopedia which was taught at Muslim and European medical schools until the 17th century. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف Surgery (from the χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via chirurgiae meaning "hand work" is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental The Kitab al-Tasrif ( Arabic, كتاب التفسير) ( The Method of Medicine) was an influential Arabic medical encyclopedia An encyclopedia (or '''encyclopædia''') is a comprehensive written Compendium that contains Information on either all branches of Knowledge Medical education A medical school or faculty of medicine is a Tertiary educational institution—or part of such an institution—that teaches Medicine He used numerous surgical instruments, including the instruments unique to women,[33][23] as well as the surgical uses of catgut and forceps, the ligature, surgical needle, scalpel, curette, retractor, surgical spoon, sound, surgical hook, surgical rod, and specula,[34] bone saw,[35] and plaster. A surgical instrument is a specially designed tool or device for performing specific actions of carrying out desired effects during a Surgery or operation such as modifying Catgut is the name applied to cord of great toughness and tenacity prepared from the Intestines of the Sheep or Goat, or occasionally from those of the Forceps are a handheld hinged instrument used for grasping and holding objects In medicine a ligature is a device similar to a Tourniquet, usually of thread or string tied around a limb blood vessel or similar to restrict blood flow A scalpel is a small but extremely sharp knife used for Surgery, anatomical Dissection, and various Arts and crafts. A curette is a Spoon -shaped surgical instrument for cleaning a diseased surface A spoon is a Utensil consisting of a small shallow bowl at the end of a handle used primarily for serving and eating Liquid, or semi-liquid foods and solid foods In Medicine, sounds are instruments for probing and dilating passages within the body the best-known examples of which are urethral sounds and uterine speculum is a medical tool for investigating body cavities with a form dependent on the body cavity for which it is designed A saw is a Tool that uses a hard blade or wire with an abrasive edge to cut through softer materials The term plaster can refer to plaster of Paris Lime plaster, or Cement plaster. [36]

Avicenna, considered the father of modern medicine[37] and one of the greatest thinkers and medical scholars in history,[29] wrote The Canon of Medicine (1020) and The Book of Healing (11th century), which remained standard textbooks in both Muslim and European universities until the 17th century. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born The Canon of Medicine ( Arabic: القانون في الطب Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb " The Law of Medicine " Persian The Book of Healing ( Arabic: الشفاء Al-Shefa, Latin: Sanatio) is a scientific and philosophical A university is an institution of Higher education and Research, which grants Academic degrees in a variety of subjects Avicenna's contributions include the introduction of systematic experimentation and quantification into the study of physiology,[38] the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases, the introduction of quarantine to limit the spread of contagious diseases, the introduction of experimental medicine and clinical trials,[39] the first descriptions on bacteria and viral organisms,[40] the distinction of mediastinitis from pleurisy, the contagious nature of phthisis and tuberculosis, the distribution of diseases by water and soil, and the first careful descriptions of skin troubles, sexually transmitted diseases, perversions, and nervous ailments,[29] as well the use of ice to treat fevers, and the separation of medicine from pharmacology, which was important to the development of the pharmaceutical sciences. In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or Quantification has two distinct meanings In Mathematics and Empirical science, it refers to human acts known as Counting and Measuring Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical An infectious disease is a clinically evident Disease resulting from the presence of Pathogenic microbial agents including Pathogenic viruses Pathogenic For other uses see Quarantine (disambiguation Quarantine is voluntary or compulsory isolation typically to contain the spread of something Biomedical research (or experimental medicine) in general simply known as medical research, is the Basic research or Applied research conducted In health care clinical trials are conducted to allow safety and Efficacy data to be collected for new drugs or devices The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have A virus (from the Latin virus meaning Toxin or Poison) is a sub-microscopic infectious agent that is unable Mediastinitis is Inflammation of the tissues in the mid-chest or Mediastinum. Pleurisy, also known as pleuritis, is an Inflammation of the pleura the lining of the Pleural cavity surrounding the Lungs Pleurisy has a variety Tuberculosis (abbreviated as TB for tubercle bacillus or T u' b' erculosis Bacillus --> is a common Tuberculosis (abbreviated as TB for tubercle bacillus or T u' b' erculosis Bacillus --> is a common A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. Soil, often typeset as SOiL, is a four piece rock band from Chicago Illinois United States founded by Shaun Glass Tom Schofield Tim King and Adam Zadel The skin is the outer covering of living tissue of an animal (or plant A sexually transmitted disease ( STD) or venereal disease ( VD) is an illness that has a significant probability of transmission between Humans Perversion is a concept describing those types of Human behavior that are perceived to be a serious deviation from what is considered to be orthodox or normal The nervous system is a Network of specialized cells that communicate information about an animal's surroundings and itself Illness (sometimes referred to as ill-health or ail) can be defined as a state of poor Health. Ice is a Solid phase, usually crystalline, of a Non-metalic substance that is liquid or gas at Room temperature, such as Ammonia Fever (also known as pyrexia, from the Greek pyretos meaning fire or a febrile response, from the Latin word Febris Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Pharmacology (from Greek grc φάρμακον pharmakon, "drug" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of how Drugs The pharmaceutical sciences are a group of Interdisciplinary areas of study involved with the design action delivery disposition and use of Drugs This field draws [33]

