Cartography or mapmaking (in Greek chartis = map and graphein = write) has been an integral part of the human story for a long time (maybe 8,000 years - nobody knows exactly, but longer than written words). Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly ^[1] From cave paintings to ancient maps of Babylon, Greece and Asia, through the Age of Exploration, and on into the 21st century, people have created and used maps as the essential tools to help them define, explain and navigate their way through the world (and beyond). Cave paintings are Paintings on Cave walls and ceilings and the term is used especially for those dating to Prehistoric times Babylon was a City-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία The Age of Discovery or Age of Exploration was a period from the early 15th century and continuing into the early 17th century during which Europeans explored According to some scholars, mapping represented a significant step forward in the intellectual development of human beings and it serves as a record of the advancing knowledge of the human race.

Earliest known maps

The first known maps are of the heavens, not the earth. Dots dating to 16,500 BC found on the walls of the Lascaux caves map out part of the night sky, including the three bright stars Vega, Deneb and Altair (the Summer Triangle asterism); as well as the Pleiades star cluster. Lascaux is the setting of a complex of Caves in southwestern France famous for its prehistoric Cave paintings The original caves are located near Vega (α Lyr / α Lyrae / Alpha Lyrae ( or) is the brightest Star in the Constellation Lyra, the fifth brightest star in the night Deneb (α Cyg / α Cygni / Alpha Cygni is the brightest Star in the Constellation Cygnus and one of the vertices of the Summer Triangle Altair (α Aql / α Aquilae / Alpha Aquilae / Atair is the brightest Star in the Constellation Aquila and the twelfth brightest star The Summer Triangle is an astronomical asterism involving an imaginary triangle drawn on the northern hemisphere's Celestial sphere, with its defining vertices at The Pleiades (ˈpliːədiːz or /ˈplaɪədiːz/ also known as M 45, the '''Seven Sisters''', Seven Stars, SED, Matariki The Cuevas de El Castillo in Spain contain a dot map of the Corona Borealis constellation dating from 12,000 BCE. The Cueva de El Castillo, or the Cave of El Castillo, is an archaeological site within the complex of the Caverns of Monte Castillo, and is located in Puente [1][2][3]

Cave painting and rock carvings used simple visual elements that may have aided in recognizing landscape features, such as hills or dwellings. ^[2]

The oldest extant picture that resembles a map was created in the late 7th millennium BC in Çatalhöyük, Anatolia, modern Turkey. During the 7th millennium BC, Agriculture spreads from Anatolia to the Balkans. Çatalhöyük (ʧɑtɑl højyk in Turkish also Çatal Höyük and Çatal Hüyük, or any of the three without Diacritics çatal is Turkish Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches This wall painting represents a plan of an early urban area that prospered from trading obsidian. ^[3]

Whoever visualized the Çatalhöyük ‘mental map’ may have been encouraged by the fact that houses in Çatalhöyük were clustered together and were entered via flat roofs. Therefore, it was normal for the inhabitants to view their city from a bird’s eye view. Later civilizations followed the same convention; today, almost all maps are drawn as if we are looking down from the sky instead of from a horizontal or oblique perspective. There are exceptions: one of the ‘quasi-maps’ of the Minoan civilization on Crete, the “House of the Admiral” wall painting dating from c. Crete ( Greek: Κρήτη transliteration: Krētē, modern transliteration Kriti) is the largest of the Greek islands and the 1600 BC, shows a seaside community in an oblique perspective.

Ancient Near East

Maps in Ancient Babylonia were made using accurate surveying techniques. Babylonia was an Amorite state in lower Mesopotamia (modern southern Iraq) with Babylon as its capital Surveying is the technique and science of accurately determining the terrestrial or three-dimensional space Position of points and the distances and angles between ^[4]

For example, a 7. 6 x 6. 8 cm clay tablet found in 1930 at Ga-Sur, near today's Kirkuk, shows a map of a river valley between two hills. Kirkuk (also spelled Karkuk or Kerkuk; Kurdish: كه‌ركووك Kerkûk; Arabic: كركوك Turkish:Kerkük; Cuneiform inscriptions label the features on the map, including a plot of land described as 354 iku (12 hectares) owned by a person called Azala. Most scholars date the tablet to the 25th to 24th century BCE; Leo Bagrow dissents with a date of 3800 BCE. Hills are shown by overlapping semicircles, rivers by lines and cities by circles. The map is also marked to show the cardinal directions. ^[5]

An engraved map from the Kassite period (14th – 12th centuries BCE) of Babylonian history, shows walls and buildings in the holy city of Nippur. Nippur (URUENLIL; Sumerian: Nibru Akkadian: Nibbur) from the Sumerian for 'lord wind' (Enlil is modern ? in Afak Al Qadisyah ^[6]

In contrast, the Babylonian World Map -- the earliest surviving map of the world (c. Early world maps cover depictions of the World from Classical times to the Age of Discovery and the emergence of modern Geography ( 6th century BC 600BCE) -- is a symbolic, not literal representation. It omits peoples such as the Persians and Egyptians, who were well known to the Babylonians. layout and formatting it should ensure no clashes with the top of the infobox This article is about the contemporary North African ethnic group The area shown is depicted as a circular shape surrounded by water, which fits the religious image of the world in which the Babylonians believed.

Maps were quite rare in ancient Egypt; however those that have survived show an emphasis on geometry and surveying techniques, perhaps stimulated by the need to re-establish the exact boundaries of properties after the annual Nile floods. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. The Turin Papyrus Map, dated c. The Turin Papyrus is an ancient Egyptian Map, generally considered the oldest surviving map of topographical interest from the ancient world 1300 BCE, shows the mountains east of the Nile where gold and silver were mined, along with the location of the miners’ shelters, wells, and the road network that linked the region with the mainland. Its originality can be seen in the map’s inscriptions, its precise orientation and the use of colour.

Ancient Greece

Early Greek Literature

In reviewing the literature of early geography and early conceptions of the earth, all sources lead to Homer, who is considered by many (Strabo, Kish and Dilke) as the founding father of Geography. Homer ( Ancient Greek:, Homēros) is a legendary ancient Greek epic Poet, traditionally said to be the author of the epic poems the Strabo ( Greek: Στράβων 63/64 BC – ca AD 24 was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher. Charles Wentworth Dilke (1789&ndash1864 English liberal critic and writer on literature served for many years in the Navy Pay-Office on retiring from which he devoted himself to literary Regardless of the doubts about Homer’s existence, one thing is certain: he never was a mapmaker. The enclosed map, which represents the conjectural view of the Homeric world was never created by him. It is an imaginary reconstruction of the world as Homer described it in his two poems the Iliad and the Odyssey. The Iliad ( Greek: Ἰλιάς (Ancient Ιλιάδα (Modern is together with the Odyssey, one of two ancient The Odyssey ( Greek: Ὀδύσσεια or Odússeia) is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is worth mentioning that each of these writings involves strong geographic symbolism. They can be seen as descriptive pictures of life and warfare in the Bronze Age and the illustrated plans of actual journeys. The term Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced Metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use included techniques for Thus, each one develops a philosophical view of the world, which makes it possible to show this information in the form of a map.

