Democracy
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Democracy History Varieties List of types
Anticipatory democracy Athenian democracy Christian democracy Consensus democracy Deliberative democracy Demarchy Direct democracy Grassroots democracy Illiberal democracy Islamic democracy Liberal democracy Messianic democracy Non-partisan democracy Participatory democracy Religious democracy Representative democracy Republican democracy Social democracy Soviet democracy Totalitarian democracy
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Democracy is a political system in which all the members of the society have equal access to power. Democracy is a form of government in which the supreme power is held completely by the people under a free electoral system Politics Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions A system of government is a term that refers to the set of political Institutions by which a Government of a State is organized in order to exert its powers Democracy is a form of government in which the supreme power is held completely by the people under a free electoral system Here is a partial list of varieties of democracy. The types of Democracy listed here are not mutually exclusive * Democracy, a broad article on democracy especially its application in modernity Anticipatory democracy is a theory of Civics relying on democratic Decision making that takes into account predictions of future events that have some credibility Athenian democracy developed in the Greek City-state of Athens Christian democracy is a political ideology that seeks to apply Christian (and often specifically Catholic) principles to public policy Consensus democracy is the application of Consensus decision making to the process of legislation in a Democracy. Deliberative democracy also sometimes called discursive democracy, is a term used by some political theorists to refer to any system of political decisions based Demarchy ("Dem" being short for demos meaning people and " -archy " meaning rule is a hypothetical political system run by randomly selected decision Direct Democracy is a movement within the British Conservative Party dedicated to localism and Constitutional reform as a means of reviving public Grassroots democracy is a tendency towards designing political processes where as much decision-making authority as practical is shifted to the organization's lowest geographic An illiberal democracy is a governing system in which although fairly free elections take place citizens are cut off from real power due to the lack of Civil liberties. Known as Islamic democracy, two kinds of democratic states can be recognized in the Islamic countries The term "liberal" in "liberal democracy" does not imply that the government of such a democracy must follow the political ideology of Messianic democracy is a neologism originally used by Jacob Talmon is his book The Origins of Totalitarian Democracy (1951 to describe Non-partisan democracy (also no-party democracy) is a system of representative government or organization such that universal and periodic Elections Participatory democracy is a process emphasizing the broad Participation (decision making of constituents in the direction and operation of political systems Religious democracy means that the values of Religion play a role in the public arena in a society populated by religious people Representative democracy is a form of government founded on the principles of the people's representatives A republican democracy is a Republic which has democratic Forms of government. Social democracy is a Political ideology of the left and centre-left For the Soviet republics of the Soviet Union see Republics of the Soviet Union. Totalitarian democracy is a term made famous by Israeli historian J Democracy is a form of government in which the supreme power is held completely by the people under a free electoral system The history of democracy traces back from its origins in ancient world to its re-emergence and rise from the 17th century to the present day. "Ancient" redirects here For other uses see Ancient_(disambiguation. As a means of recording the passage of Time, the 17th Century was that Century which lasted from 1601 - 1700 in the Gregorian calendar

Contents 1 Antiquity 1.1 Pre-historic origins 1.2 Alternative Origins 1.2.1 Mesopotamia 1.2.2 India 1.3 Ancient Sparta 1.4 Athenian Democracy 1.4.1 Solon and the foundations of democracy 1.4.2 Democracy under Cleisthenes and Pericles 1.4.3 The decline and its critics 1.5 Roman Republic 1.5.1 Birth of the Republic 1.5.2 Fall of the Republic 2 Local popular institutions 3 Indigenous peoples of the Americas 4 Rise of democracy in modern national governments 4.1 Pre-Eighteenth century milestones 4.2 Eighteenth and nineteenth century milestones 4.3 The secret ballot 4.4 20th century waves of democracy 5 Contemporary trends 6 See also 6.1 Ideas 6.2 Documents 6.3 People 6.4 Events 7 Notes 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links

Antiquity

Pre-historic origins

Although it is tempting to assume that democracy was created in one particular place and time —identified as Ancient Athens about the year 508 BC^[1][2]— evidence suggests that democratic government, in a broad sense, existed in several areas of the world well before the turn of the 5th century. The History of Athens is one of the longest of any city in Europe and in the world ^[3]

Within this broad sense it is plausible to assume that democracy in one form or another arises naturally in any well-bounded group, such as a tribe. A tribe, viewed historically or developmentally consists of a Social group existing before the development of or outside of States Many anthropologists use The scholars name this as tribalism or primitive democracy. The internal social structure of a tribe can vary greatly from case to case but due to the small size of tribes it is always a relatively simple structure with few (if any significant social The primitive democracy is identified in small communities or villages when the following take place: face-to-face discussion in the village council or a headman whose decisions are supported by village elders or other cooperative modes of government. ^[4]

Nevertheless, on larger scale sharper contrasts arise when the village and the city are examined as political communities. In urban governments all other forms of rule namely monarchy, tyranny, aristocracy, and oligarchy have flourished. A monarchy is a Form of government in which supreme power is actually or nominally lodged in an individual who is the Head of state, often for life or In modern usage a tyrant is a single ruler holding absolute power over a State or within an Organization. Aristocracy is a form of Government, where rule is established through an internal struggle over who has the most status and influence over society and internal relations Oligarchy' ( Greek, Oligarkhía) is a Form of government where Political power effectively rests with a small elite segment ^[3]

Alternative Origins

For much of the long history of the ancient Mediterranean world, Greece was a cultural backwater and developed complex social and political institutions long after the appearance of the earliest civilizations in Egypt and Near East. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. B Syria - Belka Woman from Damascus Arab from Baghdadjpg|thumb|Inhabitants of the Near East late nineteenth century In recent decades scholars have explored the possibility that advancements toward democratic government occurred somewhere else first. ^[5]

Mesopotamia

Thorkild Jacobsen has studied the pre-Babylonian Mesopotamia and uses Sumerian epic, myth and historical records to identify what he calls primitive democracy. Thorkild Jacobsen (Danish pronunciation yahkobsen; 7 June 1904 – 2 May 1993) was a renowned historian specializing in Babylonia was an Amorite state in lower Mesopotamia (modern southern Iraq) with Babylon as its capital By this he means a government in which ultimate power rests with the mass of free male citizens, although "the various functions of government are as yet little specialized, the power structure is loose". In the early period of Sumer, kings such as Gilgamesh did not hold the autocratic power which later Mesopotamia rulers wielded. Gilgamesh was the son of Lugalbanda and the fifth king of Uruk (Early Dynastic II first dynasty of Uruk ruling circa 2600 BC according to the Sumerian king An autocracy is a Form of government in which the Political power is held by a single self-appointed ruler Rather, major city-states had a council of elders and a council of "young men" (likely to be comprised by free men bearing arms) that possessed the final political authority, and had to be consulted on all major issues such as war. A city-state is a Region controlled exclusively by a City, usually having Sovereignty. ^[6]

This pioneering work, while constantly cited, has invoked little serious discussion and less outright acceptance. The criticism from other scholars focuses on the use of the word "democracy", since the same evidence also can be interpreted convincingly to demonstrate a power struggle between primitive monarchs and the nobility, a struggle in which the common people act more as pawns than the sovereign authority. ^[7] Jacobsen concedes that the vagueness of the evidence prohibits the separation between the Mesopotamian democracy from a primitive oligarchy. ^[5]

India

A serious claim for early democratic institutions comes from the independent "republics" of India, sanghas and ganas, which existed as early as the sixth century BCE and persisted in some areas until the fourth century CE. This article concerns the concept of Sangha in Buddhism. For information on other senses see Sangha (disambiguation. The word Gaṇa ( Devanagari: sa गण in Sanskrit, means "flock troop multitude number tribe series class" ( Monier Williams 's The evidence is scattered and no pure historical source exists for that period. In addition, Diodorus (a Greek historian at the time of Alexander the Great's invasion of India), without offering any detail, mentions that independent and democratic states existed in India. Alexander the Great ( or, Mégas Aléxandros; July 20 356 BC June 10 or June 11 323 BC also known as Alexander III of Macedon (el Ἀλέξανδρος Γ' ^[8] However, modern scholars note that the word democracy at the third century BC had been degraded and could mean any autonomous state no matter how oligarchic it was. ^[9][10]

