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Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, dating back to antiquity, with its origins in the religious, mythological, and astrological practices of pre-history: vestiges of these are still found in astrology, a discipline long interwoven with public and governmental astronomy, and not completely disentangled from it until a few centuries ago in the Western World (see astrology and astronomy). Science is a body of empirical, theoretical, and practical knowledge about the natural world, produced by a global community of researchers The sociology and Philosophy of science, as well as the entire field of Science studies, have in the 20th century been preoccupied with the question of The Historiography of Science usually refers to the study of History of Science in its disciplinary aspects and practices (methods theories schools and Note The contents of this page are expected to change as consensus is reached The History of science in early cultures refers to the study of Protoscience in Ancient history, prior to the development of Science in the Middle The history of science in Classical Antiquity begins with the search for practical knowledge In the Middle Ages, Science progressed dramatically from the time of antiquity in areas as diverse as Astronomy, Medicine, and Mathematics During the Renaissance, the rediscovery of ancient scientific texts was accelerated after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, and the invention of Printing The period which many historians of science call the Scientific Revolution can be roughly dated as having begun in 1543 the year in which Nicolaus Copernicus published For the current in the 19th century German idealism see Naturphilosophie Natural philosophy or the philosophy of nature (from The history of biology traces the study of the living world from ancient to modern times The history of Chemistry begins with the discovery of Fire, then Metallurgy which allowed purification of metals and the making of alloys as well as the exploitation Ecology is generally spoken of as a new science having only become prominent in the second half of the 20th Century This article explores the History of Geography. Ancient geography See also Ancient Greek geography Ancient Greeks environment The history of geology is concerned with the development of the natural science of geology The history of Paleontology traces the effort to understand the history of life on Earth by studying the Fossil record left behind by living organisms The modern discipline of Physics emerged in the 17th century following in traditions of inquiry established by Galileo Galilei, René Descartes, Isaac For more see Social sciences#History of the social sciences In ancient philosophy there was no difference between the Liberal arts of mathematics The history of economic thought deals with different thinkers and theories in the field of Political economy and Economics from the ancient world to the present See also History of grammar Linguistics as a study endeavors to describe and explain the human faculty of Language. While the study of politics is first found in Ancient Greece and ancient India, political science is a late arrival in terms of Social sciences. The History of Psychology as a scholarly study of the mind and behavior dates back to the Middle Ages. Sociology is a relatively new academic discipline among other Social sciences including Economics, Political science, Anthropology, and The history of technology is the history of the Invention of Tools and techniques Agronomy and the related disciplines of Agricultural science today are very different from what they were before about 1950 The history of computer science began long before the modern discipline of Computer science that emerged in the twentieth century The history of Materials science is the study of how different materials were used as influenced by the History of Earth and the Culture of the All human societies have medical beliefs that provide explanations for birth, Death, and Disease. This is a list of Timelines. Types of timelines Living graph Logarithmic timeline Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study In Science, the term natural science refers to a naturalistic approach to the study of the Universe, which is understood as obeying rules or law of "Ancient" redirects here For other uses see Ancient_(disambiguation. A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos The word mythology (from the Greek grc μυθολογία mythología, meaning "a story-telling a legendary lore" Astrology (from Greek grc ἄστρον astron, "constellation star" and grc -λογία -logia) is a group of Systems Stone Age Paleolithic See also Paleolithic, Recent African Origin, Early Homo sapiens, Early human migrations "Paleolithic" Astrology (from Greek grc ἄστρον astron, "constellation star" and grc -λογία -logia) is a group of Systems The term Western world, the West or the Occident ( Latin: occidens -sunset -west as distinct from the Orient) can have multiple meanings Astrology and astronomy are historically one and the same discipline ( Latin: astrologia) and were only gradually recognized as separate in western Early astronomy involved observing the regular patterns of the motions of visible celestial objects, especially the Sun, Moon, stars and naked eye planets. In Psychology, visual perception is the ability to interpret information from Visible light reaching the Eyes The resulting Perception is also In Astronomy and Navigation, the celestial sphere is an imaginary rotating Sphere of "gigantic Radius " The Sun (Sol is the Star at the center of the Solar System. A star is a massive luminous ball of plasma. The nearest star to Earth is the Sun, which is the source of most of the Energy on Earth In Astronomy, the naked-eye planets are the five Planets of our Solar system that can be discerned with the Naked eye without much difficulty An example of this early astronomy might involve a study of the changing position of the Sun along the horizon or the changing appearances of stars in the course of the year, which could be used to establish an agricultural or ritual calendar. A star is a massive luminous ball of plasma. The nearest star to Earth is the Sun, which is the source of most of the Energy on Earth The word Calendar consist of two words 1 Cal ( in Pashto means Year in Hindi and Persian is Sal- also means Year In some cultures astronomical data was used for astrological prognostication.

Ancient astronomers were able to differentiate between stars and planets, as stars remain relatively fixed over the centuries while planets will move an appreciable amount during a comparatively short time. A planet, as defined by the International Astronomical Union (IAU is a celestial body Orbiting a Star or stellar remnant that is A century (from the Latin centum, meaning one hundred is One hundred consecutive Years Centuries are numbered ordinally (e

Early history

Early cultures identified celestial objects with gods and spirits. Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate" generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic The word mythology (from the Greek grc μυθολογία mythología, meaning "a story-telling a legendary lore" The English word " spirit " comes from the Latin " spiritus " (breath They related these objects (and their movements) to phenomena such as rain, drought, seasons, and tides. Rain is Liquid precipitation. On Earth it is the condensation of atmospheric Water vapor into drops heavy enough to fall often making it to A drought is an extended period of months or years when a region notes a deficiency in its water supply A season is one of the major divisions of the Year, generally based on yearly periodic changes in Weather. Characteristics A tide is a repeated cycle of sea level changes in the following stages Over several hours the water rises or advances up a beach in the flood It is generally believed that the first "professional" astronomers were priests (such as the Magi), and that their understanding of the "heavens" was seen as "divine", hence astronomy's ancient connection to what is now called astrology. A priest or priestess is a person having the authority or power to administer religious rites in particular rites of sacrifice to and propitiation of a deity or deities The Magi (singular Magus, from Latin via Greek μάγος; Old English: Mage; from Persian maguš and Kurdish Heaven may refer to the physical heavens the sky or the seemingly endless expanse of the Universe beyond Divinity and divine (sometimes 'the Divinity' or 'the Divine' are broadly applied but loosely defined terms used variously within different faiths and belief systems — Ancient structures with astronomical alignments (such as Stonehenge) probably fulfilled both astronomical and religious functions. Archaeoastronomy (also spelled archeoastronomy) is the study of how peoples in the past "have understood the phenomena in the sky how they used phenomena Stonehenge is a Prehistoric Monument located in the English county of Wiltshire, about west of Amesbury and north of Salisbury A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos In the Social sciences, specifically Sociology and Sociocultural anthropology, functionalism (also called functional analysis) is a Sociological

Calendars of the world have usually been set by the Sun and Moon (measuring the day, month and year), and were of importance to agricultural societies, in which the harvest depended on planting at the correct time of year. The word Calendar consist of two words 1 Cal ( in Pashto means Year in Hindi and Persian is Sal- also means Year A day (symbol d is a unit of Time equivalent to 24 Hours and the duration of a single Rotation of planet Earth with respect to the The month is a unit of Time, used with Calendars which is approximately as long as some natural period related to the motion of the Moon; A year (from Old English gēr) is the time between two recurrences of an event related to the Orbit of the Earth around the Sun Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture The most common modern calendar is based on the Roman calendar, which divided the year into twelve months of alternating thirty and thirty-one days apiece. The Gregorian calendar is the most widely used Calendar in the world today The Roman calendar changed its form several times in the time between the foundation of Rome and the fall of the Roman Empire. In 46 BC Julius Caesar instigated calendar reform and adopted a calendar based upon the 365 1/4 day year length originally proposed by 4th century BC Greek astronomer Callippus. Year 46 BC was the last year of the pre-Julian calendar. This year had 445 days due to the errors that had accumulated in the pre-Julian calendar The Julian calendar, a reform of the Roman calendar, was introduced by Julius Caesar in 46 BC and came into force in 45 BC (709 Ab urbe condita A leap year (or intercalary year) is a year containing one or more extra days (or in the case of Lunisolar calendars an extra month in order to keep the Callippus or Calippus ( Greek: Κάλλιπος ca 370 BC&ndashca