The depiction of the earth as it was accepted by the early Greeks and conceived by Homer represents a circular flat disk surrounded by a constantly moving stream of Ocean (Brown, 22). The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions Homer ( Ancient Greek:, Homēros) is a legendary ancient Greek epic Poet, traditionally said to be the author of the epic poems the An idea which would be suggested by the appearance of the horizon -- as it is seen from a mountaintop or from a seacoast. Homer’s knowledge of the Earth was very limited. He and his Greek contemporaries knew very little of the Earth beyond Egypt -- as far as the Libyan desert, the south-west coast of Asia Minor and the north side of the Greek homeland. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black Furthermore, the coast of the Black Sea was only known through myths and legends that circulated during his time. In his poems there is no mention of Europe and Asia as geographical concepts (Thompson, 21), and no mention of the Phoenicians either (Thompson, 40). This seems strange if we recall that the origin of the name Oceanus -- a term used by Homer in his poems -- belonged to the Phoenicians (Thomson, 27). Ocean (Ὠκεανός was believed to be the world-ocean in Classical antiquity, which the ancient Romans and Greeks considered to be That is why the big part of Homer’s world that is portrayed on this map represents lands that border on the Aegean Sea. Etymology In ancient times there were various explanations for the name Aegean. It is worth noting that even through Greeks believed that they were in the middle of the earth, they also thought that the edges of the world’s disk were inhabited by savage, monstrous barbarians and strange animals and monsters; Homer’s Odyssey mentions a great many of them. "Barbarian" is a pejorative term for an uncivilized person either in a general reference to a member of a nation or Ethnos perceived

Additional written statements about ancient geography can be found in Hesiod’s poems, written probably during the eighth century BCE (Kirsh, 1). Hesiod ( Greek: Hesiodos) was an early Greek Poet and Rhapsode, who presumably lived around 700 BCE Through the lyrics of Works and Days and Theogony he shows to his contemporaries some definite geographical knowledge. Works and Days (in Ancient Greek / Erga kaí Hemérai, which sometimes goes by the Latin name Opera et Dies, as in the OCT) Theogony ( Greek: Θεογονία theogonia = the birth of God(s is a Poem by Hesiod describing the origins and genealogies He introduces the names of such rivers as Nile, Ister (Danube), the shores of the Bosporus and the Euxine (Black Sea), the coast of Gaul, the island of Sicily, and a few other regions and rivers (Keane, 6-7). The Nile (النيل, Ancient Egyptian iteru or Ḥ'pī, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing River The Danube (In Donau from earlier Danuvius, Celtic *dānu, meaning "to flow run" Slovak and Polish Dunaj The Bosporus or Bosphorus, also known as the Istanbul Strait, (İstanbul Boğazı (Βόσπορος is a Strait that forms the boundary between the The Black Sea is an inland Sea bounded by southeastern Europe, the Caucasus and the Anatolian peninsula ( Turkey The Black Sea is an inland Sea bounded by southeastern Europe, the Caucasus and the Anatolian peninsula ( Turkey Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western Sicily ( Italian and Sicilian: Sicilia) is an autonomous region of Italy. His advanced geographical knowledge had not only predated Greek colonial expansions but also was used in the earliest Greek world maps, produced by the first Greek mapmakers such as Anaximander and Hecataeus of Miletus. Anaximander ( Ancient Greek:) (c 610 BC–c 546 BC was a Pre-Socratic Greek philosopher who lived in Miletus Hecataeus of Miletus (c 550&ndashc 476 BC named after the Greek Goddess Hecate, was a Greek Philosopher of a wealthy

Early Greek maps

Further information: Ancient Greek geography

In classical antiquity, maps were drawn by Anaximander, Hecataeus of Miletus, Herodotus, Eratosthenes, and Ptolemy using both explorers' observations and a mathematical approach. pre-Hellenistic Classical Greece Scylax of Caryanda Anaximander Hecataeus of Miletus Massaliote Periplus Anaximander ( Ancient Greek:) (c 610 BC–c 546 BC was a Pre-Socratic Greek philosopher who lived in Miletus Hecataeus of Miletus (c 550&ndashc 476 BC named after the Greek Goddess Hecate, was a Greek Philosopher of a wealthy Herodotus of Halicarnassus ( Greek: Hēródotos Halikarnāsseús) was a Greek Historian who lived in the 5th century BC ( 484 BC&ndash Eratosthenes of Cyrene ( Greek; 276 BC - 194 BC was a Greek Mathematician, Poet, athlete, Geographer and Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca

The first steps in the development of intellectual thought in ancient Greece belonged to Ionians from their well-known city of Miletus in Asia Minor. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca The Ionians ( Greek:, Iōnes singular) were one of the three populations into which the Ancient Greeks considered the population of Hellenes to have been Miletus (mī lē' təs ( Ancient Greek: Μίλητος literally Transliterated Milētos, Latin Miletus) was an Ancient Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black Miletus was favourably placed to absorb aspects of Babylonian knowledge and to profit from the expanding commerce of the Mediterranean. Babylonia was an Amorite state in lower Mesopotamia (modern southern Iraq) with Babylon as its capital The earliest ancient Greek who is said to have constructed a map of the world is Anaximander of Miletus (c. 611 – 546 BCE), pupil of Thales. Thales of Miletus According to Bertrand Russell, "Philosophy begins with Thales He believed that the earth was a cylindrical form , like a stone pillar and suspended in space. ^[7] The inhabited part of his world was a circular, disk-shaped, and presumably located on the upper surface of the cylinder (Brown, 24).

Anaximander was the first ancient Greek to draw a map of the known world. It is for this reason that he is considered by many to be the first mapmaker (Dilke, 23). A scarcity of archaeological and written evidence prevents us from giving any assessment of his map. What we can assume is that he portrayed land and sea in a map form. Unfortunately, any definite geographical knowledge that he included in his map is lost. Although the map has not survived, Hecataeus of Miletus (550 – 475 BCE) produced another map 50 years later that he claimed was an improved version of the map of his illustrious predecessor. Hecataeus of Miletus (c 550&ndashc 476 BC named after the Greek Goddess Hecate, was a Greek Philosopher of a wealthy

The world according to Hekatæus, 500BCE

Hecatæus’s map describes the earth as a circular plate with an encircling Ocean and Greece in the centre of the world. This was a very popular contemporary Greek worldview, derived originally from the Homeric poems. Also, like many other early maps in antiquity his map has no scale. As units of measurements, this map used ‘days of sailing’ on the sea and ‘days of marching’ on dry land (Goode, 2). The purpose of this map was to accompany Hecatæus’s geographical work that was called Periodos Ges -- Journey Round the World (Dilke, 24). The Periodos Ges was divided into two books, 'Europe' and 'Asia', the latter also included Libya -- which was an ancient term for Africa. The work follows the assumption of the author that the world is divided into two continents, Asia and Europe. He depicts the line between the Pillars of Hercules through the Bosporus and the Don River as a boundary between the two. Hecatæus was the first writer who thought that the Caspian flows into the circumference ocean -- an idea that persisted long into the Hellenic period. He was particularly informative on the Black Sea by adding more geographic places that were already known to Greeks through the colonization process. To the north of the Danube, according to Hecatæus, were the Rhipæan (gusty) Mountains, beyond which lived the Hyperboreans -- men of the far north. Hecatæus depicted the origin of the Nile River at the southern circumference ocean. His view of the Nile seems to have been that it came from the southern circumference ocean. This assumption helped Hecatæus solve the mystery of the annual flooding of the Nile. He believed that the waves of the ocean were a primary cause of this occurrence (Tozer, 63). It is worth mentioning that a similar map based upon one designed by Hecataeus was intended to aid political decision-making. According to Herodotus, it was engraved upon a bronze tablet and was carried to Sparta by Aristagoras during the revolt of the Ionian cities against Persian rule from 499 to 494 BCE. Herodotus of Halicarnassus ( Greek: Hēródotos Halikarnāsseús) was a Greek Historian who lived in the 5th century BC ( 484 BC&ndash The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia

The world according to Anaximenes, c. 500BCE

Anaximenes of Miletus (6th century BCE), who studied under Anaximander, rejected the views of his teacher regarding the shape of the earth and instead, he visualized the earth as a rectangular form supported by compressed air. What is interesting here is that his incorrect idea about the shape of the world somehow persisted in the form of how the contemporary maps are presented today. Most current maps are limited to this rectangular shape (i. e. border of the map (neatline), computer screen, or document page).

Pythagoras of Samos (c. "Pythagoras of Samos" redirects here For the Samian statuary of the same name see Pythagoras (sculptor. 560 – 480 BCE) speculated about the notion of a spherical earth with a central fire at its core. He is also credited with the introduction of a model that divides a spherical earth into five zones. One hot, two temperate, and two cold -- northern and southern. It seems likely that he illustrated his division in the form of a map, however, no evidence of this has survived to the present.