The main characteristics of the gana seem to be a monarch, usually called raja and a deliberative assembly. For other uses see Raja (disambiguation and Rajah (disambiguation. The assembly met regularly in which at least in some states attendance was open to all free men, and discussed all major state decisions. It had also full financial, administrative, and judicial authority. Other officers, who are rarely mentioned, obeyed the decisions of the assembly. The monarch was elected by the gana and apparently he always belonged to a family of the noble K'satriya Varna. Kshatriya (क्षत्रिय kṣatriya from क्षत्र kṣatra) is one of the four varnas (social orders in Hinduism Varna (sa वर्ण varṇa) is a Sanskrit term derived from the root meaning "to enclose" The monarch coordinated his activities with the assembly and in some states along with a council of other nobles. ^[5]

Scholars differ over how to describe these governments and the vague, sporadic quality of the evidence allows for wide disagreements. Some emphasize the central role of the assemblies and thus tout them as democracies; other scholars focus of the upper class domination of the leadership and possible control of the assembly and see an oligarchy or an aristocracy. Oligarchy' ( Greek, Oligarkhía) is a Form of government where Political power effectively rests with a small elite segment Aristocracy is a form of Government, where rule is established through an internal struggle over who has the most status and influence over society and internal relations ^[11][12] Despite the obvious power of the assembly, it has not yet been established if the composition and participation was truly popular. The first main obstacle is the lack of evidence describing the popular power of the assembly. This is reflected in the Arthra' sastra, an ancient handbook for monarchs on how to rule efficiently. The Arthashastra ( IAST: Arthaśāstra) is a Treatise on statecraft, economic policy and Military strategy which It contains a chapter on dealing with the sangas, which includes injunctions on manipulating the noble leaders, yet it does not mention how to influence the mass of the citizens – a surprising omission if democratic bodies, not the aristocratic families, actively controlled the republican governments. ^[13] Another issue is the persistence of the four-tiered Varna class system. ^[11] The duties and privileges on the members of each particular caste – which were rigid enough to prohibit someone sharing a meal with those of another order – must have affected the role members were expected to play in the state, regardless of the formal institutions. Hence, the lack of the concept of citizen equality to counterbalance the strict caste system, questions the true nature of ganas and sanghas with seemingly democratic institutions. ^[12]

Ancient Sparta

For more details on this topic, see Sparta. The city of Sparta ( Doric Σπάρτα Attic Σπάρτη

Ancient Greece in its early period was a loose collection of independent city states, called poleis. A city-state is a Region controlled exclusively by a City, usually having Sovereignty. A polis ( πόλις, pronunciation, in English-- plural poleis ( πόλεις, pronunciation, in English --is a City, a Many of these poleis were oligarchies. ^[14] The most prominent Greek oligarchy, and the state with which democratic Athens is most often and most fruitfully compared, was Sparta. Oligarchy' ( Greek, Oligarkhía) is a Form of government where Political power effectively rests with a small elite segment Yet Sparta, in its rejection of private wealth as a primary social differentiator, was a peculiar kind of oligarchy,^[15] and some scholars note its resemblance with democracy. ^[1][16][17] In Spartan government, the share of political power was divided between four bodies: two Spartan Kings (monarchy), gerousia (Counsil of Gerontes (Elders), including the two kings), the ephors (representatives to oversee the Kings) and finally the apella (assembly of Spartans). Sparta was an important Greek city-state in the Peloponnesus. The Gerousia was the Spartan Senate (council of elders It was created by the Spartan lawgiver Lycurgus in the seventh century BC in his Great An ephor ( Classical Greek) (from the Greek, epi, "on" or "over" and, horaō, "to see" i

The two Kings served as the head of the government and they were ruling simultaneously. They were coming from two separate lines, but the dual kingship was diluting the accessible power of the executive office. The kings shared their judicial functions with other members of gerousia. The members of gerousia, had to be over the age of 60 and were elected for life. In theory any Spartan over that age could stand, however in practice they were selected from wealthy, aristocratic families. The gerousia possessed the crucial of legislating initiative. Apella, the most democratic element, was the assembly, where Spartans, above the age of 30, were electing the members of gerousia, the ephors and accepting or rejecting gerousia's proposals. Finally, the five ephors were Spartans chosen in apella from the poorest social layers for overseeing the actions of the Kings and if necessary disposing them. ^[18][19]

The creator of the Spartan system of rule was the legendary lawgiver, Lycurgus. Lycurgus ( Greek:, Lukoûrgos; 700 BC?&ndash630 BC was the legendary lawgiver of Sparta, who established the military-oriented reformation of He is associated with the drastic reforms that were instituted in Sparta after the revolt of the helots in the second half of the 7th century BC. The helots (in Classical Greek / Heílôtes) were an unfree population group that formed the In order to prevent another helot revolt, Lycurgus devised the highly militarized communal system that made Sparta unique among the city-states of Greece. All his reforms were directed towards the three Spartan virtues: equality (among citizens), military fitness and austerity. It is also probable that Lycurgus also delineated the powers of the two traditional organs of the Spartan government, the gerousia and the apella. The Gerousia was the Spartan Senate (council of elders It was created by the Spartan lawgiver Lycurgus in the seventh century BC in his Great ^[20]

The reforms of Lycurgus, were written as a list of rules/laws, called Great Rhetra, making it the world's first written constitution. ^[21] In the following centuries Sparta became, a military superpower, and its system of rule was admired throughout the Greek world for its political stability. ^[19] In particular, the concept of equality played important role in the Spartan society. The Spartan referred to themselves as όμοιοι (Homoioi, men of equal status). This was also reflected on the Spartan public educational system, agoge, where all citizens irrespectively of wealth or status had the same education. The agoge (Άγωγή was a rigorous education and training regime for all Spartan citizens except the sons in the ruling houses ^[17] This was admired almost universally by contemporaries, from historians such as Herodotus and Xenophon to philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. Herodotus of Halicarnassus ( Greek: Hēródotos Halikarnāsseús) was a Greek Historian who lived in the 5th century BC ( 484 BC&ndash Xenophon (Ancient Greek, Modern Greek "Ξενοφών" "Ξενοφώντας" ca Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. In addition the Spartan women, unlikely elsewhere, enjoyed "every kind of luxury and intemperance" with elementary rights such as the right to inheritance, property ownership and public education. ^[18] Overall the Spartans were remarkably free in criticism of their Kings and they were able to depose and exile them. However, despite these democratic elements in the Spartan constitution there are two main criticisms, and thus classifying Sparta as an oligarchy. First, the individual freedom was restricted, since as Plutarch writes "no man was allowed to live as he wished", but as in a "military camp" all were engaged in the public service of their polis. Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Greek: Μέστριος Πλούταρχος c And second, gerousia effectively maintained the biggest share of power between the different governmental bodies. ^[21]

The political stability of Sparta also meant that no significant changes in the constitution were made, but the oligarchic elements of Sparta became stronger, especially after the influx of gold and silver from the victories in the Persian Wars. ^[21] In addition, Athens, after the Persian Wars, was becoming the hegemonic power in the Greek world and disagreements between Sparta and Athens over the supremacy emerged. These lead to a series of armed conflicts, known as the Peloponnesian War with Sparta prevailing at the end. The war greatly exhausted the two poleis and Sparta was in turn humbled by Thebes at the Battle of Leuctra in 371 BC. Thebes may refer to one of the following places Thebes Greece, Boeotia Prefecture Ancient Thebes (Boeotia (gmy 𐀳𐀣 The Battle of Leuctra (or Leuktra was a battle fought between the Thebans and the Spartans and their respective allies amidst the post- Corinthian War conflict It was all brought to an end a few years later, when Philip II of Macedon conquered the rest of Greece. Philip II of Macedon, ( Greek: Φίλιππος Β' ο Μακεδών &mdash φίλος = friend + ίππος = Horse

Athenian Democracy

For more details on this topic, see Athenian democracy. Athenian democracy developed in the Greek City-state of Athens