The Bible contains a number of unsophisticated statements on the position of the Earth in the universe and the nature of the stars and planets; see Biblical cosmology. Etymology According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bible is from Latin biblia, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin Cosmology|Science and the Bible The various authors of the Hebrew Bible ( Tanakh) provide sporadic glimpses of their insight regarding

Mesopotamia

Main article: Babylonian astronomy

Further information: Babylonian astrology and Babylonian calendar

The origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, the "land between the rivers" Tigris and Euphrates, where the ancient kingdoms of Sumer, Assyria, and Babylonia were located. Babylonian astronomy refers to the astronomical theories and methods that were developed in ancient Mesopotamia, the "land between the rivers" Tigris In Babylonia as well as in Assyria as a direct offshoot of Babylonian culture (or as we might also term it "Euphratean" culture Astrology takes its The Babylonian calendar was a Lunisolar calendar with years consisting of 12 Lunar months each beginning when a new crescent moon was first sighted low Western culture (sometimes equated with Western Civilization) are terms which are used to refer to Cultures of European origin Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding The Tigris is the eastern member of the two great Rivers that define Mesopotamia, along with the Euphrates, which flows from the mountains of southeastern The Euphrates ( ( Arabic: ar نهر الفرات; Turkish: tr Fırat Syriac: syr ܦܪܬ; Hebrew: he פרת Sumer ( Sumerian: sux-Latn [[Ki (earth ki]]-[[EN (cuneiform en]]-'''ĝir15''', Akkadian: Šumeru; possibly Biblical Shinar Early history The most Neolithic site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the Hassuna culture Babylonia was an Amorite state in lower Mesopotamia (modern southern Iraq) with Babylon as its capital A form of writing known as cuneiform emerged among the Sumerians around 3500-3000 BC. The Sumerians only practiced a basic form of astronomy, but they had an important influence on the sophisticated astronomy of the Babylonians. Astral theology, which gave planetary gods an important role in Mesopotamian mythology and religion, began with the Sumerians. Mesopotamian mythology is the collective name given to Sumerian Akkadian Assyrian and Babylonian mythologies from the land between the Tigris The Religions of the Ancient Near East were mostly Polytheistic, with some early examples of emerging Henotheism ( Atenism, early They also used a sexagesimal (base 60) place-value number system, which simplified the task of recording very large and very small numbers. Sexagesimal ( base-sixty) is a Numeral system with sixty as the base. The modern practice of dividing a circle into 360 degrees, of 60 minutes each, began with the Sumerians. This article describes the unit of angle For other meanings see Degree. For more information, see the articles on Babylonian numerals and mathematics. Babylonian numerals were written in cuneiform, using a wedge-tipped reed Stylus to make a mark on a soft Clay tablet which would be exposed Babylonian mathematics refers to any mathematics of the peoples of Mesopotamia (ancient Iraq) from the days of the early Sumerians to the fall of

Classical sources frequently use the term Chaldeans for the astronomers of Mesopotamia, who were, in reality, priest-scribes specializing in astrology and other forms of divination. Astrology (from Greek grc ἄστρον astron, "constellation star" and grc -λογία -logia) is a group of Systems Divination (from Latin divinare "to be inspired by a god" related to Divine, Diva and Deus) is the attempt of ascertaining

The first evidence of recognition that astronomical phenomena are periodic and of the application of mathematics to their prediction is Babylonian. Tablets dating back to the Old Babylonian period document the application of mathematics to the variation in the length of daylight over a solar year. Centuries of Babylonian observations of celestial phenomena are recorded in the series of cuneiform tablets known as the Enūma Anu Enlil. The oldest significant astronomical text that we possess is Tablet 63 of the Enūma Anu Enlil, the Venus tablet of Ammi-saduqa, which lists the first and last visible risings of Venus over a period of about 21 years and is the earliest evidence that the phenomena of a planet were recognized as periodic. Ammi-Saduqa (or Ammisaduqa, Ammizaduga) was a king (ca 1582 – 1562 BC Short chronology) of the First Dynasty of Babylon. The MUL.APIN, contains catalogues of stars and constellations as well as schemes for predicting heliacal risings and the settings of the planets, lengths of daylight measured by a water-clock, gnomon, shadows, and intercalations. MULAPIN is a general compendium that deals with many diverse aspects of Babylonian astrology. The heliacal rising of a Star (or other body such as the Moon, a Planet or a Constellation) occurs when it first becomes visible above the eastern A water clock or clepsydra ( Greek kleptein to steal; hydro water) is any timekeeper operated by means of a regulated flow of liquid into (inflow The gnomon is the part of a Sundial that casts the Shadow. Gnomon (γνώμων is an Ancient Greek word meaning "indicator" "one who Intercalation is the insertion of a leap day week or month into some calendar years to make the calendar follow the seasons or moon phases The Babylonian GU text arranges stars in 'strings' that lie along declination circles and thus measure right-ascensions or time-intervals, and also employs the stars of the zenith, which are also separated by given right-ascensional differences. ^[1]

A significant increase in the quality and frequency of Babylonian observations appeared during the reign of Nabonassar (747-733 BC). Nabonassar (also Nabonasser, Nabu-nasir, Nebo-adon-Assur or Nabo-n-assar) founded a kingdom in Babylon in 747 BC The systematic records of ominous phenomena in astronomical diaries that began at this time allowed for the discovery of a repeating 18-year cycle of lunar eclipses, for example. The Greek astronomer Ptolemy later used Nabonassar's reign to fix the beginning of an era, since he felt that the earliest usable observations began at this time. Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca

The last stages in the development of Babylonian astronomy took place during the time of the Seleucid Empire (323-60 BC). The Seleucid Empire /sə'lusɪd/ ( 312 - 63 BC) was a Hellenistic empire i In the third century BC, astronomers began to use "goal-year texts" to predict the motions of the planets. These texts compiled records of past observations to find repeating occurrences of ominous phenomena for each planet. About the same time, or shortly afterwards, astronomers created mathematical models that allowed them to predict these phenomena directly, without consulting past records. A notable Babylonian astronomer from this time was Seleucus of Seleucia, who was a supporter of the heliocentric model. Seleucus (or Seleukos) of Seleucia (born c 190 BC fl 150s BC was a Babylonian astronomer from the Seleucia In Astronomy, heliocentrism is the theory that the Sun is at the center of the Solar System.

Babylonian astronomy was the basis for much of what was done in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy, in classical Indian astronomy, in Sassanian Iran, in Byzantium, in Syria, in Islamic astronomy, in Central Asia, and in Western Europe. Greek astronomy is the Astronomy of those who wrote in the Greek language in Classical antiquity. Indian astronomy —the earliest textual mention of which is given in the religious literature of India (2nd millennium BCE—became an established tradition by the 1st millennium BCE ^[2]

China

Main article: Chinese astronomy

See also: Book of Silk, Chinese astrology, Chinese astronomy, and Timeline of Chinese astronomy

The astronomy of East Asia began in China. Astronomy in China has a very long history Oracle bones from the Shang Dynasty ( 2nd millennium BC) record eclipses and novae The Book of Silk is an ancient Astronomy book made by Chinese astronomers around 400 BCE and found in the Mawangdui tomb of China in 1973 The Chinese Zodiac is a 12 year cycle Each year of the 12 year cycle is named after one of the original 12 animals Astronomy in China has a very long history Oracle bones from the Shang Dynasty ( 2nd millennium BC) record eclipses and novae This is a Timeline of Chinese records and investigations in Astronomy. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Solar term was completed in Warring States Period. A solar term is one of 24 points in traditional East Asian Lunisolar calendars that matches a particular astronomical event or signifies some natural phenomenon The Warring States Period ( also known as the Era of Warring States covers the period from some time in the 5th century BC to the unification of China by the The knowledge of Chinese astronomy was introduced into East Asia.

Astronomy in China has a long history. Detailed records of astronomical observations were kept from about the 6th century BCE, until the introduction of Western astronomy and the telescope in the 17th century. Chinese astronomers were able to precisely predict comets and eclipses. A comet is a small Solar System body that orbits the Sun and when close enough to the Sun exhibits a visible coma (atmosphere or a tail —

Much of early Chinese astronomy was for the purpose of timekeeping. The Chinese used a lunisolar calendar, but because the cycles of the Sun and the Moon are different, astronomers often prepared new calendars and made observations for that purpose.