Scylax, a sailor, made a record of his Mediterranean voyages in c. Scylax of Caryanda was an ancient Greek explorer from Caria. He lived during the 6th century BC 515 BCE. This was the first Greek set of periploi, or sailing instructions, which became the basis for many future mapmakers, especially in the medieval period. Periplus is the Latinization of an Ancient Greek word περίπλους ( periplous, contracted from periploos) literally "a sailing-around ^[8]

Herodotus (484-424 BCE)

The way in which the geographical knowledge of the Greeks advanced from the previous assumptions of the earth’s shape was through Herodotus conceptual view of the world. Herodotus of Halicarnassus ( Greek: Hēródotos Halikarnāsseús) was a Greek Historian who lived in the 5th century BC ( 484 BC&ndash This map also did not survive and many have speculated that it was never produced. Below is a possible reconstruction of his map.

The world according to Herodotus, 440BCE

Herodotus traveled very extensively, collecting information and documenting his findings in his books on Europe, Asia and Libya. He also combined his knowledge with what he learned from the people he met. Herodotus wrote the Histories in the mid-400's B. C. Although his work was dedicated to the story of the Greeks' long struggle with the Persian Empire, Herodotus also included everything he knew about the geography, history, and peoples of the world. Thus, his work provides a detailed picture of the known world of the 5th century BCE.

Herodotus rejected the prevailing view of most 5th century maps that the earth is a circular plate surrounded by Ocean. In his work he describes the earth as an irregular shape with oceans surrounding only Asia and Africa. He introduces names such as Atlantic Sea and Erythrean Sea. The Red Sea is a Salt water Inlet of the Indian Ocean between Africa and Asia. He also divided the world into three continents: Europe, Asia, and Africa. He depicted the boundary of Europe as the line from the Pillars of Hercules through the Bosporus and the area between Caspian Sea and Indus River. And he regarded the Nile as the limit between Asia and Africa. He speculated that the extent of Europe was much greater than was assumed at the time and left Europe’s shape to be determined by future research. In the case of Africa, he believed that except for the small stretch of land in the vicinity of Suez, the continent was in fact surrounded by water. However, he definitely disagreed with his predecessors and contemporaries about its presumed circular shape. He based his theory on the story of Pharaoh Necho II, the ruler of Egypt between 609 and 594 BCE, who had sent Phoenicians to circumnavigate Africa. Necho II (sometimes Nekau) was a king of the Twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt (610 BC - 595 BC and the son of Psammetichus I by his Great Royal Phoenicia ( Phoenician: Phoenician nunsvg|12px|נ]]Phoenician nun Apparently, it took them three years, but they certainly did prove his idea. As far the Nile River, he speculated that it started as far west as the Ister River in Europe, and cut Africa through the middle. He was the first writer to assume that the Caspian Sea was separated from other seas and he recognised northern Scythia as one of the coldest inhabited lands in the world.

Herodotus also made similar mistakes to his predecessors. He accepted a clear distinction between the civilized Greeks in the centre of the earth and the barbarians on the world's edges. In his Histories we can see very clearly that the world becomes stranger and stranger when one travels away from Greece, until one has reached the ends of the earth, where humans behave like savages.

Spherical Earth and Meridians

Whereas a number of previous Greek philosophers assumed the earth to be spherical, Aristotle (384 – 322BCE) is the one to be credited with proving the earth’s sphericity. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Those arguments can be summarized as follows:

• The lunar eclipse is always circular. A lunar eclipse occurs whenever the Moon passes through some portion of the Earth's shadow
• Ships seem to sink as they move away from view and pass the horizon.
• Some stars can only be seen from certain parts of the Earth.

It is unclear if he ever produced a map of the world according to his specifications, but if he did we have yet to find it.

A vital contribution to mapping the reality of the world came with a scientific estimate of the circumference of the earth. This event has been described as the first scientific attempt to give geographical studies a mathematical basis. The man credited for this achievement was Eratosthenes (275-195 BCE). Eratosthenes of Cyrene ( Greek; 276 BC - 194 BC was a Greek Mathematician, Poet, athlete, Geographer and As described by George Sarton, historian of science, “there was among them [Eratosthenes’s contemporaries] a man of genius but as he was working in a new field they were too stupid to recognize him” (Noble, 27). George Alfred Leon Sarton (1884-1956 was a Belgian -American Polymath, historian of science, and father of the writer May Sarton. His work including On the Measurement of the Earth and Geographica has only survived in the writings of later philosophers such as Cleomedes and Strabo. The Geographica ( Ancient Greek: Γεωγραφικά Geōgraphiká) or Geography, is a 17-volume encyclopedia of geographical knowledge written This article concerns the Greek astronomer For the article on the lunar crater named for him see Cleomedes (crater. Strabo ( Greek: Στράβων 63/64 BC – ca AD 24 was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher. He was a devoted geographer who set out to reform and perfect the map of the world. Eratosthenes argued that accurate mapping, even if in two dimensions only, depends upon the establishment of an accurate linear measurements. He was able to calculate the circumference of the Earth within 0. 5 percent accuracy by calculating the heights of shadows on different parts of the earth at a given time. The first in Alexandria, the other further up the Nile. Alexandria ( Egyptian Arabic: اسكندريه Eskendereyya; Standard Arabic: ar الإسكندرية Al-Iskandariyya; Ἀλεξάνδρεια The Nile (النيل, Ancient Egyptian iteru or Ḥ'pī, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing River He had the distance between the two shadows calculated and then their height. From this he determined the difference in angle between the two points and calculated how large a circle would be made by adding in the rest of the degrees to 360. His great achievement in the field of cartography was the use of new techniques called (A) meridian -- his imaginary north/south line -- and (B) parallel -- his imaginary west/east line. This article is about the geographical concept For other uses of the word see Meridian. ^[9] These axis lines were placed over the map of the earth with their origin in the city of Rhodes and divided the world into sectors. Then, Eratosthenes used these earth partitions to reference places on the map. He also was the first person to correctly divide Earth into five climatic regions- a torrid zone across the middle, two frigid zones at extreme north and south, and two temperate bands in between. He was also the first person to use the word "geography". Geography (from Greek γεωγραφία - geografia) is the study of the Earth and its lands features inhabitants and phenomena

Claudius Ptolemy (A. Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca D. 90-168) thought that with the aid of astronomy and mathematics the earth could be mapped very accurately. Year 90 was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Ptolemy revolutionized the depiction of the spherical earth on the map by using perspective projection, and suggested precise methods for fixing the position of geographic features on its surface using coordinate system -- parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude. Perspective (from Latin perspicere to see through in the graphic arts such as drawing is an approximate representation on a flat surface (such as paper of an image as it is perceived In Mathematics and its applications a coordinate system is a system for assigning an n - Tuple of Numbers or scalars to each point A circle of latitude, on the Earth, is an imaginary East - West circle connecting all locations (not taking into account elevation that share a given Latitude, usually denoted symbolically by the Greek letter phi ( Φ) gives the location of a place on Earth (or other planetary body north or south of the This article is about the geographical concept For other uses of the word see Meridian. Longitude (ˈlɒndʒɪˌtjuːd or ˈlɒŋgɪˌtjuːd symbolized by the Greek character Lambda (λ is the east-west Geographic coordinate measurement ^[10][11]

Ptolemy's eight-book atlas Geographia is a prototype of modern mapping and GIS. The Geographia or Geography is Ptolemy 's main work besides the Almagest. It included an index of place-names, with the latitude and longitude of each place to guide the search, scale, conventional signs with legends, and the practice of orienting maps so that North is at the top and East to the right of the map -- a universal custom today.

But for all his important innovations Ptolemy was not infallible. His most important error was a miscalculation of the circumference of the earth. He believed that Eurasia covered 180° of the globe, which convinced Christopher Columbus to sail across the Atlantic to look for a simpler and faster way to travel to India. For the superstate in George Orwell 's novel see Nations of Nineteen Eighty-Four. Christopher Columbus (1451 &ndash May 20 1506 was an Italian Navigator, colonizer Had Columbus known that the true figure was much greater, it is conceivable that he would never have set out on his momentous voyage.

Roman Empire

5th century Roman road map

In 2007, the Tabula Peutingeriana, a 12th century replica of a 5th century map, was placed on the UNESCO Memory of the World Register and displayed to the public for the first time. The Tabula Peutingeriana ( Peutinger table) is an Itinerarium showing the Cursus publicus, the road network in the Roman Empire. Although well preserved and believed to be an accurate copy of an authentic original, the scroll media it is on is so delicate now it must be protected at all times from exposure to daylight.