In 1021, Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) made important advances in eye surgery, as he studied and correctly explained the process of sight and visual perception for the first time in his Book of Optics (1021). TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized Eye surgery, also known as orogolomistician surgery or ocular surgery, is Surgery performed on the Eye or its Adnexa, typically by In Psychology, visual perception is the ability to interpret information from Visible light reaching the Eyes The resulting Perception is also The Book of Optics ( Arabic: Kitab al-Manazir, Latin: De Aspectibus or Opticae Thesaurus Alhazeni [33]

In 1242, Ibn al-Nafis was the first to describe pulmonary circulation and coronary circulation,[41] which form the basis of the circulatory system, for which he is considered the father of the theory of circulation. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( Pulmonary circulation is the portion of the Cardiovascular system which carries Oxygen -depleted Blood away from the heart to the Lungs, and Coronary circulation is the circulation of blood in the Blood vessels that supply Blood to and from the Heart muscle This is an article about the rock music band "Circulatory System" [42] He also described the earliest concept of metabolism,[43] and developed new systems of physiology and psychology to replace the Avicennian and Galenic systems, while discrediting many of their erroneous theories on the four humours, pulsation,[44] bones, muscles, intestines, sensory organs, bilious canals, esophagus, stomach, etc. Metabolism is the set of Chemical reactions that occur in living Organisms in order to maintain Life. Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or Humorism, or humoralism, was a theory of the makeup and workings of the human body adopted by Greek and Roman physicians and philosophers In Medicine, a person's pulse is the throbbing of their arteries. Bones are rigid organs that form part of the Endoskeleton of Vertebrates They function to move support and protect the various organs of the body produce Muscle (from Latin musculus, diminutive of mus "mouse" is contractile tissue of the body and is derived from the In Anatomy, the intestine is the segment of the alimentary canal extending from the Stomach to the Anus and in humans and other mammals consists See also Sense A sensory system is a part of the Nervous system responsible for processing sensory information Bile or gall is a bitter yellow or green Alkaline fluid secreted by Hepatocytes from the Liver of most Vertebrates In many species In Anatomy, a canal (or canalis in Latin) is a tubular passage or channel which connect different regions of the body The esophagus or oesophagus (see American and British English spelling differences) sometimes known as the gullet, is an organ in In Human anatomy, the stomach is a J-shaped hollow muscular organ of the Gastrointestinal tract involved in the second phase of Digestion, following [45]

Ibn al-Lubudi (1210-1267) rejected the theory of four humours supported by Galen and Hippocrates, discovered that the body and its preservation depend exclusively upon blood, rejected Galen's idea that women can produce sperm, and discovered that the movement of arteries are not dependant upon the movement of the heart, that the heart is the first organ to form in a fetus' body (rather than the brain as claimed by Hippocrates), and that the bones forming the skull can grow into tumors. Humorism, or humoralism, was a theory of the makeup and workings of the human body adopted by Greek and Roman physicians and philosophers Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or Hippocrates of Cos II or Hippokrates of Kos ( ca. 460 BC – ca With regard to living things, a body is the integral physical material of an individual Blood is a specialized Bodily fluid that delivers necessary substances to the body's cells such as nutrients and oxygen—and transports Waste products The term sperm is derived from the Greek word (σπέρμα sperma (meaning "seed" and refers to the male reproductive cells. Arteries are Blood vessels that carry blood away from the Heart. The heart is a muscular organ in all Vertebrates responsible for pumping Blood through the Blood vessels by repeated rhythmic A fetus (or foetus or fœtus) is a developing Mammal or other Viviparous Vertebrate, after the Embryonic stage and The brain is the center of the Nervous system in animals All Vertebrates and the majority of Invertebrates have a brain Bones are rigid organs that form part of the Endoskeleton of Vertebrates They function to move support and protect the various organs of the body produce See also Cancer A tumor or tumour is the name for a swelling or lesion formed by an abnormal growth of cells (termed neoplastic [46] Maimonides, although a Jew himself, made various contributions to Islamic medicine in the 13th century. Moses Maimonides ( March 30 1135 – December 13 1204) also known as the Rambam, was a Rabbi, Physician, and PLEASE TAKE NOTE************