Astrological divination was also an important part of astronomy. Astronomers took careful note of "guest stars" which suddenly appeared among the fixed stars. The fixed stars (from the Latin stellae fixae) are celestial objects that do not seem to move in relation to the other stars of the night sky They were the first to record a supernova, in the Astrological Annals of the Houhanshu in 185 A. D. Also, the supernova that created the Crab Nebula in 1054 is an example of a "guest star" observed by Chinese astronomers, although it was not recorded by their European contemporaries. The Crab Nebula  (catalogue designations M 1 NGC 1952 Taurus A is a Supernova remnant and Pulsar wind nebula in the Constellation Ancient astronomical records of phenomena like supernovae and comets are sometimes used in modern astronomical studies.

The world's first star catalogue was made by Gan De, a Chinese astronomer, in 4th century BC. A star catalogue, or star catalog, is an Astronomical catalogue that lists Stars In Astronomy, many stars are referred to simply by catalogue Gan De ( fl 4th century BC was a Chinese Astronomer / Astrologer born in the State of Qi also known as the Lord Gan (Gan Gong The 4th century BC started the first day of 400 BC and ended the last day of 301 BC.

This is an abridged timeline of Chinese records and investigations in astronomy. Definition A chronology may be either relative &mdashthat is locating related events relative to each other&mdashor ''absolute'' &mdashlocating China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study

• 4000 BCE - Astronomy used to orient houses at Banpo to the constellation Yingshi (part of Pegasus).
• 4000 BCE - Astronomical mosaics of the Dragon and Tiger flanked a male burial at Xishuipo, Puyang.
• 2300 BCE +/- 250 y - Yaodian (Book of Yao) records astronomical markers for calendrical purposes, using the leading-stars of the four mega-constellations.
• 2137 BCE - Classic of History; records the earliest known solar eclipse on October 22. The Classic of History ( is a compilation of documentary records related to events in ancient history of China A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between the Sun and the Earth so that the Sun is wholly or partially obscured Events 202 BC - Hannibal Barca, leader of the Carthaginians, is defeated by the Roman legions under Scipio Africanus
• ca. 2000 BCE - Chinese determine that Jupiter needs 12 years to complete one revolution of its orbit.
• ca. 1400 BCE - Chinese record the regularity of solar and lunar eclipses and the earliest known Solar prominence and two novas. A lunar eclipse occurs whenever the Moon passes through some portion of the Earth's shadow A prominence is a large bright feature extending outward from the Sun's surface often in a loop configuration A nova (pl novae or novas) is a Cataclysmic nuclear explosion caused by the accretion of hydrogen onto the surface of a White
• ca. 1200 BCE - Sky divided into twenty eight regions (Chinese constellation); for recognitions of the stars.
• ca. 1100 BCE - First determination of the spring equinox. An equinox is the event of the Sun passing over the Earth's equator in its annual cycle
• 776 BCE - The earliest reliable record of solar eclipse. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between the Sun and the Earth so that the Sun is wholly or partially obscured
• 613 BCE, July - A Comet, possibly Comet Halley, record in Spring and Autumn Annals. A comet is a small Solar System body that orbits the Sun and when close enough to the Sun exhibits a visible coma (atmosphere or a tail — Halley's Comet, officially designated 1P/Halley and also referred to as Comet Halley after Edmond Halley, is a Comet that can be seen every The Spring and Autumn Annals ( is the official chronicle of the State of Lu covering the period from 722 BCE to 481 BCE.
• 532 BCE - A nova was recorded in Records of the Grand Historian and Zuo Zhuan. A nova (pl novae or novas) is a Cataclysmic nuclear explosion caused by the accretion of hydrogen onto the surface of a White The Records of the Grand Historian, also known in English by the Chinese name 史記 or Shiji, written from 109 BC to 91 BC The Zuo Zhuan ( translated as the Chronicle of Zuo or the Commentary of Zuo, is the earliest Chinese work of narrative history and
• 28 BCE - Chinese history book Book of Han makes earliest known dated record of sunspot. The Book of Han ( is a classic Chinese Historical writing completed in 111 CE covering the history of Western Han from 206 BCE to A sunspot is a region on the Sun 's surface ( Photosphere) that is marked by intense magnetic activity which inhibits Convection, forming
• 78-139 CE - The astronomer, mathematician, and inventor Zhang Heng catalogued some 2500 stars in his lifetime, along with recognizing over 1000 constellations. Zhang Heng ( (CE 78–139 was an astronomer, mathematician, inventor, geographer, cartographer, artist, poet
• 185 CE - The earliest recorded and verifiable supernova of RCW 86
• 687 - Chinese make earliest known record of meteor shower. A meteor shower, some of which are known as a "meteor storm" or "meteor outburst" is a celestial event where a group of meteors are observed to radiate from one point
• 1054 - On July 4, Chinese astronomers noted the appearance of a guest star, the supernova now called the Crab Nebula, Messier's M1. A supernova (plural supernovae or supernovas) is a stellar Explosion. The Crab Nebula  (catalogue designations M 1 NGC 1952 Taurus A is a Supernova remnant and Pulsar wind nebula in the Constellation Charles Messier ( June 26, 1730 &ndash April 12, 1817) was a French astronomer most notable for publishing an
• 1088 - In his Dream Pool Essays, the polymath Chinese scientist Shen Kuo (1031-1095) wrote of his findings for the improved meridian measurement between the polestar and true north, which was an invaluable concept for aiding navigation by use of the magnetic compass. The Dream Pool Essays ( Pinyin: Meng Xi Bi Tan; Wade-Giles: Meng Ch'i Pi T'an Chinese: 夢溪筆談／梦溪笔谈 Shen Kuo or Shen Kua ( (1031&ndash1095 style name Cunzhong and pseudonym Mengqi Weng, was a Polymathic Chinese A pole star is a visible star especially a prominent one that is approximately aligned with the Earth 's Axis of rotation; that is a star whose apparent position noted by the Chinese Polymath Shen Kuo in the 11th century and possibly the egyptians over 6 millenia ago Navigation is the process of reading and controlling the movement of a craft or vehicle from one place to another A compass, magnetic compass or mariner's compass is a navigational instrument for determining direction relative to the earth's Magnetic poles It consists Shen Kuo also argued for spherical celestial bodies by using evidence of lunar eclipse and solar eclipse, which promoted spherical earth theory and went against flat earth theory. A lunar eclipse occurs whenever the Moon passes through some portion of the Earth's shadow A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between the Sun and the Earth so that the Sun is wholly or partially obscured The concept of a spherical Earth dates back to around the 6th century BC in ancient Greek philosophy and possibly ancient Indian philosophy. The idea of a flat Earth is the idea that the surface of the Earth is flat (a plane) rather than the view that it is a very close approximation of Along with his colleague Wei Pu, he accurately plotted the orbital paths of the sun, moon, and planets over a five year period, and supported retrogradation. Wei Pu (衛朴 Wade-Giles: Wei P'u) was an 11th century Chinese Astronomer of the Song Dynasty ( 960 - 1279 AD Direct motion is the motion of a Planetary body in a direction similar to that of other bodies within its system and is sometimes called prograde motion.

Greece and Hellenistic world

Main article: Greek astronomy

The Ancient Greeks developed astronomy, which they treated as a branch of mathematics, to a highly sophisticated level. Greek astronomy is the Astronomy of those who wrote in the Greek language in Classical antiquity. The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions The first geometrical, three-dimensional models to explain the apparent motion of the planets were developed in the 4th century BC by Eudoxus of Cnidus and Callippus of Cyzicus . The 4th century BC started the first day of 400 BC and ended the last day of 301 BC. Eudoxus of Cnidus ( Greek Εὔδοξος ὁ Κνίδιος (410 or 408 BC &ndash 355 or 347 BC was a Greek Astronomer, Mathematician Callippus or Calippus ( Greek: Κάλλιπος ca 370 BC&ndashca Their models were based on nested homocentric spheres centered upon the Earth. Their younger contemporary Heraclides Ponticus proposed that the Earth rotates around its axis. "Heraclides" redirects here The former Butterfly Genus of the same name is now included in Papilio.