Please refer to the BBC News article "Ancient Roman road map unveiled" at http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk/mpapps/pagetools/print/news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7113810.stm

China

Main article: Chinese geography

Earliest extant maps from the Qin State

The earliest known maps to have survived in China date to the 4th century BC. See also Geography of China Native Chinese geography begins in the Warring States period (5th century BC ^[12] In 1986, seven ancient Chinese maps were found in an archeological excavation of a Qin State tomb in what is now Fangmatian, Dangchuan Xian, in the vicinity of Tianshui City, Gansu province. Qín or Ch'in ( Wade-Giles) (秦 ( 778 BC - 207 BC) was a State during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods ( is a province located in the northwest of the People's Republic of China. ^[12] Before this find, the earliest extant maps that were known came from the Mawangdui excavation in 1973, which found three maps on silk dated to the 2nd century BC in the early Han Dynasty. Mawangdui ( is an archaeological site located in Changsha, China. Silk is a natural Protein Fiber, some forms of which can be woven into Textiles The best-known type of silk is obtained from cocoons The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. ^[12][13] The 4th century BC maps from the State of Qin were drawn with black ink on wooden blocks. ^[14] These blocks fortunately survived in soaking conditions due to underground water that had seeped into the tomb; the quality of the wood had much to do with their survival. ^[14] After two years of slow-drying techniques, the maps were fully restored. ^[14]

The territory shown in the seven Qin maps overlap each other. ^[15] The maps display tributary river systems of the Jialing River in Sichuan province, in a total measured area of 107 by 68 km. The Jialing River ( is a tributary of the Yangtze River with its source in Gansu province. ( Postal map spelling: Szechwan and Szechuan) is a province in western China with its capital in Chengdu. ^[15] The maps featured rectangular symbols encasing character names for the locations of administative counties. ^[15] Rivers and roads are displayed with similar line symbols; this makes interpreting the map somewhat difficult, although the labels of rivers placed in order of stream flow are helpful to modern day cartographers. ^[16] These maps also feature locations where different types of timber can be gathered, while two of the maps state the distances in mileage to the timber sites. This article is about two traditional Chinese units of length ^[13] In light of this, these maps are perhaps the oldest economic maps in the world since they predate Strabo's economic maps. Economic geography is the study of the location distribution and spatial organization of economic activities across the Earth. Strabo ( Greek: Στράβων 63/64 BC – ca AD 24 was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher. ^[13]

Earliest geographical writing

In China, the earliest known geographical Chinese writing dates back to the 5th century BC, during the beginning of the Warring States (481 BC-221 BC). China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The Warring States Period ( also known as the Era of Warring States covers the period from some time in the 5th century BC to the unification of China by the Events By place Persian Empire The Persian King Xerxes I arrives at Sardis and begins to build Events By place Carthage The Carthaginian general Hasdrubal is murdered by a Celtic assassin while campaigning to increase ^[17] This was the 'Yu Gong' ('Tribute of Yu') chapter of the book Shu Jing (Classic of History). Yǔ ( (21st century BCE born Sì Wénmìng) often regarded with legendary status as Yu the Great (大禹 Dà-Yǔ) was the first ruler and founder of The Classic of History ( is a compilation of documentary records related to events in ancient history of China The book describes the traditional nine provinces, their kinds of soil, their characteristic products and economic goods, their tributary goods, their trades and vocations, their state revenues and agricultural systems, and the various rivers and lakes listed and placed accordingly. ^[17] The nine provinces in the time of this geographical work was very small in terrain size compared to what modern China occupies today. In fact, its description pertained to areas of the Yellow River, the lower valleys of the Yangtze, with the plain between them and the Shandong Peninsula, and to the west the most northern parts of the Wei River and the Han River were known (along with the southern parts of modern day Shanxi province). The Yellow River or Huang He / Hwang Ho ( Hatan Gol Queen river) is the second-longest river in China (after the Yangtze River) and the The Shāndōng Peninsula ( also known as the Jiāodōng Peninsula (胶东半岛 膠東半島 is a Peninsula in the Shāndōng Province of The Wei River ( Simplified Chinese:渭河 Pinyin: Wei He Wade-Giles: Wei Ho is a River in west-central China and is the largest ( Postal map spelling: Shansi) is a province in the northern part of the People's Republic of China. ^[17]

Earliest known reference to a map, or 'tu'

The oldest reference to a map in China comes from the 3rd century BC. ^[18] This was the event of 227 BC where Crown Prince Dan of Yan had his assassin Jing Ke visit the court of the ruler of the State of Qin, who would become Qin Shi Huang (r. Crown Prince Dan of Yan (燕太子丹 was a crown prince of the State of Yan during the Warring States Period in China. Jing Ke ( was a guest residing in the estates of Dan crown prince of Yan and renowned for his failed Assassination of the Chinese emperor Qin Shi Huang Qín or Ch'in ( Wade-Giles) (秦 ( 778 BC - 207 BC) was a State during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods Qin Shi Huang ( (259 BC – September 10 210 BC personal name Yíng Zhèng, was king of the Chinese State of Qin from 247 BCE to 221 BCE (during the 221–210 BC). Jing Ke was to present the ruler of Qin with a district map painted on a silk scroll, rolled up and held in a case where he hid his assassin's dagger. ^[18] Handing to him the map of the designated territory was the first diplomatic act of submitting that district to Qin rule. ^[18] Instead he attempted to kill Qin, an assassination plot that failed. From then on maps are frequently mentioned in Chinese sources. ^[19]

Han Dynasty and period of division

The three Han Dynasty maps found at Mawangdui differ from the earlier Qin State maps. While the Qin maps place the cardinal direction of north at the top of the map, the Han maps are orientated with the southern direction at the top. ^[13] The Han maps are also more complex, since they cover a much larger area, employ a large number of well-designed map symbols, and include additional information on local military sites and the local population. ^[13] The Han maps also note measured distances between certain places, but a formal graduated scale and rectangular grid system for maps would not be used—or at least described in full—until the 3rd century (see Pei Xiu below). Grid references define locations on Maps using Cartesian coordinates. ^[20]

An early text that mentioned maps was the Rites of Zhou. The Rites of Zhou ( also known as Zhouguan (Offices of Zhou is one of three ancient ritual texts listed among the classics of Confucianism. ^[18] Although attributed to the era of the Zhou Dynasty, its first recorded appearance was in the libraries of Prince Liu De (c. The Zhou Dynasty ( POJ: Chiu Tiau 1122 BC to 256 BC was preceded by the Shang Dynasty and followed by the Qin Dynasty in China. 130 BC), and was compiled and commented on by Liu Xin in the 1st century AD. Liu Xin ( (ca 46 BC &ndash AD 23 later changed name to Liu Xiu (劉秀 Courtesy name Zijun (子駿 was a Chinese Astronomer It outlined the use of maps that were made for governmental provinces and districts, principalities, frontier boundaries, and even pinpointed locations of ores and minerals for mining facilities. Mining is the extraction of valuable Minerals or other geological materials from the earth usually (but not always from an Ore body ^[18] Upon the investiture of three of his sons as feudal princes in 117 BC, Emperor Wu of Han had maps of the entire empire submitted to him. Background birth and years as crown prince Emperor Wu was the tenth child of Emperor Jing, and was born to one of Emperor Jing's favorite Concubines, ^[21]