Athens, is the first recorded and the most important democracy of antiquity. ^[1][21] Athens emerged in the 7th century BC, like many other poleis, with a dominating powerful aristocracy. A polis ( πόλις, pronunciation, in English-- plural poleis ( πόλεις, pronunciation, in English --is a City, a ^[18] However, this domination lead to exploitation causing significant economic, political, and social problems. These problems, were enhanced early in the sixth century, and as "the many were enslaved to few, the people rose against the notables". ^[21] Many traditional aristocracies, at the same period in the Greek world, were disrupted by popular revolutions, like Sparta in the second half of the 7th century BC. Sparta's constitutional reforms by Lycurgus, introduced a hoplite state and showed how inherited governments can be changed and lead to military victory. The word hoplite ( Greek: hoplitēs; pl hoplitai) derives from hoplon ( plural hopla) meaning an item of armour or equipment thus 'hoplite' ^[21] After a period of unrest between the rich and the poor, the Athenians of all classes turned to Solon for acting as a mediator between rival factions, and reaching to a generally satisfactory solution of their problems. Solon ( ancient Greek:, c 638 BC&ndash558 BC was an Athenian Statesman, Lawmaker and Lyric poet. ^[18][22]

Solon and the foundations of democracy

For more details on this topic, see Solon. Solon ( ancient Greek:, c 638 BC&ndash558 BC was an Athenian Statesman, Lawmaker and Lyric poet.

Solon, an Athenian of noble descent but moderate means, was a Lyric poet and later a lawmaker; Plutarch placed him as one of the Seven Sages of the ancient world. The Seven Sages (of Greece or Seven Wise Men (Greek οἱ ἑπτά σοφοί hoi hepta sophoi c ^[22] Solon attempted to satisfy all sides by alleviating the suffering of the poor majority without removing all the privileges of the rich minority. ^[5]

Solon divided the Athenians, into four property classes, with different rights and duties for each. As the Rhetra did in the Lycurgian Sparta, Solon formalized the composition and functions of the governmental bodies. Now, all citizens were entitled to attend the Ecclesia (Assembly) and vote. ecclesia or ekklesia ( Greek) was the principal assembly of the democracy of ancient Athens during its Golden Age ( Ecclesia became, in principle, the sovereign body, entitled to pass laws and decrees, elect officials, and hear appeals from the most important decisions of the courts. ^[22] All but those in the poorest group might serve, a year at a time, on a new Boule of 400, which was to prepare business for Ecclesia. In the cities of Ancient Greece, the boule ( Greek: βουλή, plural βουλαί or boulai from the Ancient Greek verb The higher governmental posts, archons (magistrates), were reserved for citizens of the top two income groups. Archon (Gr ἄρχων pl ἄρχοντες is a Greek word that means "ruler" frequently used as the title of a specific public office The retired archons were becoming members of Areopagus (Council of the Hill of Ares), and like Gerousia in Sparta, it was able to check improper actions of the newly powerful Ecclesia. This article concerns the place where a classical judicial body met Solon created a mixed timocratic and democratic system of institutions. Constitutional theory defines a timocracy as either a State where only property owners may participate in Government; or a government Democracy is a form of government in which the supreme power is held completely by the people under a free electoral system ^[18][21]

Overall, the reforms of the lawgiver Solon in 594 BC, devised to avert the political, economic and moral decline in archaic Athens and gave Athens its first comprehensive code of law. The constitutional reforms eliminated enslavement of Athenians by Athenians, established rules for legal redress against over-reaching aristocratic archons, and assigned political privileges on the basis of productive wealth rather than noble birth. Some of his reforms failed in the short term, yet he is often credited with having laid the foundations for Athenian democracy. ^[5]

Democracy under Cleisthenes and Pericles

See also: Cleisthenes, Ephialtes, and Pericles

Even though the Solonian reorganization of the constitution improved the economic position of the Athenian lower classes, it did not eliminated the bitter aristocratic contentions for control of the archonship, the chief executive post. Peisistratus became tyrant of Athens for three times and remained in power until his death in 527 BC. Peisistratos or Peisistratus or Pisistratus (in Greek,) traditionally paɪˈsɪstrətəs in English, is the name of several personalities In modern usage a tyrant is a single ruler holding absolute power over a State or within an Organization. His sons Hippias and Hipparchus succeeded him. Hippias can also refer to the tyrant of Athens son of Peisistratus Hipparchus ( Greek; ca 190 BC &ndash ca 120 BC was a Greek Astronomer, Geographer, and Mathematician of the Hellenistic ^[23]

After the fall of tyranny and before the year 508–507 was over, Cleisthenes proposed a complete reform of the system of government, which later was approved by the popular Ecclesia. Cleisthenes (Κλεισθένης also Clisthenes or Kleisthenes) was a noble Athenian of the Alcmaeonid family ^[24] Cleisthenes reorganized the population into ten tribes, with the aim to change the basis of political organization from the family loyalties to political ones,^[18] and improve the army's organization. ^[21] He also introduced the principle of equality of rights for all, isonomia^[24], by expanding the access to power to more citizens. Isonomia (ἰσονομία "equality in front of the law" from the Greek ἴσος isos, "equal" and νόμος nomos, "usage custom ^[21] During this period where, the word "democracy" (Greek: δημοκρατία - "rule by the people") was first used by the Athenians to define their new system of government. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly ^[25]

In the next generation, Athens entered in its Golden Age by becoming a great center of literature and art. The Golden Age is the term used to denote the historical period in Ancient Greece lasting roughly from the end of the Persian Wars in 448 BC to either the Ancient Greek literature refers to Literature written in the Greek language until the 4th century AD The art of ancient Greece has exercised an enormous influence on the culture of many countries from ancient times until the present particularly in the areas of Sculpture The victories in Persian Wars encouraged the poorest Athenians to demand a greater say in the running of their city. In the late 460s Ephialtes and Pericles presided over a radicalization of power that shifted the balance decisively to the poorest sections of society, by passing laws, which severely limiting the powers of the Council of the Areopagus and allow thetes (Athenians without wealth) to occupy public office. Ephialtes ( Greek:, Ephialtēs) was an ancient Athenian politician and an early leader of the democratic movement there Pericles (also spelled Perikles) (c 495 – 429 BC Greek:, meaning "surrounded by glory" was a prominent and influential Statesman, orator This article concerns the place where a classical judicial body met Constitutional theory defines a timocracy as either a State where only property owners may participate in Government; or a government Pericles was distinguished as its greatest democratic leader, even though he has been accused of running a political machine. Pericles (also spelled Perikles) (c 495 – 429 BC Greek:, meaning "surrounded by glory" was a prominent and influential Statesman, orator A political machine is an unofficial system of a political organization based on Patronage, the Spoils system, "behind-the-scenes" control and longstanding In the following passage, Thucydides recorded Pericles, in the funeral oration, describing the Athenian system of rule:

“

Its administration favors the many instead of the few; this is why it is called a democracy. Thucydides ( C 460 BC &ndash C 395 BC) ( Greek Θουκυδίδης Thoukydídēs) was a Greek If we look to the laws, they afford equal justice to all in their private differences; if no social standing, advancement in public life falls to reputation for capacity, class considerations not being allowed to interfere with merit; nor again does poverty bar the way, if a man is able to serve the state, he is not hindered by the obscurity of his condition. The freedom which we enjoy in our government extends also to our ordinary life. [26]

”