A different approach to celestial phenomena was taken by natural philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. They were less concerned with developing mathematical predictive models than with developing an explanation of the reasons for the motions of the Cosmos. In his Timaeus Plato described the universe as a spherical body divided into circles carrying the planets and governed according to harmonic intervals by a world soul. ^[3] Aristotle, drawing on the mathematical model of Eudoxus, proposed that the universe was made of a complex system of concentric spheres, whose circular motions combined to carry the planets around the earth. The celestial spheres or celestial orbs were the fundamental celestial entities of the cosmological celestial mechanics first invented by Eudoxus, and developed by Aristotle ^[4] This basic cosmological model prevailed, in various forms, until the Sixteenth century.

Greek geometrical astronomy developed away from the model of concentric spheres to employ more complex models in which an eccentric circle would carry around a smaller circle, called an epicycle which in turn carried around a planet. In the Ptolemaic system of Astronomy, the epicycle (literally on the circle in Greek) was a geometric model used to explain the variations in In the Ptolemaic system of Astronomy, the epicycle (literally on the circle in Greek) was a geometric model used to explain the variations in The first such model is attributed to Apollonius of Perga and further developments in it were carried out in the 2nd century BC by Hipparchus of Nicea. The 2nd century BC started the first day of 200 BC and ended the last day of 101 BC. Hipparchus ( Greek; ca 190 BC &ndash ca 120 BC was a Greek Astronomer, Geographer, and Mathematician of the Hellenistic Hipparchus made a number of other contributions, including the first measurement of precession and the compilation of the first star catalog in which he proposed our modern system of apparent magnitudes. Precession refers to a change in the direction of the axis of a rotating object The apparent magnitude ( m) of a celestial body is a measure of its Brightness as seen by an observer on Earth, normalized to the value

The study of astronomy by the ancient Greeks was not limited to Greece itself but was further developed in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, in the Hellenistic states and in particular in Alexandria. However, the work was still done by ethnic Greeks. In the 3rd century BC Aristarchus of Samos was the first to suggest a heliocentric system, although only fragmentary descriptions of his idea survive. Aristarchus (Ἀρίσταρχος 310 BC - ca 230 BC) was a Greek Astronomer and Mathematician, born on the island of In Astronomy, heliocentrism is the theory that the Sun is at the center of the Solar System. ^[5] Eratosthenes, using the angles of shadows created at widely-separated regions, estimated the circumference of the Earth with great accuracy. Eratosthenes of Cyrene ( Greek; 276 BC - 194 BC was a Greek Mathematician, Poet, athlete, Geographer and EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 ^[6]

The Antikythera mechanism, an ancient Greek device for calculating the movements of planets, dates from about 80 B. The Antikythera mechanism (ˌæntɪkɪˈθɪərə an-ti-ki- theer -uh is an ancient mechanical Calculator (also described as the first known " mechanical The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca C. , and was the first ancestor of an astronomical computer. A computer is a Machine that manipulates data according to a list of instructions. It was discovered in an ancient shipwreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete. Antikythera (Αντικύθηρα (ˌæntɪkɪˈθɪərə an-ti-ki-theer-uh ˌɑndiˈkiθirɑˌɑndiˈkiθirɑ ahn-dee-kee-thee-rah is a Greek Island Kythira (Κύθηρα Cythera, Kythera, Cerigo is an Island of Greece, historically part of the Ionian Islands. Crete ( Greek: Κρήτη transliteration: Krētē, modern transliteration Kriti) is the largest of the Greek islands and the The device became famous for its use of a differential gear, previously believed to have been invented in the 16th century, and the miniaturization and complexity of its parts, comparable to a clock made in the 18th century. This article deals with the concept of a differential in mechanical engineering. The 18th century lasted from 1701 to 1800 in the Gregorian calendar, in accordance with the Anno Domini / Common Era numbering system The original mechanism is displayed in the Bronze collection of the National Archaeological Museum of Athens, accompanied by a replica. The National Archaeological Museum of Athens (Εθνικό Αρχαιολογικό Μουσείο in Athens houses some of the most important artifacts from a variety

Depending on the historian's viewpoint, the acme or corruption of physical Greek astronomy is seen with Ptolemy of Alexandria, who wrote the classic comprehensive presentation of geocentric astronomy, the Megale Syntaxis (Great Synthesis), better known by its Arabic title Almagest, which had a lasting effect on astronomy up to the Renaissance. Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca Almagest is the Latin form of the Arabic name ( الكتاب المجسطي, al-kitabu-l-mijisti, i The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere In his Planetary Hypotheses Ptolemy ventured into the realm of cosmology, developing a physical model of his geometric system, in a universe many times smaller than the more realistic conception of Aristarchus of Samos four centuries earlier. Aristarchus (Ἀρίσταρχος 310 BC - ca 230 BC) was a Greek Astronomer and Mathematician, born on the island of

India

Main article: Indian astronomy

Further information: Jyotisha

Ancient Indian astrology is based upon sidereal calculations. Indian astronomy —the earliest textual mention of which is given in the religious literature of India (2nd millennium BCE—became an established tradition by the 1st millennium BCE Jyotiṣa ( Sanskrit jyotiṣa, from jyótis- "light heavenly body" also spelled Jyotish and Jyotisha in English The sidereal astronomy is based upon the stars and the sidereal period is the time that it takes the object to make one full orbit around the Sun, relative to the stars. A star is a massive luminous ball of plasma. The nearest star to Earth is the Sun, which is the source of most of the Energy on Earth In Physics, an orbit is the gravitationally curved path of one object around a point or another body for example the gravitational orbit of a planet around a star The Sun (Sol is the Star at the center of the Solar System. A star is a massive luminous ball of plasma. The nearest star to Earth is the Sun, which is the source of most of the Energy on Earth It can be traced to the final centuries BC with the Vedanga Jyotisha attributed to Lagadha, one of the circum-Vedic texts, which describes rules for tracking the motions of the Sun and the Moon for the purposes of ritual. The Vedanga Jyotisha, is an Indian text on Jyotisha ( Indian astronomy) redacted by Lagadha (लगध The Vedanga Jyotisha, is an Indian text on Jyotisha ( Indian astronomy) redacted by Lagadha (लगध After formation of Indo-Greek kingdoms, Indian astronomy was influenced by Hellenistic astronomy (adopting the zodiacal signs or rāśis). The Indo-Greek Kingdom (or sometimes Graeco-Indian Kingdom) covered various parts of the northwest and northern Indian subcontinent during the last two centuries Zodiac denotes an annual cycle of twelve stations along the Ecliptic, the apparent path of the sun across the heavens through the Constellations that divide the ecliptic

Around 500 CE, Aryabhata presented a mathematical system that took the Earth to spin on its axis and considered the motions of the planets with respect to the Sun. Events By Place Europe Possible date for the Battle of Mons Badonicus: Romano-British and Celts defeat an Anglo-Saxon Āryabhaṭa ( Devanāgarī: आर्यभट (AD 476 &ndash 550 is the first in the line of great mathematician-astronomers from the classical age of Indian mathematics He also made an accurate approximation of the Earth's circumference and diameter, and also discovered how the lunar eclipse and solar eclipse happen. The circumference is the distance around a closed Curve. Circumference is a kind of Perimeter. Geometry, a diameter of a Circle is any straight Line segment that passes through the center of the circle and whose Endpoints are on the A lunar eclipse occurs whenever the Moon passes through some portion of the Earth's shadow A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between the Sun and the Earth so that the Sun is wholly or partially obscured He gives the radius of the planetary orbits in terms of the radius of the Earth/Sun orbit as essentially their periods of rotation around the Sun. Remote Authentication Dial In User Service ( RADIUS) is a networking protocol that provides centralized access authorization and accounting management for people or computers In Physics, an orbit is the gravitationally curved path of one object around a point or another body for example the gravitational orbit of a planet around a star He was also the earliest to discover that the orbits of the planets around the Sun are ellipses. In Mathematics, an ellipse (from the Greek ἔλλειψις literally absence) is a Conic section, the locus of points in a [1]

Brahmagupta (598-668) was the head of the astronomical observatory at Ujjain and during his tenure there wrote a text on astronomy, the Brahmasphutasiddhanta in 628. Brahmagupta ( (598–668 was an Indian mathematician and astronomer. An observatory is a location used for observing terrestrial and/or celestial events WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Ujjain ( Hindi:उज्जैन (also known as Ujain, Ujjayini, Avanti The main work of Brahmagupta, Brahmasphuta-siddhanta (The Opening of the Universe, written in the year 628, contains some remarkably advanced ideas including Events By Place Europe Pippin of Landen becomes Mayor of the Palace in Austrasia. He was the earliest to use algebra to solve astronomical problems. Algebra is a branch of Mathematics concerning the study of structure, relation, and Quantity. He also developed methods for calculations of the motions and places of various planets, their rising and setting, conjunctions, and the calculation of eclipses. Conjunction is a term used in Positional astronomy and Astrology.