From the 1st century AD onwards, official Chinese historical texts contained a geographical section (Diliji), which was often an enormous compilation of changes in place-names and local administrative divisions controlled by the ruling dynasty, descriptions of mountain ranges, river systems, taxable products, etc. ^[22] From the time of the 5th century BC Shu Jing forward, Chinese geographical writing provided more concrete information and less legendary element. This example can be seen in the 4th chapter of the Huainanzi (Book of the Master of Huainan), compiled under the editorship of Prince Liu An in 139 BC during the Han Dynasty (202 BC-202 AD). The Huainanzi (淮南子 Pinyin Huáinánzǐ, Wade-Giles Huai-nan Tzu; literally "The Masters/Philosophers of Huainan" is a 2nd century Líu Ān ( 179 - 122 BC was a Chinese Prince and advisor to his nephew Emperor Wu of Han (武帝 of Han Dynasty in China and the The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. Events By place Carthage Accused of treason by the Carthaginians after being defeated by the Romans at the Battle of the For the area code see Area code 202. Events By Place Roman Empire Septimus Severus returns to Rome after The chapter gave general descriptions of topography in a systematic fashion, given visual aids by the use of maps (di tu) due to the efforts of Liu An and his associate Zuo Wu. Topography ( topo-, "place" and graphia, "writing" is the study of Earth 's Surface features or those of Planets ^[23] In Chang Chu's Hua Yang Guo Chi (Historical Geography of Szechuan) of 347 AD, not only rivers, trade routes, and various tribes were described, but it also wrote of a 'Ba Jun Tu Jing' ('Map of Szechuan'), which had been made much earlier in 150 AD. ( Postal map spelling: Szechwan and Szechuan) is a province in western China with its capital in Chengdu. ^[24]

Local map-making such as the one of Szechuan mentioned above, became a widespread tradition of Chinese geographical works by the 6th century, as noted in the bibliography of the Sui Shu. ^[25] It is during this time of the Southern and Northern Dynasties that the Liang Dynasty (502-557 AD) cartographers also began carving maps into stone steles (alongside the maps already drawn and painted on paper and silk). This article is about the Southern and Northern Dynasties in China. Liang Dynasty ( 梁[[wikt 朝|朝]] Pinyin: Liáng cháo (502-557 also known as Southern Liang Dynasty (南梁 was the third of Southern dynasties Area code of northern central Kentucky, including Louisville (see Area code 502) Events By Place Byzantine Empire Events By Place Asia The Northern Zhou Dynasty begins in northern China; its first ruler is Northern Zhou Xiao Min Di ^[26]

Pei Xiu, the 'Ptolemy of China'

In the year 267, a Pei Xiu (224–271) was appointed as the Minister of Works by Emperor Wu of Jin, the first emperor of the Jin Dynasty. Pei Xiu (224&ndash271 was a minister geographer, and cartographer of the Kingdom of Wei during the Three Kingdoms Period of China Life before establishment of the Jìn Dynasty Sīmǎ Yán was born to Sima Zhao and his wife Wang Yuanji, daughter of the Confucian scholar Wáng The Jìn Dynasty ( 265 – 420) one of the Six Dynasties, followed the Three Kingdoms period and preceded the Southern and Northern Dynasties Pei is best known for his work in cartography. Although map making and use of the grid existed in China before him,^[27] he was the first to mention a plotted geometrical grid and graduated scale displayed on the surface of maps to gain greater accuracy in the estimated distance between different locations. Grid references define locations on Maps using Cartesian coordinates. ^[28] Pei outlined six principles that should be observed when creating maps, two of which included the rectangular grid and the graduated scale for measuring distance. ^[29] Historians compare him to the Greek Ptolemy for his contributions in cartography. ^[30] However, historian Howard Nelson states that, although the accounts of earlier cartographic works by the inventor and official Zhang Heng (78–139) are somewhat vague and sketchy, there is ample written evidence that Pei Xiu derived the use of the rectangular grid reference from the maps of Zhang Heng. Zhang Heng ( (CE 78–139 was an astronomer, mathematician, inventor, geographer, cartographer, artist, poet ^[31]

Later Chinese ideas about the quality of maps made during the Han Dynasty and before stem from the assessment given by Pei Xiu, which was not a positive one. ^[32] Pei Xiu noted that the extant Han maps at his disposal were of little use since they featured too many inaccuracies and exaggerations in measured distance between locations. ^[32] However, the Qin State maps and Mawangdui maps of the Han era were far superior in quality than those examined by Pei Xiu. ^[32] It was not until the 20th century that Pei Xiu's 3rd century assessment of earlier maps' dismal quality would be overturned and disproven. The Qin and Han maps did have a degree of accuracy in scale and pinpointed location, but the major improvement in Pei Xiu's work and that of his contemporaries was expressing topographical elevation on maps. The elevation of a Geographic location is its height above a fixed reference point often the mean sea level. ^[33]

Sui and Tang dynasties

In the year 605, during the Sui Dynasty (581–618), the Commercial Commissioner Pei Ju (547–627) created a famous geometrical-gridded map. The Sui Dynasty ( 581 - 618 AD and in the undertaking of other construction projects including the reconstruction of the Great Wall. Pei Ju (裴矩 (547?-627 Courtesy name Hongda (弘大 formally Duke Jing of Anyi (安邑敬公 was a high level official during the Chinese ^[26] In 610 AD Emperor Yang of Sui ordered government officials from throughout the empire to document in gazetteers the customs, products, and geographical features of their local areas and provinces, providing descriptive writing and drawing them all onto separate maps, which would be sent to the imperial secretariat in the capital city. Background Yang Guang was born in 569 during the reign of Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou. A gazetteer is a geographical Dictionary or directory, an important reference for information about places and place names (see Toponomy) used in conjunction ^[25][34]

The Tang Dynasty (618–907) also had its fair share of cartographers, including the works of Xu Jingzong in 658 AD, Wang Mingyuan in 661 AD, and Wang Zhongsi in 747 AD. The Tang Dynasty ( Middle Chinese: dhɑng (June 18 618&ndashJune 4 907 was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by Xu Jingzong (許敬宗 ( 592 - September 20, 672) Courtesy name Yanzu (延族 formally Duke Gong of Gaoyang (高陽恭公 Wang Zhongsi (王忠嗣 (704?-748? né Wang Xun (王訓 was a general of the Chinese dynasty Tang Dynasty. ^[26] Arguably the greatest geographer and cartographer of the Tang period was Jia Dan (730–805), whom Emperor Dezong of Tang entrusted in 785 to complete a map of China with her recently former inland colonies of Central Asia, the massive and detailed work completed in 801 AD, called the Hai Nei Hua Yi Tu (Map of both Chinese and Barbarian Peoples within the (Four) Seas). Jia Dan ( 730&ndash805 Courtesy name Dunshi (敦诗 was a Chinese scholar-official, geographer, and cartographer Emperor Dezong of Tang (唐德宗 ( May 27, 742) Cui Yanfu (779-780 Qiao Lin (779 Yang Yan ^[26] The map was 30 ft long and 33 ft high in dimension, mapped out on a grid scale of 1 inch equaling 100 li (unit) (the Chinese equivalent of the mile/kilometer). This article is about two traditional Chinese units of length ^[26] Jia Dan is also known for having described the Persian Gulf region with great detail, along with lighthouses that were erected at the mouth of the Persian Gulf by the medieval Iranians in the Abbasid period (refer to article on Tang Dynasty for more). The Persian Gulf, in the Southwest Asian region is an extension of the For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. The Tang Dynasty ( Middle Chinese: dhɑng (June 18 618&ndashJune 4 907 was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by

Song Dynasty

During the Song Dynasty (960-1279 AD) Emperor Taizu of Song ordered Lu Duosun in 971 AD to update and 're-write all the Tu Jing in the world', which would seem to be a daunting task for one individual, who was sent out throughout the provinces to collect texts and as much data as possible. The Song Dynasty ( Wade-Giles: Sung Ch'ao was a ruling dynasty in China between 960&ndash1279 CE it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Ancestry and early life His family was of fairly modest origins and cannot be traced back with certainty further than the late Tang dynasty. ^[25] With the aid of Song Zhun, the massive work was completed in 1010 AD, with some 1566 chapters. ^[25] The later Song Shi historical text stated (Wade-Giles spelling):

The Yu Ji Tu, or Map of the Tracks of Yu Gong, carved into stone in 1137, located in the Stele Forest of Xian. Stele Forest (碑林 Pinyin: Bēilín aka Xi'an Stele Forest Museum or Xi'an Beilin Museum, is a Museum for steles and Stone UserEl_C --> Xi'an ( Postal map spelling: Sian is the Capital of the Shaanxi province in the This 3 ft squared map features a graduated scale of 100 li for each rectangular grid. This article is about two traditional Chinese units of length China's coastline and river systems are clearly defined and precisely pinpointed on the map. Yu Gong is in reference to the Chinese deity described in the geographical chapter of the Classic of History, dated 5th century BC. Yǔ ( (21st century BCE born Sì Wénmìng) often regarded with legendary status as Yu the Great (大禹 Dà-Yǔ) was the first ruler and founder of This article explores the History of Geography. Ancient geography See also Ancient Greek geography Ancient Greeks environment The Classic of History ( is a compilation of documentary records related to events in ancient history of China