The Athenian democracy of Cleisthenes and Pericles, was based on freedom, through the reforms of Solon, and isonomia, introduced by Cleisthenes and later expanded by Ephialtes and Pericles. Ephialtes ( Greek:, Ephialtēs) was an ancient Athenian politician and an early leader of the democratic movement there Pericles (also spelled Perikles) (c 495 – 429 BC Greek:, meaning "surrounded by glory" was a prominent and influential Statesman, orator To preserve these principles the Athenians used lot for selecting officials. Sortition, also known as allotment, is an equal-chance method of selection by some form of lottery such as drawing coloured pebbles from a bag Lot's rationale was to ensure all citizens were "equally" qualified for office, and to avoid any corruption allotment machines were used. ^[27] Moreover, in most positions chosen by lot, Athenian citizens could not be selected more than once; this rotation in office meant that no-one could built up power base through staying in a particular position. ^[28] Another important political institution in Athens was the courts; they were composed with large number of juries, with no judges and they were selected by lot on a daily basis from an annual pool, also chosen by lot. The courts had unlimited power to control the other bodies of the government and its political leaders. ^[3] Participation by the citizens selected was mandatory,^[29] and a modest financial compensation was given to citizens whose livelihood was affected by being "drafted" to office. The only officials chosen by elections, one from each tribe, were the strategoi (generals), where military knowledge was required, and the treasurers, who had to be wealthy, since any funds revealed to have been embezzled were recovered from a treasurer's private fortune. Debate was open to all present and decisions in all matters of policy were taken by majority vote in Ecclesia (compare direct democracy), in which all male citizens could participate (in some cases with a quorum of 6000). A majority, also known as a simple majority in the US, is a Subset of a group that is more than half of the entire group Direct Democracy is a movement within the British Conservative Party dedicated to localism and Constitutional reform as a means of reviving public The decisions taken in Ecclesia were executed by Boule of 500, which had already approved the agenda for Ecclesia. In the cities of Ancient Greece, the boule ( Greek: βουλή, plural βουλαί or boulai from the Ancient Greek verb ^[30] The Athenian Boule was elected by lot every year^[31] and no citizen could serve more than twice. ^[30] Overall, the Athenians enjoyed their liberties not in opposition to the government, but by living in a city that was not subject to another power and by not being subjects themselves to the rule of another person. ^[25]

The decline and its critics

The Athenian democracy, in its two centuries of life-time, twice voted against its democratic constitution, both during the crisis at the end of the Pelopponesian War; Four Hundred (in 411 BC) and Sparta's installment of the Thirty Tyrants (in 404 BC). The Four Hundred (Greek οἱ τετρακόσιοι was a short-lived Oligarchic body that held power in Athens during the Peloponnesian War from June The Thirty Tyrants (30 τύραννοι or οἱ Τριάκοντα were a pro- Spartan Oligarchy installed in Athens after its defeat in the Peloponnesian Both votes were under manipulation and pressure, but democracy was recovered in less than a year in both cases. Demagogy (also demagoguery) ( Ancient Greek δημαγωγία from dēmos "people" and agein "to lead" refers to a political Athens restored again its democratic constitution, after the unification by force of Greece from Phillip II of Macedon and later Alexander the Great, but it was politically shadowed by the Hellenistic empires. Philip II of Macedon, ( Greek: Φίλιππος Β' ο Μακεδών &mdash φίλος = friend + ίππος = Horse Alexander the Great ( or, Mégas Aléxandros; July 20 356 BC June 10 or June 11 323 BC also known as Alexander III of Macedon (el Ἀλέξανδρος Γ' This article focuses on the historical aspects of the Hellenistic age for the cultural aspects see Hellenistic civilisation. Finally after the Roman conquest of Greece in 146 BC, Athens was restricted to matters of local administration.

However, the decline of democracy was not only due to external powers, but from its citizens, such as Plato and Aristotle. Through their influential works, Sparta's political stability was praised,^[32][33][34] while the Periclean democracy was described as a system of rule, where either the less well-born, the mob (as a collective tyrant) or the poorer classes, were holding power. ^[25] It was only after the publication of "A history of Greece" by George Grote in 1846, when the Athenian democracy of Pericles started to be viewed positively from the political thinkers. George Grote ( November 17, 1794 – June 18, 1871) was an English classical Historian, best known in the field for a major ^[35]

Roman Republic

For more details on this topic, see Roman Republic and Democracy in Ancient Rome. The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a Republican form of government a period which began with the overthrow of the Birth of the Republic The traditional founding of Rome was in 753 BC

Birth of the Republic

In 13th century BC, the Etruscans, early Italian settlers built city-states throughout central Italy and ruled Rome for over a century; and in 510 BC the last king was deposed. Etruscan civilization is the modern English name given to the culture and way of life of a people of ancient Italy A settler is a person who has migrated to an area and established permanent residence there often to colonize the area The king was expelled by a group of aristocrats led by Lucius Junius Brutus. Lucius Junius Brutus (or Lucius Iunius Brutus) was the founder of the Roman Republic and traditionally one of the first Consuls in 509 BC The founding of the new Republic did not mark the end for Roman troubles, since the new constitution was not flawless and there remained powerful external enemies. Internally, one serious threat was the feuding of the leading families. Another was the struggle between the ruling families (patricians) as a whole and the rest of the population, especially the plebeians. The term " patrician " originally referred to a group of elite families in Ancient Rome, including both their natural and Plebs were the general body of landowners of Roman Citizens in Ancient Rome. After years of conflicts the plebs forced the senate to pass a written series of laws (the Twelve Tables) which recognized certain rights and gave the plebs their own representatives, the tribunes. The Law of the Twelve Tables ( Lex Duodecim Tabularum, more informally simply Duodecim Tabulae) was the ancient Legislation that stood at the foundation Tribune (from the Latin: tribunus; Byzantine Greek form τριβούνος) was a title shared by 2–3 elected magistracies in the By the 4th Century BC, the plebs were given the right to stand for consulship and other major offices of the state.

Rome became the ruler of a great Mediterranean empire. The new provinces brought wealth to Italy, and fortunes were made through mineral concessions and enormous slave run estates. Slaves were imported to Italy and wealthy landowners soon began to buy up and displace the original peasant farmers. By the late 2nd Century this led to renewed conflict between the rich and poor and demands from the latter for reform of constitution. The background of social unease and the inability of the traditional republican constitutions to adapt to the needs of the growing empire led to the rise of a series of over-mighty generals, championing the cause of either the rich or the poor, in the last century BC.

Fall of the Republic

Over the next few hundred years, various generals would bypass or overthrow the Senate for various reasons, mostly to address perceived injustices, either against themselves or against poorer citizens or soldiers. After the dictatorship of Sulla, which was overthrown with the help of Pompey the Great and Marcus Licinius Crassus, the two men joined forces with Julius Caesar to form what is now known as the First Triumvirate, a then secret pact to rule Rome together. Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix ( Latin: L•CORNELIVS•L•F•P•N•SVLLA•FELIX (c Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, commonly known as Pompey /'pɑmpi/ Pompey the Great or Pompey the Triumvir ( Classical Latin abbreviation Marcus Licinius Crassus ( Latin: M·LICINIVS·P·F·P·N·CRASSVS (ca See also the First Triumvirate (Argentina which came to power in 1811 The pact did not last long as distrust between the three led to Caesar being charged with war crimes, and he in turn marched on Rome and took supreme power over the republic. Caesar's career was cut short by his assassination at Rome in 44 BC by a group of Senators including Marcus Junius Brutus, the descendant of the Brutus who expelled the Etruscan King four and half centuries before. Marcus Junius Brutus (85&ndash42 BC or Quintus Servilius Caepio Brutus was a Roman senator of the late Roman Republic.

In the power vacuum that followed Caesar's assassination, his friend and chief lieutenant, Marcus Antonius, and Caesar's grand-nephew Octavian who also was the adopted son of Caesar, rose to prominence. Marcus Antonius (in Latin: M·ANTONIVS·M·F·M·N ( c January 14 83 BC&ndash August 1, 30 BC known in English as Mark Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was After some initial disagreements, Antony, Octavian, and Antony's ally Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, formed the Second Triumvirate. Marcus Aemilius Lepidus ( Latin: M·AEMILIVS·M·F·Q·N·LEPIDVSborn ca 90 BC died 13 BC, was a Patrician Roman politician See also the Second Triumvirate (Argentina which held power in 1812 Their combined strength gave the triumvirs absolute power.