Bhaskara (1114-1185) was the head of the astronomical observatory at Ujjain, continuing the mathematical tradition of Brahmagupta. He wrote the Siddhantasiromani which consists of two parts: Goladhyaya (sphere) and Grahaganita (mathematics of the planets). He also calculated the time taken for the Earth to orbit the sun to 9 decimal places.

Other important astronomers from India include Madhava, Nilakantha Somayaji and Jyeshtadeva, who were members of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics from the 14th century to the 16th century. Mādhava of Sangamagrama (born as Irinjaatappilly Madhavan Namboodiri) (c Nilakantha Somayaji ( Malayalam: നീലകണ്ഠ സോമയാജി hindi नीलकण्ठ सोमयाजि (1444-1544 from Kerala, was a major Jyestadeva (ജ്യേഷ്ഠദേവ(ന് (1500 &ndash 1575 was an astronomer of the Kerala school founded by Madhava of Sangamagrama and The Buddhist University of Nalanda offered formal courses in astronomical studies. Nālandā is the name of an ancient University in Bihar, India.

Mesoamerican civilizations

Main articles: Maya calendar and Aztec calendar

Maya astronomical codices include detailed tables for calculating phases of the Moon, the recurrence of eclipses, and the appearance and disappearance of Venus as morning and evening star. The Maya calendar is a system of distinct Calendars and Almanacs used by the Maya civilization of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, and by The Aztec calendar is the Calendar system that was used by the Aztecs as well as other Pre-Columbian peoples of central Mexico. The Maya civilization is a Mesoamerican Civilization, noted for the only known fully developed written language of the Pre-Columbian Americas Maya codices (singular Codex) are folding Books stemming from the Pre-Columbian Maya civilization, written in Maya hieroglyphic Lunar phase (or Moon phase refers to the appearance of the illuminated portion of the Moon as seen by an observer usually on Earth The VENUS ( V ictoria E xperimental N etwork U nder the S ea project is a cabled sea floor observatory operated by the University The VENUS ( V ictoria E xperimental N etwork U nder the S ea project is a cabled sea floor observatory operated by the University The Maya based their calendrics in the carefully calculated cycles of the Pleiades, the Sun, the Moon, Venus, Jupiter, Saturn, Mars, and also they had a precise description of the eclipses as depicted in the Dresden Codex, as well as the ecliptic or zodiac, and the Milky Way was crucial in their Cosmology. The Maya calendar is a system of distinct Calendars and Almanacs used by the Maya civilization of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, and by The Pleiades (ˈpliːədiːz or /ˈplaɪədiːz/ also known as M 45, the '''Seven Sisters''', Seven Stars, SED, Matariki The Sun (Sol is the Star at the center of the Solar System. The VENUS ( V ictoria E xperimental N etwork U nder the S ea project is a cabled sea floor observatory operated by the University Maya codices (singular Codex) are folding Books stemming from the Pre-Columbian Maya civilization, written in Maya hieroglyphic The Milky Way (a translation of the Latin Via Lactea, in turn derived from the Greek Γαλαξίας (Galaxias sometimes referred to simply (Source:Maya Astronomy). A number of important Maya structures are believed to have been oriented toward the extreme risings and settings of Venus. To the ancient Maya, Venus was the patron of war and many recorded battles are believed to have been timed to the motions of this planet. Mars is also mentioned in preserved astronomical codices and early mythology. Maya mythology is part of Mesoamerican mythology and comprises all those Mayan tales in which personified forces of nature deities and the heroes interacting with these play the main ^[7]

Although the Maya calendar was not tied to the Sun, John Teeple has proposed that the Maya calculated the solar year to somewhat greater accuracy than the Gregorian calendar. The Maya calendar is a system of distinct Calendars and Almanacs used by the Maya civilization of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, and by John Edgar Teeple (1874-1931 was a Chemical engineer who received the Perkin Medal in 1927 for his work on Potash during World War I A tropical year (also known as a solar year) is the length of time that the Sun takes to return to the same position in the cycle of seasons as seen from Earth The Gregorian calendar is the most widely used Calendar in the world today ^[8] Both astronomy and an intricate numerological scheme for the measurement of time were vitally important components of Maya religion. The Maya civilization is a Mesoamerican Civilization, noted for the only known fully developed written language of the Pre-Columbian Americas

Western European Astronomy in the Middle Ages

After the significant contributions of Greek scholars to the development of astronomy, it entered a relatively static era in Western Europe from the Roman era through the Twelfth century. This lack of progress has led some astronomers to assert that nothing happened in Western European astronomy during the Middle Ages. ^[9] Recent investigations, however, have revealed a more complex picture of the study and teaching of astronomy in the period from the Fourth to the Sixteenth centuries. ^[10]

Western Europe entered the Middle Ages with great difficulties that affected the continent's intellectual production. Western Europe at its most general meaning means 'all the countries in the West of Europe ' The advanced astronomical treatises of classical antiquity were written in Greek, and with the decline of knowledge of that language, only simplified summaries and practical texts were available for study. Classical antiquity (also the classical era or classical period) is a broad term for a long period of cultural History centered on the Mediterranean Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly The most influential writers to pass on this ancient tradition in Latin were Macrobius, Pliny, Martianus Capella, and Calcidius. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. This article is about Macrobius the author for Macrobius the bishop of Seleucia and Calycadnum see Macrobius of Seleucia Ambrosius Theodosius Macrobius "Martianus" redirects here For the beetle Genus, see Martianus (beetle. Calcidius was a fourth century Christian who translated the first part (to 53c of Plato 's Timaeus from Greek into Latin ^[11] In the Sixth Century Bishop Gregory of Tours noted that he had learned his astronomy from reading Martianus Capella, and went on to employ this rudimentary astronomy to describe a method by which monks could determine the time of prayer at night by watching the stars. Saint Gregory of Tours ( November 30, c 538 &ndash November 17, 594) was a Gallo-Roman historian and bishop of Tours ^[12]

In the Seventh Century the English monk Bede of Jarrow published an influential text, On the Reckoning of Time, providing churchmen with the practical astronomical knowledge needed to compute the proper date of Easter using a procedure called computus. Bede (ˈbiːd (also Saint Bede, the Venerable Bede, or (from Latin Beda (beda (c De temporum ratione ( English: On The Reckoning Of Time) is a treatise written in Latin by the Northumbrian Anglo-Saxon Easter ( Greek: Πάσχα Pascha or Pasxa) is the most important religious feast in the Christian Liturgical year. Computus ( Latin for Computation) is the Calculation of the date of Easter in the Christian calendar. This text remained an important element of the education of Clergy from the Seventh Century until well after the rise of the Universities in the Twelfth Century. This article is about Western European institutions See also Medieval university (Asia and Byzantine university Medieval university The Renaissance of the 12th century was a period of many changes during the High Middle Ages. ^[13]

The range of surviving ancient Roman writings on astronomy and the teachings of Bede and his followers began to be studied in earnest during the revival of learning sponsored by the emperor Charlemagne. The Carolingian Renaissance was a period of intellectual and cultural revival occurring in the late eighth and ninth centuries with the peak of the activities Charlemagne (ˈʃɑrlɨmeɪn Carolus Magnus or Karolus Magnus meaning Charles the Great) (747 – 28 January 814 was King of the Franks from 768 to his ^[14] By the Ninth Century rudimentary techniques for calculating the position of the planets were circulating in Western Europe; medieval scholars recognized their technical flaws, but texts describing these techniques continued to be copied, reflecting an interest in the motions of the planets and in their astrological significance. ^[15]