Like the earlier Liang Dynasty stone-stele maps (mentioned above), there were large and intricately-carved stone stele maps of the Song period. For example, the 3 ft squared stone stele map of an anonymous artist in 1137 AD, following the grid scale of 100 li squared for each grid square. ^[35] What is truly remarkable about this map is the incredibly precise detail of coastal outlines and river systems in China (refer to Needham's Volume 3, Plate LXXXI for an image). The map shows 500 settlements and a dozen rivers in China, and extends as far as Korea and India. On the reverse, a copy of a more ancient map uses grid coordinates in a scale of 1:1,500,000 and shows the coastline of China with great accuracy. ^[36]

The famous 11th century scientist and polymath statesman Shen Kuo (1031–1095) was also a geographer and cartographer. A polymath ( Greek polymathēs, πολυμαθής "having learned much" is a person whose knowledge is not restricted to one subject area Shen Kuo or Shen Kua ( (1031&ndash1095 style name Cunzhong and pseudonym Mengqi Weng, was a Polymathic Chinese ^[37] His largest atlas included twenty three maps of China and foreign regions that were drawn at a uniform scale of 1:900,000. An atlas is a collection of Maps typically of Earth or a region of Earth but there are atlases of the other planets (and their satellites in the solar system ^[38] Shen also created a three dimensional raised-relief map using sawdust, wood, beeswax, and wheat paste, while representing the topography and specific locations of a frontier region to the imperial court. Three-dimensional space is a geometric model of the physical Universe in which we live A raised-relief map or terrain model is a three-dimensional representation usually of terrain ^[38] Shen Kuo's contemporary, Su Song (1020–1101), was a cartographer who created detailed maps in order to resolve a territorial border dispute between the Song Dynasty and the Liao Dynasty. Su Song ( style name: Zirong 子容 (1020&ndash1101 AD was a renowned Chinese statesman, astronomer, cartographer, The Liao Dynasty ( 907 - 1125, also known as the Khitan Empire (契丹國 was an empire in northern China that ruled over the regions of Manchuria ^[39]

Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties

The Da Ming hunyi tu map, dating from about 1390, is in multicolour. The horizontal scale is 1:820,000 and the vertical scale is 1:1,060,000. ^[40]

In 1579, Luo Hongxian published the Guang Yutu atlas, including more than 40 maps, a grid system, and a systematic way of representing major landmarks such as mountains, rivers, roads and borders. The Guang Yutu incorporates the discoveries of naval explorer Zheng He's 15th century voyages along the coasts of China, Southeast Asia, India and Africa. Zheng He ( Birth name 馬三寶 / 马三宝; Arabic / Persian name حجّي محمود شمس Hajji Mahmud Shams) (1371&ndash1433 was a Hui ^[41]

From the 16th and 17th centuries, several examples survive of maps focused on cultural information. Gridlines are not used on either Yu Shi's Gujin xingsheng zhi tu (1555) or Zhang Huang's Tushu bian (1613); instead, illustrations and annotations show mythical places, exotic foreign peoples, administrative changes and the deeds of historic and legendary heroes. ^[42] Also in the 17th century, an edition of a possible Tang Dynasty map shows clear topographical contour lines. A contour line (also Level set, isopleth, isoline, isogram or isarithm) of a function of two ^[43] Although topographic features were part of maps in China for centuries, a Fujian county official Ye Chunji (1532–1595) was the first to base county maps using on-site topographical surveying and observations. Topography ( topo-, "place" and graphia, "writing" is the study of Earth 's Surface features or those of Planets This article is about the People's Republic of China province Ye Chunji (葉春及 1532&ndash1595 was a Chinese county official during the Ming Dynasty (1368&ndash1644 of China. Surveying is the technique and science of accurately determining the terrestrial or three-dimensional space Position of points and the distances and angles between ^[44]

The Korean made Kangnido based on two Chinese maps, which describes the Old World. The Honil Gangni Yeokdae Gukdo Jido ("Map of Integrated Lands and Regions of Historical Countries and Capitals" short name Gangnido (Kangnido) is a map of the world The Old World consists of those parts of Earth known to Europeans Asians and Africans in the 15th century

India

Early forms of cartography in India included legendary paintings; maps of locations described in Indian epic poetry, for example the Ramayana. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country An epic is a lengthy Narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation The Rāmāyaṇa ( Devanāgarī: sa रामायण is an ancient Sanskrit epic attributed to the Hindu sage ( Maharishi) Valmiki ^[45] These works contained descriptions of legendary places, and often even described the nature of the mythological inhabitants of a particular location. ^[45]

The Indians made maps related to both their holy scriptures, the Puranas, and for astronomy. For other meanings see Purana (disambiguation. The Puranas ( Sanskrit: sa पुराण purāṇa, "of ancient times" ^[45] Indian cartographic traditions also covered the locations of the Pole star, and other constellations of use. A pole star is a visible star especially a prominent one that is approximately aligned with the Earth 's Axis of rotation; that is a star whose apparent position ^[46] These charts may have been in use by the beginning of the Common Era for purposes of navigation. ^[46]

Detailed maps of considerable length describing the locations of settlements, sea shores, rivers, and mountains were also made. ^[45] The 8th century scholar Bhavabhuti conceived paintings which indicated geographical regions. Bhavabhuti was an 8th century scholar of India noted for his plays and poetry written in Sanskrit. ^[47]

European scholar Francesco I reproduced a number of ancient Indian maps in his magnum opus La Cartografia Antica dell India. ^[47] Out these maps, two have been reproduced using a manuscript of Lokaprakasa, originally compiled by the polymath Ksemendra (Kashmir, 11th century CE), as a source. This article is about the geographical region of greater Kashmir ^[47] The other manuscript, used as a source by Fransesco I, is titled Samgrahani. ^[47] The early volumes of the Encyclopedia Britannica also described cartographic charts made by the Dravidian people of India. The Encyclopædia Britannica is a general English-language encyclopaedia published by Encyclopædia Britannica Inc Dravidian peoples refers to the peoples that natively speak languages belonging to the Dravidian language family. ^[46]

Maps from the Ain-e-Akbari, a Mughal document detailing India's history and traditions, contain references to locations indicated in earlier Indian cartographic traditions. The Ain-i-Akbari or the "Institutes of Akbar" is a 16th century detailed document recording the administration of emperor Akbar 's empire written by his Vizier ^[47] Another map describing the kingdom of Nepal, four feet in length and about two and a half feet in breadth, was presented to Warren Hastings. Nepal (नेपाल) is a Landlocked country in South Asia. Warren Hastings ( December 6 1732 - August 22 1818) was the first Governor-General of Bengal, from 1773 to 1785 ^[45] In this map the mountains were elevated above the surface, and several geographical elements were indicated in different colors. ^[45]

Islamic Mapmaking

Further information: Muslim geography

In the Middle Ages, Muslim scholars continued and advanced on the mapmaking traditions of earlier cultures. Most used Ptolemy's methods; but they also took advantage of what explorers and merchants learned in their travels across the Muslim world, from Spain to India to Africa, and beyond in trade relationships with China, and Russia. ^[48]

With funding from Roger II of Sicily (1097-1154), Abu Abdullah Ibn Idrisi (born 1099) wrote his medieval atlas, 'Geography', or 'The Recreation for Him Who Wishes to Travel Through the Countries' in 1154. Roger II ( 22 December 1095 &ndash 26 February 1154) was King of Sicily, son of Roger I of Sicily and successor to his Abu Abd Allah Muhammad al-Idrisi al-Qurtubi al-Hasani al-Sabti or simply El Idrisi ( Arabic أبو عبد الله محمد الإدريسي Latin: Besides drawing on the knowledge collected at the University of Cordoba, Roger and Idrisi paid draftsmen to make journeys and map their routes. The book describes the earth as a sphere with a circumference of 22,900 miles but maps it in 70 rectangular sections. Notable features include the correct dual sources of the Nile, the coast of Ghana and mentions of Norway. Climate zones were a chief organizational principle. A second and shortened copy from 1192 called Garden of Joys is known by scholars as the Little Idrisi. ^[49]

Ibn-Battutah (1304-1368?) wrote "Rihlah" (Travels) based on three decades of journeys, covering more than 120,000 km through northern Africa, southern Europe, and much of Asia.