In 31 BC war between the two finally broke out. Year 31 BC was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Approximately 200 senators, one-third of the Senate, abandoned Octavian to support Antony and Cleopatra. The final confrontation of the Roman Republic occurred on 2 September 31 BC, at the naval Battle of Actium where the fleet of Octavian under the command of Agrippa routed the combined fleet of Antony and Cleopatra; the two lovers fled to Egypt. Events 44 BC - Pharaoh Cleopatra VII of Egypt declares her son co-ruler as Ptolemy XV Caesarion. Year 31 BC was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. The Battle of Actium was the decisive engagement in the Final War of the Roman Republic between the forces of Octavian and the combined forces of Mark Antony Agrippa redirects here For other uses of the name see Agrippa (disambiguation. After his victory, Octavian skillfully used propaganda, negotiation, and bribery to bring Antony's legions in Greece, Asia Minor, and Cyrenaica to his side. Anthony and Cleopatra committed suicide to escape capture.

The period of civil wars were finally over. Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was Athens (ˈæθənz Αθήνα Athina,) the Capital and largest city of Greece, dominates the Attica periphery as one of the world's Thereafter, there was no one left in the Roman Republic who wanted, or could stand against Octavian, as the adopted son of Caesar moved to take absolute control. He designated governors loyal to him to the half dozen "frontier" provinces, where the majority of the legions were situated, thus, at a stroke, giving him command of enough legions to ensure that no single governor could try to overthrow him. He also reorganized the Senate, purging it of unreliable or dangerous members, and "refilled it" with his supporters from the provinces and outside the Roman aristocracy, men who could be counted on to follow his lead. However, he left the majority of Republican institutions apparently intact, albeit feeble. Consuls continued to be elected, tribunes of the plebeians continued to offer legislation, and debate still resounded through the Roman Curia. A Curia in early Roman times was a subdivision of the people i However it was Octavian who influenced everything and ultimately, controlled the final decisions, and had the legions to back it up, if necessary.

The Roman Senate and the Roman citizens, tired of the never-ending civil wars and unrest, were willing to toss aside the incompetent and unstable rule of the Senate and the popular assemblies in exchange for the iron will of one man who might set Rome back in order. By 27 BC the transition, though subtle and disguised, was made complete. Year 27 BC was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. In that year, Octavian offered back all his extraordinary powers to the Senate, and in a carefully staged way, the Senate refused and in fact titled Octavian Augustus — "the revered one". Augustus (plural augusti) Latin for "majestic" "the increaser" or "venerable" was an Ancient Roman He was always careful to avoid the title of rex — "king", and instead took on the titles of princeps — "first citizen" and imperator, a title given by Roman troops to their victorious commanders. The Latin word Imperator was a title originally roughly equivalent to commander during the period of the Roman Republic. The Roman Empire had been born. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial

Once Octavian named Tiberius as his heir, it was clear to everyone that even the hope of a restored Republic was dead. Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (or Tiberius I) born Tiberius Claudius Nero (November 16 42 BC – March 16 AD 37) was the second Roman Most likely, by the time Augustus died, no one was old enough to know a time before an Emperor ruled Rome. The Roman Republic had been changed into a despotic régime, which, underneath a competent and strong Emperor, could achieve military supremacy, economic prosperity, and a genuine peace, but under a weak or incompetent one saw its glory tarnished by cruelty, military defeats, revolts, and civil war. The Roman Empire was eventually divided between the Western Roman Empire which fell in 476 AD and the Eastern Roman Empire (also called the Byzantine Empire) which lasted until the fall of Constantinople in 1453 AD. The Western Roman Empire refers to the western half of the Roman Empire, from its division by Diocletian in 285 the other half of the Roman Empire was the Eastern Events By place Western Roman Empire September 4 — Romulus Augustus, the last Emperor of the Western Roman Empire The Fall of Constantinople refers to the capture of the Byzantine Empire's capital by the Ottoman Empire on Tuesday May 29, 1453 (Julian Calendar

Local popular institutions

Most of the procedures used by modern democracies are very old. Almost all cultures have at some time had their new leaders approved, or at least accepted, by the people; and have changed the laws only after consultation with the assembly of the people or their leaders. Such institutions existed since before the Iliad or the Odyssey, and modern democracies are often derived or inspired by them, or what remained of them. The Iliad ( Greek: Ἰλιάς (Ancient Ιλιάδα (Modern is together with the Odyssey, one of two ancient The Odyssey ( Greek: Ὀδύσσεια or Odússeia) is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. Nevertheless, the direct result of these institutions was not always a democracy. It was often a narrow oligarchy, as in Venice, or even an absolute monarchy, as in Florence. Oligarchy' ( Greek, Oligarkhía) is a Form of government where Political power effectively rests with a small elite segment The Most Serene Republic of Venice ((Serenìsima Repùblica Vèneta or Repùblica de Venesia Serenissima Repubblica A monarchy is a Form of government in which supreme power is actually or nominally lodged in an individual who is the Head of state, often for life or The Grand Duchy of Tuscany (Granducato di Toscana Magnus Ducatus Tusciae was a state in central Italy that existed from 1569 to 1859 replacing the Duchy of Florence

These early institutions include:

• The collegia of the Roman period: associations of various social, economic, religious, funerary and even sportive natures elected officers yearly, often directly modeled on the Senate of Rome. The Senate of the Roman Republic was a political institution in the ancient Roman Republic.
• The Christian Church well into the 6th Century had its bishops elected by popular acclaim. Church (disambiguation Christian Church and the word church are used to denote both a Christian association of people and a Place of worship
• The Rashidun caliphs were elected by a council (see Islamic democracy). The Rightly Guided Caliphs or The Righteous Caliphs ( ar الخلفاء الراشدون) is a term used in Sunni Islam to refer to the first The Caliph is the Head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah Known as Islamic democracy, two kinds of democratic states can be recognized in the Islamic countries
• Medieval guilds of economic, social and religious natures elected officers for yearly terms. A guild is an association of craftsmen in a particular trade The earliest guilds were formed as confraternities of workers
• The German tribal system described by Tacitus in his Germania. The Germanic peoples are a historical group of Indo-European -speaking peoples originating in Northern Europe and identified by their use of the Germanic A tribe, viewed historically or developmentally consists of a Social group existing before the development of or outside of States Many anthropologists use Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus (ca 56 &ndash ca 117 was a senator and a Historian of the Roman Empire. Germania was the Latin Exonym for
• The Anglo-Saxon Witan councils of advisors to the Saxon kings. For their language see Anglo-Saxon language. Anglo-Saxon is the term usually used to describe the invading Tribes in the south The Witenagemot or the Witena gemot (ˈwɪtənəgɪˌməʊt also known as the Witan (more properly the title of its members was a political institution in
• The Frankish custom of the Marzfeld or "March field". The Franks or Frankish people (Franci or gens Francorum) were West Germanic tribes first identified in the 3rd century as an Ethnic group ^[36]
• The Althing, the parliament of the Icelandic Commonwealth, was founded in 930. The Alþingi, Anglicized variously as Althing or Althingi, is the national Parliament —literally “(the all- thing ”—of The Icelandic Commonwealth or the Icelandic Free State (Þjóðveldið was the state existing in Iceland between the establishment of the Althing in Events By Place Europe With the establishment of the Althing, now the world's oldest Parliament, the Icelandic Commonwealth It consisted of the 39, later 55, goðar; each owner of a goðarð; and membership, which could in principle be lent or sold, was kept tight hold of by each hereditary goði. Thus, for example, when Burnt Njal's stepson wanted to enter it, Njal had to persuade the Althing to enlarge itself so a seat would be available. Njáls saga (also known as "Brennu-Njáls saga" or "The Story of the burning of Njáll") is arguably the most famous of the Sagas of But as each independent farmer in the country could choose what goði represented him the system could be claimed as an early form of democracy. The Alþing has run nearly continuously to the present day. The Althing was preceded by less elaborate "things" (assemblies) all over Northern Europe. See also Medieval Scandinavian laws A thing or ting ( Old Norse, Old English and Icelandic: þing; other modern ^[37]
• The Thing of all Swedes, which was held annually at Uppsala in the end of February or early March. Thing of all Swedes ( allra Svía þing, Þing allra Svía, or Disaþing, Kyndilþing) was the thing (general assembly which was held Uppsala ˈɵpˌsɑːla (older spelling Upsala) is the capital of Uppsala County ( Uppsala län) and the fourth largest city of Like in Iceland, the assemblies were presided by the lawspeaker, but the Swedish king functioned as a judge. See also Medieval Scandinavian laws Lawspeaker ( Swedish: lagman, Old Swedish: laghmaþer or laghman, Danish A famous incident took place circa 1018, when King Olof Skötkonung wanted to pursue the war against Norway against the will of the people. Olof Skötkonung ( Old Icelandic: Óláfr sænski, Old Swedish: Olawær skotkonongær) was the son of Eric the Victorious and Þorgnýr the Lawspeaker reminded the king in a long speech that the power resided with the Swedish people and not with the king. Þorgnýr the Lawspeaker ( Old Icelandic: Þorgnýr lögmaðr, Swedish: Torgny Lagman) is the name of one of at least three generations of When the king heard the din of swords beating the shields in support of Þorgnýr's speech, he gave in. Adam of Bremen wrote that the people used to obey the king only when they thought his suggestions seemed better, although in war his power was absolute. Adam of Bremen (also Adam Bremensis) was one of the most important German Medieval Chroniclers He lived and worked in the second half of the
• The túatha system in early medieval Ireland. Túath (plural túatha) is an Old Irish word often translated as "people tribe or nation" The history of Ireland begins with the first known settlement in Ireland around 8000 BC when Hunter-gatherers arrived from Great Britain and continental Landowners and the masters of a profession or craft were members of a local assembly, known as a túath. Each túath met in annual assembly which approved all common policies, declared war or peace on other tuatha, and accepted the election of a new "king"; normally during the old king's lifetime, as a tanist. Tanistry was a system for passing on titles and lands In this system the Tanist ( Irish Tánaiste; Scottish Gaelic Tànaiste The new king had to be descended within four generations from a previous king, so this usually became, in practice, a hereditary kingship; although some kingships alternated between lines of cousins. About 80 to 100 túatha coexisted at any time throughout Ireland. Each túath controlled a more or less compact area of land which it could pretty much defend from cattle-raids, and this was divided among its members.
• The city-states of medieval Italy, of which Venice and Florence were the most successful, and similar city-states in Switzerland, Flanders and the Hanseatic league. A city-state is a Region controlled exclusively by a City, usually having Sovereignty. This is the History of Italy during the Middle Ages. Late Antiquity Gothic Wars and the Lombard conquest Italy was invaded by the Visigoths The Most Serene Republic of Venice ((Serenìsima Repùblica Vèneta or Repùblica de Venesia Serenissima Repubblica Florence ( Italian: Firenze Florentia and Fiorenza) is the Capital City of the Italian region of Tuscany Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation Flanders (Vlaanderen Flandre Flandern is a geographical region located in parts of present day Belgium, France, and the Netherlands. The Hanseatic League (also known as the Hansa) was an alliance of trading cities and their Guilds that established and maintained trade These were often closer to an oligarchy than a democracy in practice, and were, in any case, not nearly as democratic as the Athenian-influenced city-states of Ancient Greece (discussed in the above section), but they served as focal points for early modern democracy.
• Veche, Wiec - popular assemblies in Slavic countries. Veche ( Russian: вече Polish: wiec Ukrainian: віче was a Popular assembly in Medieval Slavic countries Veche ( Russian: вече Polish: wiec Ukrainian: віче was a Popular assembly in Medieval Slavic countries In Poland wiece have developed in 1182 into Sejm - Polish parliament. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland The veche was the highest legislature and judicial authority in the republics of Novgorod until 1478 and Pskov until 1510. A legislature is a type of representative Deliberative assembly with the power to create amend and change Laws The law created by a legislature is called Legislation The Novgorod Republic (Новгородская республика / Novgorodskaya respublika Новгородская земьля / Novgorodskaya zemlja) was a Pskov Republic ( Псковская республика in Russian) was a Russian Medieval state between the second half of the 13th century
• The elizate system of the Basque Country in which farmholders of a rural area connected to a particular church would meet to reach decisions on issues affecting the community and to elect representatives to the provincial Batzar Nagusiak/Juntos Generales. Elizate is a Basque term that refers to an early form of local government in the Basque Country which was particularly common in Biscay but also existed ^[38]
• Rise of parliamentary bodies in other European countries.

Indigenous peoples of the Americas

Historian Jack Weatherford argues that Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, and others, got their ideas on democracy not from any Greek or Roman influence, but from the Iroquois and other indigenous peoples of the Americas, who practiced the type of democracy found in the United States Constitution, through self-governing territories that were part of a larger whole. Jack Weatherford is a professor of Anthropology at Macalester College, specializing in Mongolia. The Iroquois Confederacy (also known as the "League of Peace and Power" the "Five Nations" the "Six Nations" or the "People of the Longhouse For indigenous peoples in the United States other than Hawaii and Alaska see also Native Americans in the United States. The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme Law of the United States. This democracy was founded between the years 1000-1450, and lasted several hundred years. He also states that American democracy was continually changed and improved by the influence of Native Americans throughout North America. For example, the right of women to vote started on the American frontier, and moved eastward. A frontier is a Political and Geographical term referring to areas near or beyond a boundary, or of a different nature In other words, Americans learned democracy from the indigenous peoples of the North America.

The Aztecs also practiced elections, and the elected officials elected a supreme speaker, but not a ruler. Aztec is a term used to refer to certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who achieved political ^[39]

Rise of democracy in modern national governments

Pre-Eighteenth century milestones

• Rise of democratic parliaments in England and Scotland: Magna Carta (1215) limiting the authority of powerholders, First elected parliament (1265), The Levellers political movement, English Civil War (1642-1651), Habeas Corpus Act (1679), English Bill of Rights and Scottish Claim of Right (1689). TalkParliament#Screen-size. -->A  parliament is a Legislature, especially in those The Parliament of England was the Legislature of the Kingdom of England. This article is about the pre-1707 parliament The article on the devolved legislative body established in 1999 is at Scottish Parliament. Magna Carta ( Latin for Great Charter, literally " Great Paper " also called Magna Carta Libertatum ( Great Charter of Freedoms De Montfort's Parliament was an English parliament of 1265, instigated by Simon de Montfort 6th Earl of Leicester without royal approval See Levellers (disambiguation for alternative meanings. The Levellers were members of a mid 17th century English Political movement The English Civil War (1642-1651 was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists. The Habeas Corpus Act 1679 is an Act of the Parliament of England (31 Cha The Bill of Rights (or Declaration of Rights) is an act of the Parliament of England, with the Long title An Act Declaring the Rights and Liberties The Claim of Right is an Act passed by the Parliament of Scotland in April 1689. See also: other documents listed at the Constitution of the United Kingdom, History of the parliament of the United Kingdom. The constitution of the United Kingdom is the set of laws and principles under which the United Kingdom is governed The Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the supreme legislative body in the United Kingdom and British overseas territories

• Simon de Montfort in 1265 introduced the idea that powerholders are responsible to an electorate — (although only landowners were allowed to vote in the 1265 English election)

• Renaissance humanism was a cultural movement in Europe beginning in central Italy (particularly Florence) in the last decades of the 14th century. Simon de Montfort 6th Earl of Leicester (1208 – August 4, 1265) was the principal leader of the Baronial opposition to King Henry III of England De Montfort's Parliament was an English parliament of 1265, instigated by Simon de Montfort 6th Earl of Leicester without royal approval Renaissance Humanism was a European intellectual movement beginning in Florence in the last decades of the 14th century It revived and refined the study of language (First Latin, and then the Greek language by mid-century), science, philosophy, art and poetry of classical antiquity. The "revival" was based on interpretations of Roman and Greek texts. Their emphasis on art and the senses marked a great change from the medieval values of humility, introspection, and passivity.

The humanist philosophers looked for secular principles on which society could be organized, as opposed to the concentration of political power in the hands of the Church. Prior to the Renaissance, religion had been the dominant force in politics for a thousand years.

Humanists looked at ancient Greece and found the concept of democracy. In some cases they began to implement it (to a limited extent) in practice.