Building on this astronomical background, in the Tenth Century European scholars such as Gerbert of Aurillac began to travel to the Spain and Sicily to seek out learning which they had heard existed in the Arabic-speaking world. Pope Sylvester II, or Silvester II (c 946&ndash May 12, 1003) born Gerbert d'Aurillac, was a prolific scholar teacher and Pope There they first encountered various practical astronomical techniques concerning the calendar and timekeeping, most notably those dealing with the astrolabe. The astrolabe is a historical Astronomical instrument used by classical astronomers, Navigators Soon scholars such as Hermann of Reichenau were writing texts in Latin on the uses and construction of the astrolabe and others, such as Walcher of Malvern, were using the astrolabe to observe the time of eclipses in order to test the validity of computistical tables. Hermann of Reichenau (also called Hermannus Contractus or Hermannus Augiensis) ( 1013 July 18 &ndash 1054 September 24) Walcher of Malvern, also known as Walcher of Lorraine or Doctor Walcher, was the second Prior of Malvern (in England) and a noted ^[16]

By the Twelfth century, scholars were traveling to Spain and Sicily to seek out more advanced astronomical and astrological texts, which they translated from Arabic and Greek to further enrich the astronomical knowledge of Western Europe. The Renaissance of the 12th century saw a major search by European scholars for new learning which led them to the Arabic fringes of Europe especially to Islamic The arrival of these new texts coincided with the rise of the universities in medieval Europe, in which they soon found a home. ^[17] Reflecting the introduction of astronomy into the universities, John of Sacrobosco wrote a series of influential introductory astronomy textbooks: the Sphere, a Computus, a text on the Quadrant, and another on Calculation. Johannes de Sacrobosco or Sacro Bosco ( John of Holywood, c 1195 &ndash c De sphaera mundi ( Latin meaning On the Sphere of the World, sometimes rendered The Sphere of the Cosmos; the Latin title is also given as A quadrant is an instrument that is used to measure angles up to 90° ^[18]

In the 14th century, Nicole Oresme, later bishop of Liseux, showed that neither the scriptural texts nor the physical arguments advanced against the movement of the Earth were demonstrative and adduced the argument of simplicity for the theory that the earth moves, and not the heavens. Nicole Oresme, also known as Nicolas Oresme, Nicholas Oresme, or Nicolas d'Oresme (c However, he concluded "everyone maintains, and I think myself, that the heavens do move and not the earth: For God hath established the world which shall not be moved. "^[19] In the 15th century, cardinal Nicholas of Cusa suggested in some of his scientific writings that the Earth revolved around the Sun, and that each star is itself a distant sun. He was not, however, describing a scientifically verifiable theory of the universe.

Islamic astronomy

Main article: Islamic astronomy

The Arabic world under Islam had become highly cultured, and many important works of knowledge from ancient Greece were translated into Arabic, used and stored in libraries throughout the area. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca The late 9th century Persian astronomer al-Farghani wrote extensively on the motion of celestial bodies. The 9th century is the period from 801 to 900 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. layout and formatting it should ensure no clashes with the top of the infobox His work was translated into Latin in the 12th century.

In the late 10th century, a huge observatory was built near Tehran, Iran, by the astronomer al-Khujandi who observed a series of meridian transits of the Sun, which allowed him to calculate the obliquity of the ecliptic, also known as the tilt of the Earth's axis relative to the Sun. Tehran (or Teheran) ( Persian: تهران Tehrān) is the capital and largest City of Iran, and the administrative center of For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. This article is about the astronomical concept For other uses of the word see Meridian. The term transit or astronomical transit has three meanings in astronomy A transit is the astronomical event that occurs when one In Astronomy, axial tilt is the Inclination angle of a planet's rotational axis in relation to its orbital plane. In Persia, Omar Khayyám compiled many tables and performed a reformation of the calendar that was more accurate than the Julian and came close to the Gregorian. For the Thoroughbred racehorse see Omar Khayyam (horse Ghiyās od-Dīn Abol-Fath Omār ibn Ebrāhīm Khayyām Neyshābūri (غیاث الدین The word Calendar consist of two words 1 Cal ( in Pashto means Year in Hindi and Persian is Sal- also means Year The Julian calendar, a reform of the Roman calendar, was introduced by Julius Caesar in 46 BC and came into force in 45 BC (709 Ab urbe condita The Gregorian calendar is the most widely used Calendar in the world today An amazing feat was his calculation of the year to be 365. 24219858156 days long, which is accurate to the 6th decimal place.

Muslim advances in astronomy included the construction of the first observatory in Baghdad during the reign of Caliph al-Ma'mun,^[20] the collection and correction of previous astronomical data, resolving significant problems in the Ptolemaic model, the development of universal astrolabes,^[21] the invention of numerous other astronomical instruments, the beginning of astrophysics and celestial mechanics after Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir discovered that the heavenly bodies and celestial spheres were subject to the same physical laws as Earth,^[22] the first elaborate experiments related to astronomical phenomena and the first semantic distinction between astronomy and astrology by Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī,^[23] the use of exacting empirical observations and experimental techniques,^[24] the separation of natural philosophy from astronomy by Ibn al-Haytham,^[25] the first non-Ptolemaic models by Ibn al-Haytham and Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi, and the first empirical observational evidence of the Earth's rotation by Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī and Ali al-Qushji. An observatory is a location used for observing terrestrial and/or celestial events Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous The Caliph is the Head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah Abu Jafar al-Ma'mun ibn Harun (also spelled Almamon and el-Mâmoûn) ( September 14, 786 &ndash August 9, 833) (المأمون In Astronomy, the geocentric model of the Universe is the superseded theory that the Earth is the center of the universe and other The astrolabe is a historical Astronomical instrument used by classical astronomers, Navigators Astrophysics is the branch of Astronomy that deals with the Physics of the Universe, including the physical properties ( Luminosity, Celestial mechanics is the branch of Astrophysics that deals with the motions of Celestial objects The field applies principles of Physics, historically s are significant physical entities, associations or structures which current Science has confirmed to exist in Space. In Astronomy and Navigation, the celestial sphere is an imaginary rotating Sphere of "gigantic Radius " A physical law or scientific law is a Scientific generalization based on empirical Observations of physical behavior (i EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or Semantics is the study of meaning in communication The word derives from Greek σημαντικός ( semantikos) "significant" from Astrology (from Greek grc ἄστρον astron, "constellation star" and grc -λογία -logia) is a group of Systems A central concept in Science and the Scientific method is that all Evidence must be empirical, or empirically based that is dependent on evidence For the current in the 19th century German idealism see Naturphilosophie Natural philosophy or the philosophy of nature (from TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized Mu’ayyad al-Din al-’Urdi (d 1266 was an Arab Muslim astronomer, mathematician, architect and engineer working at the Maragheh Observation is either an activity of a living being (such as a Human) which senses and assimilates the Knowledge of a Phenomenon, or the recording of data Rotation period Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun (its mean solar day is 86400 Seconds of mean solar time ^[26]

Several Muslim astronomers also considered the possibility of the Earth's rotation on its axis and perhaps a heliocentric solar system. Rotation period Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun (its mean solar day is 86400 Seconds of mean solar time In Astronomy, heliocentrism is the theory that the Sun is at the center of the Solar System. ^[27][28] It is known that the Copernican heliocentric model in Nicolaus Copernicus' De revolutionibus was adapted from the geocentric model of Ibn al-Shatir and the Maragha school (including the Tusi-couple) in a heliocentric context,^[29] and that his arguments for the Earth's rotation were similar to those of Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī and Ali al-Qushji. See also Nicolaus Copernicus, Heliocentrism Earlier theories See also Heliocentrism Early traces of a Heliocentric model De revolutionibus orbium coelestium ( On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) first printed in 1543 in Nuremberg, is the seminal work on In Astronomy, the geocentric model of the Universe is the superseded theory that the Earth is the center of the universe and other Ala Al-Din Abu'l-Hasan Ali Ibn Ibrahim Ibn al-Shatir (1304 &ndash 1375 (ابن الشاطر was an Arab Muslim astronomer, mathematician, engineer Maragheh observatory ( Persian:رصدخانه مراغه Rasad Khaneh) is an Ancient Observatory, which was established in 1259 by The Tusi-couple is a mathematical device in which a small circle rotates inside a larger circle twice the radius of the smaller circle ^[26] Some have referred to the achievements of the Maragha school as a "Maragha Revolution", "Maragha School Revolution", or "Scientific Revolution before the Renaissance". ^[30]

The Copernican revolution

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) crafted his own telescope and discovered that our Moon had craters, that Jupiter had moons, that the Sun had spots, and that Venus had phases like our Moon.