The Tashrih al-badan (Anatomy of the body) of Mansur ibn Ilyas (c. Manṣūr ibn Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Yūsuf Ibn Ilyās (ar منصور ابن محمد ابن احمد ابن يوسف ابن الياس was a late 14th century physician from 1390) contained comprehensive diagrams of the body's structural, nervous and circulatory systems. The nervous system is a Network of specialized cells that communicate information about an animal's surroundings and itself This is an article about the rock music band "Circulatory System" [47] During the Black Death bubonic plague in 14th century al-Andalus, Ibn Khatima and Ibn al-Khatib discovered that infecious diseases are caused by microorganisms which enter the human body. The Black Death, or the Black Plague, was one of the deadliest Pandemics in human history widely thought to have been caused by a bacterium named Yersinia Bubonic plague is the best-known manifestation of the bacterial disease plague, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis (formerly known as Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or A microorganism (also spelled micro organism or micro-organism and also called a microbe) is an Organism that is Microscopic (usually [48] Other medical innovations first introduced by Muslim physicians include the discovery of the immune system, the introduction of microbiology, the use of animal testing, and the combination of medicine with other sciences (including agriculture, botany, chemistry, and pharmacology),[33] as well as the invention of the injection syringe by Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili in 9th century Iraq, the first drugstores in Baghdad (754), the distinction between medicine and pharmacy by the 12th century, and the discovery of at least 2,000 medicinal and chemical substances. An immune system is a collection of mechanisms within an Organism that protects against Disease by identifying and killing Pathogens and Tumor Microbiology (from Greek grc μῑκρος mīkros, "small" grc βίος bios, " Life " and grc -λογία Animal testing or animal research is the use of non-human Animals in scientific experimentation. Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture Botany, plant science(s, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of Biology and is the scientific study of plant Life Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem meaning "earth") is the Science concerned with the composition structure and properties Pharmacology (from Greek grc φάρμακον pharmakon, "drug" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of how Drugs An injection is an infusion method of putting Liquid into the Body, usually with a hollow needle and a Syringe which is pierced through A syringe is a simple piston Pump consisting of a plunger that fits tightly in a tube For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous A chemical substance is a Material with a definite chemical composition. [49]

European Medieval, Renaissance and Enlightenment medicine

see also: Medieval medicine

In western Europe the collapse of Roman imperial authority led to a halt to the development of organised medical practice. For contemporary medicine practiced outside of Europe see Islamic medicine, Byzantine medicine, Traditional Chinese medicine, and Ayurveda Medicine became localised, with folk-medicine augmenting what remained of the medical knowledge of antiquity. Medical knowledge was preserved and practised in many monastic institutions, which often had a hospital attached. Those living the monastic life are known by the generic terms Monks (men and Nuns (women A hospital is an institution for Health care providing treatment by specialised staff and equipment and often but not always providing for Organised professional medicine re-emerged, with the foundation of the medical college of Salerno in Italy in the 11th century, which in co-operation with the monastery of Monte Cassino, translated many Byzantine and Arabic works. For information about the World War II battle see the Battle of Monte Cassino. In the twelfth century universities were founded in Italy and elsewhere, which soon developed schools of medicine. Gradually the reliance on the masters of the ancient world was augmented by the results of individual observation and experience. Surgical practice improved greatly during the medieval period. With the renaissance came an increase in experimental investigation, principally in dissection and examining bodies. The work of individuals like Andreas Vesalius and William Harvey challenged accepted folklore with scientific evidence. Andreas Vesalius ( Brussels, December 31, 1514 - Zakynthos, October 15, 1564) was an anatomist, Physician William Harvey ( April 1, 1578 – June 3, 1657) was an English Physician who is credited with being the first in Understanding and diagnosis improved but with little direct benefit to health. Few effective drugs existed, beyond opium and quinine, folklore cures and potentially poisonous metal-based compounds were popular treatments. Opium is a Narcotic formed from the Latex (ie sap released by lacerating (or "scoring" the immature seed pods of opium poppies ( Quinine (ˈkwaɪnaɪn kwɪˈniːn ˈkwiːniːn is a natural white Crystalline Alkaloid having Antipyretic (fever-reducing antimalarial,