• Rise of Golden Liberty (Nobles' Democracy, Rzeczpospolita Szlachecka) in the Kingdom of Poland and Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: Nihil novi of 1505, Pacta conventa and King Henry's Articles (1573). Bernardo Bellotto (30 January 1720 &ndash 17 October 1780 was an Italian urban landscape painter or vedutista, and Printmaker in Golden Liberty ( Latin: Aurea Libertas; Polish: Złota Wolność) sometimes referred to as Golden Freedoms, Nobles' Democracy Rzeczpospolita ( pronounced) is a Polish word for " Republic " or " Commonwealth " a Calque translation of the The Kingdom of Poland of the Jagiellons was the Polish state created by the accession of Wladislaus II Jagiełło, Grand Duke of Lithuania, to The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, officially the Commonwealth of the Crown of the Polish Kingdom and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania also known as the Most Serene Republic Nihil novi nisi commune consensu ("Nothing new without the common consent" is the original Latin title of a 1505 act adopted by the Polish Pacta conventa (Latin "agreed-upon agreements" was a contractual agreement from 1573 to 1764 entered into between the "Polish nation" (i The Henrician Articles, or Henrycian Articles ( Polish: Artykuły henrykowskie, Latin: Articuli Henriciani) or more often stated in See also: Szlachta history and political privileges, Sejm of the Kingdom of Poland and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Organisation and politics of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Szlachta ( refers to the noble class in the Kingdom of Poland, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (since 1569 semi-federal semi-confederal The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, officially the Commonwealth of the Crown of the Polish Kingdom and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania also known as the Most Serene Republic ^[40]
• The Mayflower Compact, signed in 1620, an agreement between the Pilgrims, on forming a government between themselves, based on majority rule. The Mayflower Compact was the first governing document of Plymouth Colony. Pilgrims, or Pilgrim Fathers (or Pilgrim Mothers) is a name commonly applied to the early settlers of the Plymouth Colony in present-day Plymouth

• William Penn wrote his Frame of Government of Pennsylvania in 1682. William Penn ( October 14, 1644 – July 30, 1718) was founder and "Absolute Proprietor" of the Province of Pennsylvania, The Frame of Government of Pennsylvania was a Constitution for the Province of Pennsylvania, a Proprietary colony granted to William Penn by The document gave the colony a representative legislature and granted liberal freedoms to the colony's citizens.

Eighteenth and nineteenth century milestones

• 1755: The Corsican Republic led by Pasquale Paoli with the Corsican Constitution
• 1760s-1790s Americans develop and apply concept of Republicanism; basis of American Revolution
  • Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776 (based on the English Bill of Rights)
  • United States Constitution ratified in 1789 and the new United States Bill of Rights
• 1780s: development of social movements identifying themselves with the term 'democracy': Political clashes between 'aristocrats' and 'democrats' in Benelux countries changed the semi-negative meaning of the word 'democracy' in Europe, which was until then regarded as synonymous with anarchy, into a much more positive opposite of 'aristocracy'. Year 1755 ( MDCCLV) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or In November 1755 Pasquale Paoli proclaimed Corsica a sovereign nation, independent from the Republic of Genoa. Filippo Antonio Pasquale di Paoli ( Pascal Paoli, April 6, 1725 February 5, 1807 The first Corsican Constitution was drawn for the short-lived Corsican Republic, established in 1755 and in force until the Annexation of Corsica by Republicanism is the Ideology of governing a nation as a Republic, with an emphasis on Liberty, Rule of law, Popular sovereignty In this article the inhabitants of the thirteen colonies that supported the American Revolution are primarily referred to as "Americans" with occasional references to "Patriots" The Virginia Declaration of Rights is a document drafted in 1776 to proclaim the inherent Natural rights of men including the right to rebel against "inadequate" government The Bill of Rights (or Declaration of Rights) is an act of the Parliament of England, with the Long title An Act Declaring the Rights and Liberties The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme Law of the United States. In the United States the Bill of Rights is the name by which the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution are known Social movements are a type of group action. They are large informal groupings of Individuals and/or Organizations focused on specific The Benelux is an economic union in Western Europe that includes three neighboring monarchies, '''Be'''lgium, the '''Ne'''therlands, and Anarchism is a Political philosophy encompassing theories and attitudes which support the elimination of all compulsory Government, i
• From late 1770s: new Constitutions and Bills explicitly describing and limiting the authority of powerholders, many based on the British Bill of Rights (1689). A constitution is a system for government often Codified as a written document that establishes the rules and principles of an autonomous political entity The Bill of Rights (or Declaration of Rights) is an act of the Parliament of England, with the Long title An Act Declaring the Rights and Liberties The Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791 is widely recognized as the second oldest constitution in the world. The Constitution of May 3 1791 (Konstytucja Trzeciego Maja Gegužės trečiosios konstitucija Канстытуцыя трэцьега траўня is generally recognized as ^[41]
• 1791: The Haitian Revolution, the first, and only, successful slave revolution, established a free republic. The Revolution (1791–1804 was the most successful of African Slave rebellions in the Western Hemisphere
• 1789-1799: the French Revolution
• 1790s First Party System in U. The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an The First Party System is a term of Periodization used by some political scientists and historians to describe the political system existing in the United States between S. involves invention of locally-rooted political parties in the United States; networks of party newspapers; new canvassing techniques; use of caucus to select candidates; fixed party names; party loyalty; party platform (Jefferson 1799); peaceful transition between parties (1800)
  • Early 19th century: in Europe rise of political parties competing for votes. The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar A political party is a Political organization that seeks to attain and maintain political power within Government, usually by participating in electoral
• Extension of political rights to various social classes: elimination of wealth, property, sex, race and similar requirements for voting (See also universal suffrage). Social class refers to the hierarchical distinctions (or stratification) between individuals or groups in Societies or Cultures. Universal suffrage (also universal adult suffrage, general suffrage or common suffrage) consists of the extension of the right to vote to
• 1850s: introduction of the secret ballot in Australia; 1872 in UK; 1892 in USA

The secret ballot

Main article: Secret ballot

The notion of a secret ballot, where one is entitled to the privacy of their votes, is taken for granted by most today by virtue of the fact that it is simply considered the norm. The secret ballot is a voting method in which a Voter 's choices are confidential The secret ballot is a voting method in which a Voter 's choices are confidential However, this practice was highly controversial in the 19th century; it was widely argued that no man would want to keep his vote secret unless he was ashamed of it. The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar

The two earliest systems used were the Victorian method and the South Australian method. Both were introduced in 1856 to voters in Victoria and South Australia. South Australia is a state of Australia in the southern central part of the country The Victorian method involved voters crossing out all the candidates whom he did not approve of. The South Australian method, which is more similar to what most democracies use today, had voters put a mark in the preferred candidate's corresponding box. The Victorian voting system also was not completely secret, as it was traceable by a special number.

20th century waves of democracy

The end of the First World War was a temporary victory for democracy in Europe, as it was preserved in France and temporarily extended to Germany. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Already in 1906 full modern democratic rights, universal suffrage for all citizens was implemented constitutionally in Finland as well as an proportional representation, open list system. Universal suffrage (also universal adult suffrage, general suffrage or common suffrage) consists of the extension of the right to vote to Finland, officially the Republic of Finland ( is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of northern Europe. Proportional representation (sometimes referred to as full representation or PR is a category of electoral formula aiming at a close match between the percentage of votes Open list describes any variant of Party-list proportional representation where voters have at least some influence on the order in which a party's candidates are elected Likewise, the February Revolution in Russia in 1917 inaugurated a few months of liberal democracy under Alexander Kerensky until Lenin took over in October. The February Revolution (Февральская революция in 1917 in Russia was the first stage of the Russian Revolution of 1917. Alexander Fyodorovich Kerensky (Алекса́ндр Фёдорович Ке́ренский Aleksandr Fjëdorovich Kerenskij) ( June 11, 1970) served The terrific economic impact of the Great Depression hurt democratic forces in many countries. The 1930s became a decade of dictators in Europe and Latin America.