Pacific Islands

The Polynesian peoples who explored and settled the Pacific islands in the first two millenniums AD used maps to navigate across large distances. A surviving map from the Marshall Islands uses sticks tied in a grid with palm strips representing wave and wind patterns, with shells attached to show the location of islands. The Marshall Islands, officially the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI is a Micronesian nation of islands in the middle of the Pacific Ocean ^[50] Other maps were created as needed using temporary arrangements of stones or shells. ^[51]

Early European maps

The Gough Map, a road map of 14th century Britain

Medieval maps in Europe were mainly symbolic in form along the lines of the much earlier Babylonian World Map. The Gough Map or Bodleian Map is a Map of the island of Great Britain, dating between 1355 and 1366, and is the oldest surviving Early world maps cover depictions of the World from Classical times to the Age of Discovery and the emergence of modern Geography ( 6th century BC Known as Mappa Mundi (cloth of the world) these maps were circular or symmetrical cosmological diagrams representing the earth's single land mass as disk-shaped and surrounded by ocean. Mappa mundi {{IPA|/ˈmapːa ˈmʊndiː/}} (plural = mappae mundi) is a general term used to describe Medieval European maps of the world ^[52]

Roger Bacon's investigations of map projections and the appearance of portolano and then portolan charts for plying the European trade routes were rare innovations of the period. For the Nova Scotia premier see Roger Bacon (politician. Roger Bacon, O A portolan (derived from the Latin word portus, port is an early modern European navigation chart, dating from the Thirteenth century or later A portolan (derived from the Latin word portus, port is an early modern European navigation chart, dating from the Thirteenth century or later

In the Renaissance, with the rediscovery of classical works, maps became more like surveys once again, while the discovery of the Americas by Europeans and the subsequent effort to control and divide those lands revived interest in scientific mapping methods. Peter Whitfield, the author of several books on the history of maps, credits European mapmaking as a factor in the global spread of western power: "Men in Seville, Amsterdam or London had access to knowledge of America, Brazil, or India, while the native peoples knew only their own immediate environment" (Whitfield). The term Indigenous Peoples or autochthonous peoples can be used to describe any Ethnic group who inhabit a geographic region with which they have the earliest historical

Notable cartographers of the Age of Exploration

A celestial map from the 17th century, by the Dutch cartographer Frederik de Wit.

• 15th century: The monk Nicholas Germanus added the first new maps to Ptolemy's Geographica. Donnus Nicolaus Germanus (born ca 1420; † ca 1490) was a German Cartographer who wrote a pioneering Cosmographia and created ^[53]
• 1485: Portuguese cartographer Pedro Reinel made the oldest known signed Portuguese nautical chart. Pedro Reinel (? - c 1542) was a Portuguese cartographer of the 16th century author of the oldest signed Portuguese Nautical chart (c
• 1492: German merchant Martin Behaim (1459 - 1507) made the oldest surviving terrestrial globe, but it lacked the Americas. Martin (of Behaim ( October 6, 1459 &ndash July 29, 1507) (or Behem, Boemia or Bohemia) was a German ^[54]
• 1500: Spanish cartographer, explorer and conquistador Juan de la Cosa made several maps of which the only survivor is the Mappa Mundi of 1500. Juan de la Cosa (c 1460 &ndash February 28, 1510) was a Spanish cartographer, Conquistador and explorer. It is the first known European cartographic representation of the Americas.
• 1502: Unknown Portuguese cartographer made the Cantino planisphere, the first nautical chart to implicitely represent latitudes. The Cantino planisphere (or Cantino World Map is the earliest surviving map showing Portuguese Discoveries in the east and west
• 1485: Portuguese cartographer Pedro Reinel made the oldest known nautical chart with a scale of latitudes. Pedro Reinel (? - c 1542) was a Portuguese cartographer of the 16th century author of the oldest signed Portuguese Nautical chart (c
• 1507: Martin Waldseemüller's World Map was the first to use the term America for the Western continents (after explorer Amerigo Vespucci). Martin Waldseemüller (Latinized Martinus Ilacomilus or Hylacomylus, c The Explorer and Cartographer Amerigo Vespucci ( March 9, 1454 - February 22, 1512) was the first person to demonstrate ^[55]
• 1513: Turkish admiral Piri Reis prepares his world map, noteworthy for its depiction of a southern landmass that some controversially claim is evidence for early awareness of the existence of Antarctica. Piri Reis (full name Hadji Muhiddin Piri Ibn Hadji Mehmed) (about 1465&ndash1554 or 1555 was an Ottoman-Turkish Admiral, geographer and The Piri Reis map ("Piri" pronounced /piɹi/ is a famous pre-modern World map created by 16th century Ottoman - Turkish admiral and cartographer
• 1519 : Portuguese cartographers Lopo Homem, Pedro Reinel and Jorge Reinel made the group of maps known today as the Miller Atlas or Lopo Homem - Reinéis Atlas. Pedro Reinel (? - c 1542) was a Portuguese cartographer of the 16th century author of the oldest signed Portuguese Nautical chart (c Jorge Reinel (c 1502 &ndash after 1572) born Lisbon renown Portuguese Cartographer and instructor in cartography son of the well-known cartographer
• 1569: Gerardus Mercator (1512-1594) was a Flemish cartographer who in his quest to make the world “look right” on the maps developed new projection (called Mercator projection) using mathematical formulas. A separate article is about the mathematician Nicholas Mercator. The Mercator projection is a cylindrical map projection presented by the Flemish geographer and cartographer Gerardus Mercator, in 1569 From then on, the image of the world that he produced on his map from 1569 becomes a conventional view of the world that we are accustomed today. It is worth noting that scientists at the US Geological Survey have designed a Space Oblique Mercator Projection -- which is based on the Mercator’s projection -- that allows mapping from satellites with very little distortion.
• 1570: Antwerp cartographer Abraham Ortelius published the Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, the first modern atlas. Abraham Ortelius ( Abraham Ortels) ( April 2, 1527 – June 28, 1598) was a Belgian Cartographer and for Theatrum orbis terrarum, sive Atlas novus by Blaeu 1635 see Atlas Maior Theatrum Orbis Terrarum ^[56]
• 1608: Captain John Smith published a map of Virginia's coastline. Captain Sir John Smith (c January 1580– June 21 1631) Admiral of New England was an English Soldier, Sailor ^[57]
• 1670s: The astronomer Giovanni Domenico Cassini began work on the first modern topographic map in France. Giovanni Domenico Cassini ( June 8, 1625 &ndash September 14, 1712) was an Italian Mathematician, Astronomer A topographic map is a type of Map characterized by large-scale detail and quantitative representation of relief, usually using Contour lines in modern It was completed in 1789 or 1793 by his grandson Cassini de Thury. Jacques Cassini ( February 8, 1677 – April 18, 1756) was a French - Italian Astronomer, son of the famous Italian ^[58][59]
• 1715: Herman Moll published the Beaver Map, one of the most famous early maps of North America, which he copied from a 1698 work by Nicolas de Fer
• 1763-1767: Captain James Cook mapped Newfoundland. This article is about the cartographer for the convict see Herman Moll (convict. Captain James Cook FRS RN ( – 14 February 1779) was an English Explorer, Navigator and Newfoundland — ˈn(jufənˌlænd (Terre-Neuve Talamh an Éisc — is a large island 15 km off the east coast of

Modern cartography

The Greenwich prime meridian became the international standard reference for cartographers in 1884. The Prime Meridian is the meridian (line of Longitude) at which longitude is defined to be 0°

In the United States in the 17th and 18th centuries, explorers mapped trails and army engineers surveyed government lands. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Two agencies were established to provide detailed, large-scale mapping. They are now known as the U.S. Geological Survey and the National Ocean Survey. The United States Geological Survey ( USGS) is a scientific agency of the United States government.