Important figures:

Modern medicine

Medicine was revolutionized in the 19th century and beyond by advances in chemistry and laboratory techniques and equipment, old ideas of infectious disease epidemiology were replaced with bacteriology and virology. Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem meaning "earth") is the Science concerned with the composition structure and properties Microbiology (from Greek grc μῑκρος mīkros, "small" grc βίος bios, " Life " and grc -λογία Virology is the study of viruses and virus-like agents: their structure classification and evolution their ways to infect and exploit cells for virus reproduction

Bacteria and microorganisms were first observed with a microscope by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in 1676, initiating the scientific field microbiology. The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have A microorganism (also spelled micro organism or micro-organism and also called a microbe) is an Organism that is Microscopic (usually A microscope ( Greek: ( micron) = small + ( skopein) = to look or see is an instrument for viewing objects that are Antonie Philips van Leeuwenhoek (October 24 1632 &ndash August 30 1723 was a Dutch tradesman and Scientist from Delft, the Netherlands Microbiology (from Greek grc μῑκρος mīkros, "small" grc βίος bios, " Life " and grc -λογία [50]

Ignaz Semmelweis (1818-1865) in 1847 dramatically reduced the death rate of new mothers from childbed fever by the simple expedient of requiring physicians to clean their hands before attending to women in childbirth. Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis ( July 1, 1818 &ndash August 13, 1865) also Ignac Semmelweis (born Semmelweis Ignác Fülöp Year 1847 ( MDCCCXLVII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common Puerperal fever (from the Latin puer, child) also called childbed fever, can develop into puerperal sepsis, which is a serious Childbirth (also called labour, birth, partus or parturition) is the culmination of a Human Pregnancy or His discovery pre-dated the germ theory of disease. The germ theory, also called the pathogenic theory of medicine, is a Theory that proposes that Microorganisms are the cause of many Diseases. However, his discoveries were not appreciated by his contemporaries and came into general use only with discoveries of British surgeon Joseph Lister, who in 1865 proved the principles of antisepsis in the treatment of wounds; However, medical conservatism on new breakthroughs in pre-existing science prevented them from being generally well received during the 19th century. Joseph Lister 1st Baron Lister, OM, FRS ( 5 April 1827 &ndash 10 February 1912) was an English surgeon Year 1865 ( MDCCCLXV) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Antiseptics (from Greek αντί - anti, '"against" + σηπτικός - septikos, "putrefactive" are antimicrobial

After Charles Darwin's 1859 publication of The Origin of Species, Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) published in 1865 his books on pea plants, which would be later known as Mendel's laws. Charles Robert Darwin (February 12 1809 &ndash April 19 1882 was an English naturalist, who realised and demonstrated that all Species of life Charles Darwin 's On the Origin of Species (published 24 November 1859) is a seminal work in Scientific literature and arguably the Gregor Johann Mendel ( July 20, 1822 &ndash January 6, 1884) was Mendelian inheritance (or Mendelian genetics or Mendelism) is a set of primary tenets relating to the transmission of hereditary characteristics from parent Re-discovered at the turn of the century, they would form the basis of classical genetics. The history of Genetics is generally held to have started with the work of an Augustinian Monk, Gregor Mendel. The 1953 discovery of the structure of DNA by Watson and Crick would open the door to molecular biology and modern genetics. Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) is a Nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known Francis Harry Compton Crick OM FRS (8 June 1916 – 28 July 2004 Ph The history of molecular biology begins in the 1930s with the convergence of various previously distinct biological disciplines Biochemistry, Genetics, Microbiology During the late 19th century and the first part of the 20th century, several physicians, such as Nobel prize winner Alexis Carrel, supported eugenics, a theory first formulated in 1865 by Francis Galton. Eugenics is a social Philosophy which advocates the improvement of Human Hereditary traits through various forms of intervention Sir Francis Galton FRS ( 16 February 1822 &ndash 17 January 1911) half-cousin of Charles Darwin, was an Eugenics was discredited as a science after the Nazis' experiments in World War II became known; however, compulsory sterilization programs continued to be used in modern countries (including the US, Sweden or Peru) until much later. Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Compulsory sterilization programs are government policies which attempt to force people to undergo surgical sterilization.