World War II was ultimately a victory for democracy in Western Europe, where representative governments were established that reflected the general will of their citizens. Western Europe at its most general meaning means 'all the countries in the West of Europe ' However, many countries of Central and Eastern Europe became undemocratic Soviet satellite states. Central Europe is the Region lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern and Eastern Europe is a general term that refers to the Geopolitical region encompassing the easternmost part of the European continent. Satellite state is a political term that refers to a country which is formally independent but under heavy influence or control by another country In Southern Europe, a number of right-wing authoritarian dictatorships (most notably in Spain and Portugal) continued to exist. The term Southern Europe can have four definitions geographical political climatic phytogeographic In Politics, right-wing, the political right, and the Right are positions that uphold traditional values and/or authorities Authoritarianism describes a Form of government characterized by an emphasis on the Authority of the State in a republic or union Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula.

Japan had moved towards democracy during the Taishō period during the 1920s, but it was under effective military rule in the years before and during World War II. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. The, or Taishō era, is a period in the History of Japan dating from July 30, 1912 to December 25, 1926, coinciding with the reign The country adopted a new constitution during the postwar Allied occupation, with initial elections in 1946. At the end of World War II, Japan was occupied by the Allied Powers, led by the United States with contributions also from Australia, British

World War II also planted seeds of freedom outside Europe and Japan, as it weakened all the colonial powers while strengthening anticolonial sentiment worldwide. Many restive colonies/possessions were promised subsequent independence in exchange for their support for embattled colonial powers during the war. The United States, itself a former colony, flexed its new influence in support of the decolonization process, for example supporting prominent Arab nationalist Nasser during the Suez Crisis in 1956, often cited as the last gasp of European colonialism.

India became a democratic republic in 1950 upon achieving independence from Great Britain. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Most of the former colonies were independent by 1965. The process of decolonization created much political upheaval in Africa and parts of Asia, with some countries experiencing often rapid changes to and from democratic and other forms of government. Decolonization refers to the undoing of Colonialism, the establishment of governance or authority through the creation of settlements by another country or jurisdiction

The Voting Rights Act of 1965 in the United States helped to protect the black vote, especially in the southern states. Background See also [[Disfranchisement after the Civil War]] The 13th Amendment, ratified in 1865 after the Civil War, abolished and prohibited The United States of America —commonly referred to as the

New waves of democracy swept across Southern Europe in the 1970s and Central Europe in the late 1980s.

Much of Eastern Europe, Latin America, East and Southeast Asia, and several Arab, central Asian and African states, and the not-yet-state that is the Palestinian Authority moved towards greater liberal democracy in the 1990s and 2000s. Eastern Europe is a general term that refers to the Geopolitical region encompassing the easternmost part of the European continent.

An analysis by Freedom House argues that there was not a single liberal democracy with universal suffrage in the world in 1900, but that in 2000 120 of the world's 192 nations, or 62% were such democracies. Freedom House is a United States -based international Non-governmental organization that conducts research and advocacy on Democracy, political Universal suffrage (also universal adult suffrage, general suffrage or common suffrage) consists of the extension of the right to vote to They count 25 nations, or 19% of the world's nations with "restricted democratic practices" in 1900 and 16, or 8% of the world's nations today. They counted 19 constitutional monarchies in 1900, forming 14% of the world's nations, where a constitution limited the powers of the monarch, and with some power devolved to elected legislatures, and none in the present. Other nations had, and have, various forms of non-democratic rule. ^[42] While the specifics may be open to debate (for example, New Zealand actually enacted universal suffrage in 1893, but is discounted due to a lack of complete sovereignty and certain restrictions on the Māori vote), the numbers are indicative of the expansion of democracy during the twentieth century. New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island Universal suffrage (also universal adult suffrage, general suffrage or common suffrage) consists of the extension of the right to vote to This article discusses the Māori people of New Zealand For their language see Māori language, and for other meanings see Māori (disambiguation.

Contemporary trends

• E-democracy

See also

Ideas

• Direct democracy
• Indirect democracy
• Direct democracy (history in the United States)
• Liberal democracy
• List of types of democracy
• Political philosophy
• Political system
• Representative democracy
• Soviet democracy
• Suffrage
• Anarchy

Documents

• Magna Carta of 1215
• Corsican Constitution of 1755 (see Pasquale Paoli)
• Swedish Constitution of 1772

People

• Edmund Burke
• Cornelius Castoriadis
• Anders Chydenius
• Francis Fukuyama
• Samuel P. Huntington
• Thomas Jefferson
• John Locke
• Niccolò Machiavelli
• James Madison
• John Stuart Mill
• John Stewart
• Karl Marx
• Simon de Montfort
• Thomas Paine
• Pasquale Paoli
• Cola di Rienzi
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau
• Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu
• Amartya Sen
• Alexis de Tocqueville
• John Wilkes

Events

• De Montfort's Parliament (1265) - first elected parliament in England

Notes

References

• Becker, Peter, Juergen Heideking and James A. Henretta, eds. Republicanism and Liberalism in America and the German States, 1750-1850. Cambridge University Press. (2002).
• Robert Dahl, Ian Shapiro, and Jose Antonio Cheibub, eds, The Democracy Sourcebook MIT Press (2003)
• Diamond, Larry and Marc Plattner, The Global Resurgence of Democracy, 2nd edition Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996
• Himes, Kenneth R. Catholic Intellectuals and the Challenge of Democracy (2002), about 19th and 20th century European Catholic thinkers, including anti-democrats like Hillaire Belloc
• Keane, John. Joseph Hilaire Pierre René Belloc (27 July 1870 &ndash 16 July 1953 was a French -born Writer who became a Naturalised British subject Violence and Democracy (2004)
• Keyssar, Alexander. The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States (2001)
• Lijphart, Arend. Patterns of Democracy. Government Forms and Performance in Thirty-Six Countries Yale University Press (1999)
• Lipset, Seymour Martin. “Some Social Prerrequisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy”, American Political Science Review, (1959) 53 (1): 69-105. online at JSTOR
• Macpherson, C. B. The Life and Times of Liberal Democracy. Oxford University Press (1977)
• Markoff, John, Waves of Democracy, 1996, ISBN 0-8039-9019-7
• Muhlberger, Steve, Phil Paine, Democracy's Place in World History, Journal of World History, 4: 23-45; 1993
• Putnam, Robert. John Markoff (born 1942 is Professor of Sociology and History at the University of Pittsburgh. The Journal of World History is a refereed Scholarly journal that presents historical analysis from a global point-of-view focusing especially on forces that Making Democracy Work Princeton University Press. (1993)
• Rothbard, Murray N., For a New Liberty, 1973, online, last accessed on 24 May, 2005
• Vanhanen, Tatu, The Emergence of Democracy: A comparative study of 119 states, 1850-1979 Helsinki, 1984
• Weingast, Barry. Murray Newton Rothbard (March 2 1926 – January 7 1995 was an American economist of the Austrian School who helped define modern Libertarianism Tatu Vanhanen (born 1929) is a Professor Emeritus of Political Science at the University of Tampere, Tampere, Finland. “The Political Foundations of the Rule of Law and Democracy”, American Political Science Review, (1997) 91 (2): 245-263. online at JSTOR
• Wood, Gordon S. The Radicalism of the American Revolution (1993), examines democratic dimensions of republicanism
• Manglapus, Raul S. "Will of the People: Original Democracy in Non-Western Societies" (1987), democracy in Asia, the Middle East and elsewhere dates to at least 2500 B. C, predating western democractic traditions.

Further reading

• Martin III, Matthew & Daniel C. Snell, "Democracy and Freedom", A Companion to the Ancient Near East, Blackwell Publishing, 2005, ISBN 9-780-63123-2933, [1]
• Charles Tilly, Contention and Democracy in Europe, 1650-2000, Cambridge University Press, 2004, ISBN 0-521-53713-4, Google Print

External links

• English elections 1265-1832 (only landowners were allowed to vote during this period)
• History of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, 1216-2005
• World History of Democracy
• Historical Atlas of the Twentieth Century
• Waves of democracy often get reversed, Lipset reminds social scientists
• Review of 'Waves of democracy' and 'Development and Social Change'
• Democracy online - Records of democracy evolving in global politics
• The site for the book Delusional Democracy - Fixing the Republic Without Overthrowing the Government and related articles by Joel S. Hirschhorn.

Charles Tilly ( May 20, 1929 &ndash April 29, 2008) was an American sociologist, political scientist, and

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