During the 1900's, maps became more abundant due to improvements in printing and photography that made production cheaper and easier. Airplanes made it possible to photograph large areas at a time. Also, since the mid-1990's, the use of computers in map-making has helped to store, sort, and arrange data for mapping in order to create map projections. ^[60]

Technological changes

In cartography, technology has continually changed in order to meet the demands of new generations of mapmakers and map users. The first maps were manually constructed with brushes and parchment and therefore varied in quality and were limited in distribution. The advent of the compass, printing press, telescope, sextant, quadrant and vernier allowed for the creation of far more accurate maps and the ability to make accurate reproductions. A compass, magnetic compass or mariner's compass is a navigational instrument for determining direction relative to the earth's Magnetic poles It consists A printing press is a mechanical device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a medium (such as paper or cloth thereby transferring an image A telescope is an instrument designed for the observation of remote objects and the collection of Electromagnetic radiation. This article is about the sextant as used for Navigation. For the astronomer's sextant, see Sextant (astronomical. A vernier scale is an additional scale which allows a distance or angle measurement to be read more precisely than directly reading a uniformly-divided straight or circular measurement

Advances in photochemical technology, such as the lithographic and photochemical processes, have allowed for the creation of maps that have fine details, do not distort in shape and resist moisture and wear. Lithography is a method for Printing using a plate or stone with a completely smooth surface Photography (fә'tɒgrәfi or fә'tɑːgrәfi (from Greek φωτο and γραφία is the process and Art of recording pictures by means of capturing This also eliminated the need for engraving which further shortened the time it takes to make and reproduce maps.

In the mid to late 20th century advances in electronic technology have led to a new revolution in cartography. The twentieth century of the Common Era began on Specifically computer hardware devices such as computer screens, plotters, printers, scanners (remote and document) and analytic stereo plotters along with visualization, image processing, spatial analysis and database software, have democratized and greatly expanded the making of maps. Typical PC hardware A typical Personal computer consists of a case or chassis in a tower shape (desktop and the following parts Motherboard See also digital raster graphic and History of web mapping. A digital raster graphic (DRG is a Digital image resulting from scanning a paper USGS Topographic map for use on a computer Web mapping is the process of designing implementing generating and delivering maps on the World Wide Web.

See also

• Cartography
• List of cartographers
• Map projections
• Geographic information system
• Ancient world maps
• pictorial maps
• Mappa mundi
• World map
• Here be dragons
• Terra Incognita
• Web mapping

Notes

References

• Bagrow, L. , revised by R. A. Skelton (1986). History of Cartography. Transaction Publishers.  
• Brook, Timothy. (1998). The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-22154-0 (Paperback).
• Crawford, P. V. 1973 The perception of graduated squares as cartographic symbols. Cartographic Journal 10, no. 2:85-88.
• Hargett, James M. "Song Dynasty Local Gazetteers and Their Place in The History of Difangzhi Writing," Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies (Volume 56, Number 2, 1996): 405–442.
• J. B. Harley and David Woodward (eds) (1987). The History of Cartography Volume 1: Cartography in Prehistoric, Ancient, and Medieval Europe and the Mediterranean. . Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-31633-5.  
• J. B. Harley and David Woodward (eds) (1992). The History of Cartography Volume 2, Book 1: Cartography in the Traditional Islamic and South Asian Societies. . Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-31635-1.  
• J. B. Harley and David Woodward (eds) (1994). The History of Cartography Volume 2, Book 2: Cartography in the Traditional East and Southeast Asian Societies. . Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-31637-8.  
• J. B. Harley and David Woodward (eds) (1998). The History of Cartography Volume 2, Book 3: Cartography in the Traditional African, American, Arctic, Australian, and Pacific Societies. [Full text of the Introduction by David Woodward and G. Malcolm Lewis]. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-90728-7.  
• J. B. Harley and David Woodward (eds) (2005). The History of Cartography Volume 3 (in press, 2005): Cartography in the European Renaissance. . Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-90733-3.  
• J. B. Harley and David Woodward (eds) (1987). The History of Cartography Volume 4 (edited by D. Graham Burnett, Matthew Edney, and Mary G. Sponberg Pedley with Founding Editor David Woodward): Cartography in the European Enlightenment. . Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-31633-5.  
• J. B. Harley and David Woodward (eds). The History of Cartography Volume 5: Cartography in the Nineteenth Century. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN.  
• J. B. Harley and David Woodward (eds). The History of Cartography Volume 4: Cartography in the Twentieth Century. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN.  
• Hsu, Mei-ling. "The Qin Maps: A Clue to Later Chinese Cartographic Development," Imago Mundi (Volume 45, 1993): 90-100.
• MacEachren, A. M. (1994). Some Truth with Maps: A Primer on Symbolization & Design. University Park: The Pennsylvania State University. ISBN.  
• MacEachren, A. M. (1995). How Maps Work. New York: The Guilford Press. ISBN.  
• Monmonier, Mark (1991). How to Lie with Maps. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-53421-9.  
• Monmonier, Mark (1993). Mapping It Out. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN.  
• Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.
• Nelson, Howard. "Chinese Maps: An Exhibition at the British Library," The China Quarterly (Number 58, 1974): 357–362.
• ESRI. 2004. ESRI Cartography: Capabilities and Trends. Redlands, CA. White Paper
• Harvard Graduate School of Design, 2005. [4]
• Jeer, S. 1997. Traditional Color Coding for Land Uses. American Planning Association. pp. 4-5
• Imus, D. and Dunlavey, P. 2002. Back to the Drawing Board: Cartography vs the Digital Workflow. MT. Hood, Oregon.
• Olson, Judy M. 1975. Experience and the improvement of cartographic communication. Cartographic Journal 12, no. 2:94-108
• Phillips, R. , De Lucia, A. , and Skelton, A. 1975. Some Objective Tests of the Legibility of Relief Maps. The Cartographic Journal. 12, pp. 39-46
• Phillips, R. 1980. A Comparison of Color and Visual Texture as Codes for use as Area Symbols on Relief Maps. Ergonomics. 23, pp. 1117-1128.
• Pickles, John (2003). A History of Spaces: Cartographic Reason, Mapping, and the Geo-Coded World. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-415-14497-3.  
• Rice, M. , Jacobson, R. , Jones. D. 2003. Object Size Discrimination and Non-visual Cartographic Symbolization. CA. pp. 1-12.
• Robinson, A. H. (1953). Elements of Cartography. New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN.  
• Robinson, A. H. (1982). Early Thematic Mapping: In the History of Cartography. . Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. . ISBN.  
• Slocum, T. (1999). Thematic Cartography and Geographic Visualization. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. ISBN.  
• Sivin, Nathan (1995). Science in Ancient China. Brookfield, Vermont: VARIORUM, Ashgate Publishing.
• Wilford, John Noble (2000). The Mapmakers. Vintage Books. ISBN 0-375-70850-2.  
• "Map Imitations" in Detecting the Truth: Fakes, Forgeries and Trickery, a virtual museum exhibition at Library and Archives Canada
• Wright, David Curtis (2001) The History of China. Westport: Greenwood Press.
• Sircar, D. C. C. (January 1990). Studies in the Geography of Ancient and Medieval India. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. ISBN 8120806905.  

External links

• The history of cartography at the School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews, Scotland
• Mapping History - a learning resource from the British Library
• Modern Medieval Map Myths: The Flat World, Ancient Sea-Kings, and Dragons
• Concise Bibliography of the History of Cartography, Newberry Library

See Maps for more links to historical maps; however, most of the largest sites are listed at the sites linked below. A map is a visual representation of an area—a symbolic depiction highlighting relationships between elements of that space such as objects, Regions, and Themes

• Map history has extensive links to online map resources, including several large collections of images online and articles on the history of cartography.
• Eratosthenes Map of the Earth, and Measuring of its Circumference at Convergence
• A listing of over 5000 websites describing holdings of manuscripts, archives, rare books, historical photographs, and other primary sources for the research scholar