Semmelweis's work was supported by the discoveries made by Louis Pasteur. Louis Pasteur (27 December 1822 – 28 September 1895 a French Chemist and Microbiologist, is best known for remarkable breakthroughs in the causes and Linking microorganisms with disease, Pasteur brought about a revolution in medicine. He also invented with Claude Bernard (1813-1878) the process of pasteurization still in use today. Claude Bernard ( July 12, 1813 – February 10, 1878) was a French Physiologist. Pasteurization is the process of heating Liquids for the purpose of destroying bacteria, Protozoa, Molds and Yeasts The process was His experiments confirmed the germ theory. Claude Bernard aimed at establishing scientific method in medicine; he published An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine in 1865. Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena Beside this, Pasteur, along with Robert Koch (who was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1905), founded bacteriology. Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch ( December 11 1843 – May 27 1910) was a German Physician. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (Nobelpriset i fysiologi eller medicin is awarded once a year by the Swedish Karolinska Institute. Koch was also famous for the discovery of the tubercle bacillus (1882) and the cholera bacillus (1883) and for his development of Koch's postulates. Mycobacterium tuberculosis is the Bacterium that causes most cases of Tuberculosis. Year 1882 ( MDCCCLXXXII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Vibrio cholerae (also Kommabacillus) is a Gram negative curved-rod shaped Bacterium with a polar Flagella that causes Cholera Year 1883 ( MDCCCLXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Koch's postulates are four criteria designed to establish a causal relationship between a causative Microbe and a Disease.

The participation of women in medical care (beyond serving as midwives, sitters and cleaning women) was brought about by the likes of Florence Nightingale. Florence Nightingale, OM, RRC (in her own pronunciation ˈflɒɾəns ˈnaɪtɪŋgeɪl 12 May 1820 – 13 August 1910 who came to be known as "The These women showed a previously male dominated profession the elemental role of nursing in order to lessen the aggravation of patient mortality which resulted from lack of hygiene and nutrition. Nightingale set up the St Thomas hospital, post-Crimea, in 1852. Elizabeth Blackwell became the first woman to formally study, and subsequently practice, medicine in the United States. Elizabeth Blackwell ( February 3, 1821 &ndash May 31, 1910) was an Abolitionist, Women's rights Activist

It was in this era that actual cures were developed for certain endemic infectious diseases. However the decline in many of the most lethal diseases was more due to improvements in public health and nutrition than to medicine. It was not until the 20th century that the application of the scientific method to medical research began to produce multiple important developments in medicine, with great advances in pharmacology and surgery. Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena Pharmacology (from Greek grc φάρμακον pharmakon, "drug" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of how Drugs

During the First World War, Alexis Carrel and Henry Dakin developed the Carrel-Dakin method of treating wounds with sutures, which prior to the development of widespread antibiotics, was a major medical progress. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Alexis Carrel ( June 28, 1873 - November 5, 1944) was a French surgeon biologist and Eugenicist, who was awarded the Henry Drysdale Dakin (1880 - 1952 was an English Chemist. He was born in London as the youngest of 8 children to a family of steel merchants from

The great war spurred the usage of Roentgen's X-ray, and the electrocardiograph, for the monitoring of internal bodily functions, However, this was overshadowed by the remarkable mass production of penicillum antibiotics, which resulted from government and public pressure.