The renaissance came to astronomy with the work of Nicolaus Copernicus, who proposed a heliocentric system, in which the planets revolved around the Sun and not the Earth. The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere In Astronomy, heliocentrism is the theory that the Sun is at the center of the Solar System. His De revolutionibus provided a full mathematical discussion of his system, using the geometrical techniques that had been traditional in astronomy since before the time of Ptolemy. De revolutionibus orbium coelestium ( On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) first printed in 1543 in Nuremberg, is the seminal work on Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca His work was later defended, expanded upon and modified by Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler. Galileo Galilei (15 February 1564 &ndash 8 January 1642 was a Tuscan ( Italian) Physicist, Mathematician, Astronomer, and Philosopher Johannes Kepler (ˈkɛplɚ ( December 27 1571 &ndash November 15 1630) was a German Mathematician, Astronomer

Galileo was among the first to use a telescope to observe the sky, and after constructing a 20x refractor telescope he discovered the four largest moons of Jupiter in 1610. A refracting or refractor telescope is a dioptric Telescope that uses a lens as its objective to form an image A refracting or refractor telescope is a dioptric Telescope that uses a lens as its objective to form an image The Galilean moons are the four moons of Jupiter discovered by Galileo Galilei. This was the first observation of satellites orbiting another planet. He also found that our Moon had craters and observed (and correctly explained) sunspots. In the broadest sense the term impact crater can be applied to any depression natural or manmade resulting from the high velocity impact of a projectile with larger body A sunspot is a region on the Sun 's surface ( Photosphere) that is marked by intense magnetic activity which inhibits Convection, forming Galileo noted that Venus exhibited a full set of phases resembling lunar phases. The phases of Venus vary from a thin crescent to full phase in 584 days Lunar phase (or Moon phase refers to the appearance of the illuminated portion of the Moon as seen by an observer usually on Earth Galileo argued that these observations supported the Copernican system and were, to some extent, incompatible with the favored model of the Earth at the center of the universe.

Uniting physics and astronomy

Table of astronomy, from the 1728 Cyclopaedia

Although the motions of celestial bodies had been qualitatively explained in physical terms since Aristotle introduced celestial movers in his Metaphysics and a fifth element in his On the Heavens, Johannes Kepler was the first to attempt to derive mathematical predictions of celestial motions from assumed physical causes. Cyclopaedia or A Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences ( folio, 2 vols Metaphysics is one of the principal works of Aristotle and the first major work of the branch of philosophy with the same name On the Heavens (or De Caelo) is Aristotle 's chief cosmological treatise it contains his astronomical theory Johannes Kepler (ˈkɛplɚ ( December 27 1571 &ndash November 15 1630) was a German Mathematician, Astronomer ^[31][32] Combining his physical insights with the unprecedentedly accurate naked-eye observations made by Tycho Brahe,^[33][34][35] Kepler discovered the three laws of planetary motion that now carry his name. Tycho Brahe, born Tyge Ottesen Brahe ( December 14 1546 &ndash October 24 1601) was a Danish nobleman In Astronomy, Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion are three mathematical laws that describe the motion of Planets in the Solar System.

Isaac Newton developed further ties between physics and astronomy through his law of universal gravitation. Sir Isaac Newton, FRS (ˈnjuːtən 4 January 1643 31 March 1727) Biography Early years See also Isaac Newton's early life and achievements Gravitation is a natural Phenomenon by which objects with Mass attract one another Realising that the same force that attracted objects to the surface of the Earth held the moon in orbit around the Earth, Newton was able to explain - in one theoretical framework - all known gravitational phenomena. In his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, he derived Kepler's laws from first principles. The Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ( Latin: "mathematical principles of natural philosophy" often Principia In Astronomy, Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion are three mathematical laws that describe the motion of Planets in the Solar System. First Principles is also the title of a work by Herbert Spencer. Newton's theoretical developments lay many of the foundations of modern physics.

Modern astronomy

At the end of the 19th century it was discovered that, when decomposing the light from the Sun, a multitude of spectral lines were observed (regions where there was less or no light). A spectral line is a dark or bright line in an otherwise uniform and continuous spectrum, resulting from an excess or deficiency of photons in a narrow frequency range compared Experiments with hot gases showed that the same lines could be observed in the spectra of gases, specific lines corresponding to unique elements. It was proved that the chemical elements found in the Sun (chiefly hydrogen and helium) were also found on Earth. A chemical element is a type of Atom that is distinguished by its Atomic number; that is by the number of Protons in its nucleus. Hydrogen (ˈhaɪdrədʒən is the Chemical element with Atomic number 1 Helium ( He) is a colorless odorless tasteless non-toxic Inert Monatomic Chemical During the 20th century spectrometry (the study of these lines) advanced, especially because of the advent of quantum physics, that was necessary to understand the observations. Spectroscopy was originally the study of the interaction between Radiation and Matter as a function of Wavelength (λ Quantum mechanics is the study of mechanical systems whose dimensions are close to the Atomic scale such as Molecules Atoms Electrons

Although in previous centuries noted astronomers were exclusively male, at the turn of the 20th century women began to play a role in the great discoveries. In this period prior to modern computers, women at the United States Naval Observatory (USNO), Harvard University, and other astronomy research institutions often served as human "computers," who performed the tedious calculations while scientists performed research requiring more background knowledge. The United States Naval Observatory ( USNO) is one of the oldest Scientific agencies in the United States. [2] A number of discoveries in this period were originally noted by the women "computers" and reported to their supervisors. For example, Henrietta Swan Leavitt discovered the cepheid variable star period-luminosity relation, Annie Jump Cannon organized the stellar spectral types according to stellar temperature, and Maria Mitchell discovered a comet using a telescope. Henrietta Swan Leavitt ( July 4 1868 &ndash December 12 1921) was an American Astronomer, and the Deaf daughter of a A Cepheid variable (pron ˈse-f(ē-id or ˈsē-f(ē-id or Cepheid is a member of a particular class of Variable stars notable for a fairly tight correlation Annie Jump Cannon ( December 11, 1863 &ndash April 13, 1941) was an American Astronomer whose cataloging work was instrumental In Astronomy, stellar classification is a classification of Stars based initially on photospheric temperature and its associated Spectral characteristics Maria Mitchell ( August 1 1818 &ndash June 28 1889) was an American Astronomer. (See [3] for more women astronomers. ) Some of these women received little or no recognition during their lives due to their lower professional standing in the field of astronomy. And although their discoveries are taught in classrooms around the world, few students of astronomy can attribute the works to their authors.

Cosmology and the expansion of the universe

Main article: Physical cosmology#History of physical cosmology

Most of our current knowledge was gained during the 20th century. Physical cosmology, as a branch of Astronomy, is the study of the large-scale structure of the Universe and is concerned with fundamental questions about its With the help of the use of photography, fainter objects were observed. Photography (fә'tɒgrәfi or fә'tɑːgrәfi (from Greek φωτο and γραφία is the process and Art of recording pictures by means of capturing Our sun was found to be part of a galaxy made up of more than 10¹⁰ stars (10 billion stars). A galaxy is a massive gravitationally bound system consisting of Stars an Interstellar medium of gas and dust, and Dark matter The existence of other galaxies, one of the matters of the great debate, was settled by Edwin Hubble, who identified the Andromeda nebula as a different galaxy, and many others at large distances and receding, moving away from our galaxy. This is about the infamous discussion of astronomy For the Dream Theater song about Stem cell research, see The Great Debate (song. Edwin Powell Hubble ( November 20, 1889 – September 28, 1953) was an American astronomer. The Andromeda Galaxy (ænˈdrɒmədə also known as Messier 31, M31, or NGC 224; often referred to as the Great Andromeda

Physical cosmology, a discipline that has a large intersection with astronomy, made huge advances during the 20th century, with the model of the hot big bang heavily supported by the evidence provided by astronomy and physics, such as the redshifts of very distant galaxies and radio sources, the cosmic microwave background radiation, Hubble's law and cosmological abundances of elements. Physical cosmology, as a branch of Astronomy, is the study of the large-scale structure of the Universe and is concerned with fundamental questions about its The Big Bang is the cosmological model of the Universe that is best supported by all lines of scientific evidence and Observation. In Physics and Astronomy, redshift occurs when Electromagnetic radiation – usually Visible light – emitted or reflected by Hubble's law is the statement in Physical cosmology that the Redshift in light coming from distant galaxies is proportional to their distance In Physical cosmology, Big Bang nucleosynthesis (or primordial nucleosynthesis) refers to the production of nuclei other than those of H-1 (i