Lunatic asylums began to appear in the Industrial Era. A psychiatric hospital (previously called insane asylum, mental hospital; or derogatorily looney bin, nut house or Funny Farm) is The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the Emil Kraepelin (1856-1926) introduced new medical categories of mental illness, which eventually came into psychiatric usage despite their basis in behavior rather than pathology or etiology. Emil Kraepelin ( February 15, 1856 – October 7, 1926) was a German Psychiatrist. The biopsychiatry controversy is the dispute over the scientific basis of Biological psychiatry theory and practice In the 1920s surrealist opposition to psychiatry was expressed in a number of surrealist publications. Surrealism is a cultural movement that began in the early-1920s and is best known for the visual artworks and writings of the group members In the 1930s several controversial medical practices were introduced including inducing seizures (by electroshock, insulin or other drugs) or cutting parts of the brain apart (leucotomy or lobotomy). Electroconvulsive therapy ( ECT) also known as electroshock, is a controversial psychiatric treatment in which Seizures are electrically induced Insulin is a Hormone with intensive effects on both metabolism and several other body systems (eg vascular compliance A lobotomy ( Greek: lobos Lobe of Brain, tomos "cut/slice" is a form of Psychosurgery, also known as a leukotomy or A lobotomy ( Greek: lobos Lobe of Brain, tomos "cut/slice" is a form of Psychosurgery, also known as a leukotomy or Both came into widespread use by psychiatry, but there were grave concerns and much opposition on grounds of basic morality, harmful effects, or misuse. In the 1950s new psychiatric drugs, notably the antipsychotic chlorpromazine, were designed in laboratories and slowly came into preferred use. Chlorpromazine (as chlorpromazine Hydrochloride, abbreviated CPZ, marketed in the US as Thorazine) is a Phenothiazine Antipsychotic Although often accepted as an advance in some ways, there was some opposition, due to serious adverse effects such as tardive dyskinesia. Tardive dyskinesia is a variety of dyskinesia (involuntary repetitive movements manifesting as a side effect of long-term or high-dose use of Dopamine antagonists Patients often opposed psychiatry and refused or stopped taking the drugs when not subject to psychiatric control. There was also increasing opposition to the use of psychiatric hospitals, and attempts to move people back into the community on a collaborative user-led group approach ("therapeutic communities") not controlled by psychiatry. The World Network of Users and Survivors of Psychiatry ( WNUSP) is an international organisation representing and led by users (consumers and survivors of Psychiatry Campaigns against masturbation were done in the Victorian era and elsewhere. Masturbation refers to Sexual stimulation especially of one's own genitals ( self masturbation) and often to the point of Orgasm, which Culture The Victorian fascination with novelty resulted in a deep interest in the relationship between modernity and cultural continuities Lobotomy was used until the 1970s to treat schizophrenia. A lobotomy ( Greek: lobos Lobe of Brain, tomos "cut/slice" is a form of Psychosurgery, also known as a leukotomy or Schizophrenia ( from the Greek roots schizein (σχίζειν "to split" and phrēn This was denounced by the anti-psychiatric movement in the 1960s and later. See also Psychiatry See also Biopsychiatry controversy Anti-psychiatry refers to a post-1960s configuration of groups and theoretical constructs

The 20th century witnessed a shift from a master-apprentice paradigm of teaching of clinical medicine to a more "democratic" system of medical schools. With the advent of the evidence-based medicine and great advances of information technology the process of change is likely to evolve further, the collation of ideas, resulted in international global projects, such as the Human genome project; However, adversely, the conditions brought about the increasing threat of pandemic spread of mutating diseases, such as SARS, and the danger of the H5N1. Evidence-based medicine (EBM aims to apply Evidence gained from the Scientific method to certain parts of medical practice

Evidence-based medicine, the application of modern scientific method to ask and answer clinical questions, has had a great impact on practice of medicine throughout the world of modern medicine, for speculation of the unknown was elemental to progress.

Medical inventions

7000 BC—1000 AD

1000—present

Source
Running Press Cyclopedia, second edition

Special history of medicine

Museums and collections of health and medicine

See also

Notes

  1. ^ BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Stone age man used dentist drill
  2. ^ J. Glasses, also called eyeglasses or spectacles, are frames bearing lenses worn in front of the Eyes normally for vision correction, An artificial limb is a type of Prosthesis that replaces a missing extremity, such as arms or legs Ambroise Paré (born in Bourg-Hersent near Laval, France, c 1510 &ndash Paris, December 20, 1590) was a French surgeon A mercury-in-glass thermometer, invented by German physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit, is a Thermometer consisting of mercury in a Glass Bifocals are Eyeglasses whose Corrective lenses each contain regions with two distinct Optical powers Bifocals are most commonly prescribed to people with Benjamin Franklin ( April 17 1790 was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States of America. An ambulance is a Vehicle for transporting sick or injured people to from or between places of treatment for an Illness or Injury. Vaccination is the administration of Antigenic material (the Vaccine) to produce immunity to a disease Edward Jenner, FRS, ( May 17 1749 – January 26 1823) was an English scientist who studied his natural surroundings in Berkeley The stethoscope (from Greek στηθοσκόπιο, of στήθος stéthos - chest and σκοπή skopé - examination) is an acoustic René-Théophile-Hyacinthe Laennec ( February 17, 1781 - August 13, 1826) was a French Physician and inventor of the Stethoscope Dentures are prosthetic devices constructed to replace missing teeth and which are supported by surrounding soft and hard tissues of the Oral cavity. Endoscopy means looking inside and typically refers to looking inside the body for medical reasons using an instrument called an endoscope. Anesthesia, or anaesthesia (see spelling differences; from Greek grc αν- an-, "without" and grc αἲσθησις Sir James Young Simpson ( June 7, 1811 &ndash May 6, 1870) was a Scottish doctor and an important figure in the History The ophthalmoscope (or funduscope) is an instrument used to examine the Eye. A hypodermic needle is a hollow needle commonly used with a Syringe to inject substances into the body Alexander Wood may refer to Alexander Wood (physician, physician and inventor of the hypodermic needle Alexander Wood (merchant, city Antiseptics (from Greek αντί - anti, '"against" + σηπτικός - septikos, "putrefactive" are antimicrobial Joseph Lister 1st Baron Lister, OM, FRS ( 5 April 1827 &ndash 10 February 1912) was an English surgeon Rabies (from rabies “madness rage fury” Also known as “ hydrophobia ” is a viral Zoonotic neuroinvasive disease that Louis Pasteur (27 December 1822 – 28 September 1895 a French Chemist and Microbiologist, is best known for remarkable breakthroughs in the causes and A contact lens (also known simply as a contact) is a corrective, cosmetic, or therapeutic lens usually placed on the Cornea Adolf Eugen Fick (1 April 1829 in Kassel Germany – 21 August 1901 in Blankenberge Flanders) was a German physiologist usually credited X-radiation (composed of X-rays) is a form of Electromagnetic radiation. Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen (27 March 1845 &ndash 10 February 1923 was a German physicist, who on 8 November 1895 produced and detected Electromagnetic Willem Einthoven ( Semarang, May 21, 1860 &ndash Leiden, September 29, 1927) was a Dutch doctor and physiologist A sphygmomanometer ( or blood pressure meter is a device used to measure Blood pressure, comprising an inflatable Cuff to restrict blood flow and a Nikolai Sergeievich Korotkov (also Korotkoff, Николай Сергеевич Коротков ( February 26, 1874 &ndash March 14, 1920 Penicillin (sometimes abbreviated PCN or pen) is a group of Beta-lactam antibiotics used in the treatment of Bacterial Infections Sir Alexander Fleming (6 August 1881 &ndash 11 March 1955 was a Scottish Biologist and Pharmacologist. An electron microscope is a type of Microscope that uses Electrons to illuminate a specimen and create an enlarged image Ernst August Friedrich Ruska ( December 25, 1906 &ndash May 27, 1988) was a German physicist. Penicillin (sometimes abbreviated PCN or pen) is a group of Beta-lactam antibiotics used in the treatment of Bacterial Infections In modern usage an antibiotic is a Chemotherapeutic agent with activity against Microorganisms such as Bacteria, fungi or Protozoa Howard Walter Florey Baron Florey, OM, FRS, ( September 24, 1898 &ndash February 21, 1968) was an Australian Sir Ernst Boris Chain ( June 19, 1906 &ndash August 12, 1979) was a German -born British biochemist and a 1945 co-recipient For other uses see Pacemaker (disambiguation A pacemaker (or artificial pacemaker, so as not to be confused with the heart's natural pacemaker Earl E Bakken (born Hennepin County Minnesota, January 10, 1924) is an American Businessman and Philanthropist of Heart transplantation or cardiac transplantation, is a surgical transplant procedure performed on patients with end-stage Heart failure or severe Coronary Christiaan Neethling Barnard ( November 8, 1922 &ndash September 2, 2001) was a South African cardiac