New windows into the Cosmos open

Late in the 19th century, scientists began discovering forms of light which were invisible to the naked eye: X-Rays, gamma rays, radio waves, microwaves, ultraviolet radiation, and infrared radiation. X-radiation (composed of X-rays) is a form of Electromagnetic radiation. Gamma rays (denoted as &gamma) are a form of Electromagnetic radiation or light emission of frequencies produced by sub-atomic particle interactions Radio waves are electromagnetic waves occurring on the Radio frequency portion of the Electromagnetic spectrum. Microwaves are electromagnetic waves with Wavelengths ranging from 1 mm to 1 m or frequencies between 0 Ultraviolet ( UV) light is Electromagnetic radiation with a Wavelength shorter than that of Visible light, but longer than X-rays Infrared ( IR) radiation is Electromagnetic radiation whose Wavelength is longer than that of Visible light, but shorter than that of This had a major impact on astronomy, spawning the fields of infrared astronomy, radio astronomy, x-ray astronomy and finally gamma-ray astronomy. Infrared astronomy is the branch of Astronomy and Astrophysics which deals with objects visible in Infrared (IR radiation Radio astronomy is a subfield of Astronomy that studies celestial objects at radio frequencies. X-ray astronomy is an observational branch of Astronomy, which deals with the study of X-ray emission from celestial objects Gamma-ray astronomy is the astronomical study of the Cosmos with Gamma rays. With the advent of spectroscopy it was proved that other stars were similar to our own sun, but with a range of temperatures, masses and sizes. Spectroscopy was originally the study of the interaction between Radiation and Matter as a function of Wavelength (λ Temperature is a physical property of a system that underlies the common notions of hot and cold something that is hotter generally has the greater temperature Mass is a fundamental concept in Physics, roughly corresponding to the Intuitive idea of how much Matter there is in an object The existence of our galaxy, the Milky Way, as a separate group of stars was only proven in the 20th century, along with the existence of "external" galaxies, and soon after, the expansion of the universe seen in the recession of most galaxies from us. A galaxy is a massive gravitationally bound system consisting of Stars an Interstellar medium of gas and dust, and Dark matter The Milky Way (a translation of the Latin Via Lactea, in turn derived from the Greek Γαλαξίας (Galaxias sometimes referred to simply The Universe is defined as everything that Physically Exists: the entirety of Space and Time, all forms of Matter, Energy

Notes

See also

• Archaeoastronomy
• History of astrology
• History of astronomical interferometry
• History of supernova observation
• List of Astronomical Instrument Makers
• List of Observatories
• History of telescopes
• Hebrew astronomy

Historians of astronomy

• Scholars Past. Archaeoastronomy (also spelled archeoastronomy) is the study of how peoples in the past "have understood the phenomena in the sky how they used phenomena The history of Astrology encompasses a great span of human history and many cultures See also Astronomical interferometer William Herschel knew as early as 1779 (Herschel 1805 that Stars appeared much larger in telescopes than they The known history of supernova observation goes back to 185 CE when Supernova SN 185 appeared the oldest appearance of a supernova recorded by humankind The following is a list of astronomical instrument makers, along with lifespan and country of work if available A B C D E F G H I J Hebrew astronomy refers to any Astronomy written in Hebrew or by Hebrew speakers or translated into Hebrew Willy Hartner, Otto Neugebauer, B. L. van der Waerden
• Scholars Present. Otto Eduard Neugebauer ( May 26 1899 &ndash February 19 1990) was an Austrian - American Mathematician and Bartel Leendert van der Waerden ( February 2 1903, Amsterdam, Netherlands – January 12 1996, Zürich, Stephen G. Brush, Stephen J. Dick, Owen Gingerich, Bruce Stephenson, Michael Hoskin, Alexander R. Jones, Curtis A. Wilson
• Astronomer-historians. Dr Owen Jay Gingerich (1930- is a former Research Professor of Astronomy and of the History of Science at Harvard University, and a senior Astronomer J. B. J. Delambre, J. L. E. Dreyer, Donald Osterbrock, Carl Sagan, F. Richard Stephenson

References

• Aaboe, Asger. Jean Baptiste Joseph chevalier Delambre ( September 19, 1749 Amiens - August 19, 1822 Paris) was a French John Louis Emil Dreyer ( February 13 1852 &ndash September 14 1926) was a Danish - Irish Astronomer. Donald Edward Osterbrock ( July 13, 1924 - January 11, 2007) was an American Astronomer, best known for his work on Carl Edward Sagan ( November 9 1934 &ndash December 20 1996) was an American Astronomer, astrochemist, author Professor F Richard Stephenson (born 1941 is an Emeritus Professor at the Physics department and East Asian Studies department at the University of Durham Episodes from the Early History of Astronomy. Springer-Verlag 2001 ISBN 0-387-95136-9
• Aveni, Anthony F. Skywatchers of Ancient Mexico. University of Texas Press 1980 ISBN 0-292-77557-1
• Dreyer, J. L. E. History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler, 2nd edition. John Louis Emil Dreyer ( February 13 1852 &ndash September 14 1926) was a Danish - Irish Astronomer. Dover Publications 1953 (revised reprint of History of the Planetary Systems from Thales to Kepler, 1906)
• Eastwood, Bruce. The Revival of Planetary Astronomy in Carolingian and Post-Carolingian Europe, Variorum Collected Studies Series CS 279 Ashgate 2002 ISBN 0-86078-868-7
• Evans, James (1998), The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0195095391 .
• Antoine Gautier, L'âge d'or de l'astronomie ottomane, in L'Astronomie, (Monthly magazine created by Camille Flammarion in 1882), December 2005, volume 119. Nicolas Camille Flammarion ( February 26 1842 &ndash June 3 1925) was a French Astronomer and author
• Hodson, F. R. (ed. ). The Place of Astronomy in the Ancient World: A Joint Symposium of the Royal Society and the British Academy. Oxford University Press, 1974 ISBN 0-19-725944-8
• Hoskin, Michael. The History of Astronomy: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280306-9
• McCluskey, Stephen C. Astronomies and Cultures in Early Medieval Europe. Cambridge University Press 1998 ISBN 0-521-77852-2
• Neugebauer, Otto. Otto Eduard Neugebauer ( May 26 1899 &ndash February 19 1990) was an Austrian - American Mathematician and The Exact Sciences in Antiquity, 2nd edition. Dover Publications 1969
• Pannekoek, Anton. A History of Astronomy. Dover Publications 1989
• Pedersen, Olaf. Early Physics and Astronomy: A Historical Introduction, revised edition. Cambridge University Press 1993 ISBN 0-521-40899-7
• Pingree, David (1998), “Legacies in Astronomy and Celestial Omens”, in Dalley, Stephanie, The Legacy of Mesopotamia, Oxford University Press, pp. David Edwin Pingree ( January 2, 1933 - November 11, 2005) late University Professor and Professor of History of Mathematics and Classics at pp. 125 – 137, ISBN 0198149468 .
• Rochberg, Francesca (2004), The Heavenly Writing: Divination, Horoscopy, and Astronomy in Mesopotamian Culture, Cambridge University Press .
• Stephenson, Bruce. Kepler's Physical Astronomy, Studies in the History of Mathematics and Physical Sciences, 13. New York: Springer, 1987 ISBN 0-387-96541-6
• Walker, Christopher (ed. ). Astronomy before the telescope. British Museum Press 1996 ISBN 0-7141-1746-3

Refereed Journals

• DIO: The International Journal of Scientific History
• Journal for the History of Astronomy
• Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage

External links

• Astronomiae Historia / History of Astronomy at the Astronomical Institutes of Bonn University.
• Commission 41 (History of Astronomy) of the International Astronomical Union (IAU)
• Society for the History of Astronomy
• Mayan Astronomy
• Caelum Antiquum: Ancient Astronomy and Astrology at LacusCurtius
• The Antikythera Calculator (Italian and English versions) - Ing. Giovanni Pastore