surgeon, famous for Functional MRI or functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI is a type of specialized MRI scan Paul Christian Lauterbur ( May 6, 1929 – March 27, 2007) was an American Chemist who shared the Nobel Prize Sir Peter Mansfield, FRS, (born 9 October 1933) is a British Physicist who was awarded the 2003 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Computed tomography (CT is a Medical imaging method employing Tomography. Sir Godfrey Newbold Hounsfield CBE FRS, ( 28 August 1919 &ndash 12 August 2004) was an English Electrical engineer Allan MacLeod Cormack ( February 23, 1924 &ndash May 7, 1998) was a South African born American Physicist Professor Ian Donald (born December 1910 - died June 19 1987) was a Scottish doctor who pioneered the use of diagnostic Ultrasound An artificial heart is a prosthetic device that is implanted into the body to replace the biological Heart. Robert Koffler Jarvik (born May 11, 1946) is an American Scientist, Researcher and Entrepreneur known for his role in developing the The practice of Abortion dates back to ancient times Pregnancies were terminated through a number of methods including the administration of Abortifacient herbs History of alternative medicine is a record of historical events that can be related to the many different Branches of alternative medicine. The history of Anatomy as a Science extends from the earliest examinations of sacrificial victims to the sophisticated analyses of the body performed by The history of Neuroimaging, began in the early 1900s with a technique called Pneumoencephalography. The era of cancer Chemotherapy began in the 1940s with the first use of Nitrogen mustards and Folic acid antagonist drugs The history of invasive and interventional cardiology is complex with multiple groups working independently on similar technologies Endocrinology (from Greek grc ἔνδον endon, "within" grc κρῑνω krīnō, "to separate" and grc -λογία Timeline of immunology: 1718 - Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, the wife of the British ambassador to Constantinople observed the positive effects of Variolation See also Intersex surgery The History of intersex surgery is intertwined with the development of the specialities of Pediatric surgery, Pediatric urology See also Mental disorder The history of mental disorder spans prehistoric times ancient civilisations the Middle Ages the early modern period the enlightenment The study of Neurology dates back to prehistoric times but the academic discipline did not begin until the 16th century. Psychiatry is a medical specialty which exists to study, prevent, and treat Mental disorders in Humans Psychiatric Surgery is the branch of medicine that deals with the physical manipulation of a bodily structure in order to diagnosis prevent or cure an ailment Traditional Chinese medicine (also known as TCM,) includes a range of traditional medical practices originating in China. Ophthalmology was one of the foremost branches in medieval Islamic medicine. The London Museums of Health & Medicine is an organization that brings together some of the activities of some of the Museums in London related to Health The Osler Library is Canada's foremost scholarly resource in the History of medicine, and one of the most important libraries of its type in North The United States National Library of Medicine ( NLM) operated by the United States federal government, is the world's largest Medical library. Thackray Museum in Leeds, West Yorkshire, England is a museum of the History of medicine. Science is a body of empirical, theoretical, and practical knowledge about the natural world, produced by a global community of researchers The history of technology is the history of the Invention of Tools and techniques Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the The term alternative medicine, as used in the modern western world encompasses any healing practice "that does not fall within the realm of conventional Medicine. Timeline of Medicine and Medical technology Antiquity c 2600s BC - Imhotep wrote texts on Ancient Egyptian H. Breasted, The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus, University of Chicago Press, 1930
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  24. ^ Roman period surgery set on show, BBC
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  26. ^ The Romans carried out cataract ops, BBC
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  53. ^ Zafarul-Islam Khan, At The Threshhold (sic) Of A New Millennium – II, The Milli Gazette.
  54. ^ a b c d e f g Khaled al-Hadidi (1978), "The Role of Muslem Scholars in Oto-rhino-Laryngology", The Egyptian Journal of O. R. L. 4 (1), p. 1-15. (cf. Ear, Nose and Throat Medical Practice in Muslim Heritage, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization. cf is an abbreviation for the Latin -derived (but also modern English) word confer, meaning "compare" or "consult" )
  55. ^ A. I. Makki. "Needles & Pins", AlShindagah 68, January–February 2006.
  56. ^ Robert Briffault (1938). Robert Briffault ( 1876 - 11 December 1948) was a French novelist historian social anthropologist and surgeon The Making of Humanity, p. 191.

Bibliography

External links

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