History of South Asia | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Stone Age | before 3300 BCE | ||||
| Mature Harappan | 2600–1700 BCE | ||||
| Late Harappan | 1700–1300 BCE | ||||
| Iron Age | 1200–300 BCE | ||||
| Maurya Empire | • 321–184 BCE | ||||
| Middle Kingdoms | 230 BCE–1279 CE | ||||
| Satavahana | • 230 BCE–220 CE | ||||
| Gupta Empire | • 280–550 CE | ||||
| Islamic Sultanates | 1206–1596 | ||||
| Vijayanagara Empire | 1336-1565 | ||||
| Mughal Empire | 1526–1707 | ||||
| Maratha Empire | 1674-1818 | ||||
| Sikh Confederacy | 1716-1849 | ||||
| British India | 1858–1947 | ||||
| Modern States | since 1947 | ||||
| Timeline | |||||
The history of Pakistan as a modern nation began with independence from British India on 14 August 1947, although the region has been inhabited continuously for at least two million years;[1][2] its ancient history includes some of the oldest settlements of South Asia[3] and some of its major civilizations. Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and For usage see British rule in India British Raj ( rāj, lit "reign" in Hindustani) primarily refers to the British Events 1183 - Taira no Munemori and the Taira clan take the young Emperor Antoku and the three sacred treasures Year 1947 ( MCMXLVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1947 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [4][5] The political history of eventual birth of the country began in the aftermath of the Indian Rebellion of 1857, which culminated in 90 years of direct rule by the British Crown, and, subsequently, spawned a successful freedom struggle led by the Indian National Congress and the All India Muslim League. The Indian Rebellion of 1857 began as a mutiny of Sepoys of British East India Company 's army on the 10th of May 1857 in the town of Meerut, For usage see British rule in India British Raj ( rāj, lit "reign" in Hindustani) primarily refers to the British Indian National Congress-I (also known as the Congress Party and abbreviated INC) is a major Political party in India. The All India Muslim League ( Urdu: آل انڈیا مسلم لیگ Bengali:?????? ??? founded at Dhaka in 1906 was a political party in British The latter was founded in 1906 to protect Muslim interests and rose to popularity in the late 1930s amid fears of neglect and under-representation of Muslims in politics. On 29 December 1930, the poet Muhammad Iqbal called for an autonomous "state in northwestern India for Indian Muslims". Events 1170 - Thomas Becket: Thomas Becket Archbishop of Canterbury is assassinated inside Canterbury Cathedral by followers of King Henry II Year 1930 ( MCMXXX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display 1930 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [6] Muhammad Ali Jinnah espoused the Two Nation Theory and led the Muslim League to adopt the Lahore Resolution[7] of 1940, demanding the formation of an independent Pakistan. Muhammad Ali Jinnah Urdu: (December 25 1876 – September 11 1948 was a Pakistani politician and leader of the All India Muslim League who founded Pakistan The Two-Nation Theory was the basis for the Partition of India in 1947 The Lahore Resolution ( Qarardad-e-Lahore قرارداد لاھور commonly known as the Pakistan Resolution (قرارداد پاکستان Qarardad-e-Pakistan
Pakistan became independent as a Muslim-majority state with two wings to the east and northwest of India respectively. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion Independence resulted in communal riots across India and Pakistan — as millions of Muslims moved to Pakistan and millions of Hindus and Sikhs moved to India. The Partition of India was the partition of the British Indian Empire which led to the creation on August 14, 1947 and August 15, A Hindu ( Devanagari: हिन्दू is an adherent of the philosophies and scriptures of Hinduism, a set of religious, Philosophical Sikh (English or; ਸਿੱਖ sikkh, IPA) is the title and name given to an adherent of Sikhism. Disputes arose over several princely states including Jammu and Kashmir whose ruler had acceded to India following an invasion by tribesmen from Pakistan. For other uses see Principality, Other princely states A Princely State (also called Native State or Indian State) was a ( Dogri: जम्मू और कश्मीर Urdu: جموں و کشمیر is the northernmost state of India. This lead to the First Kashmir War (1948) which ended with India occupying roughly two-thirds of the state and Pakistan occupying the remainder. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1947, sometimes known as the First Kashmir War, was fought between India and Pakistan over the region of Kashmir from A republic was declared in 1956 but was stalled by a coup d'etat by Ayub Khan (1958–69), who ruled during a period of internal instability and a second war with India in 1965. Field Marshal Muhammad Ayub Khan ( Urdu / Pashto: محمد ايوب خان GCMG, MBE, HJ, NPk, ( May 14 The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 was a culmination of Skirmishes that took place between April 1965 and September 1965 between India and Pakistan. Economic and political dissent in East Pakistan led to violent political repression and tensions escalating into civil war[8] followed by the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 and ultimately the secession of East Pakistan as the independent state of Bangladesh. East Pakistan ( Bengali: পূর্ব পাকিস্তান Purbo Pakistan, Urdu: مشرقی پاکستان Mashriqi Pakistan) was The Bangladesh Liberation War (i ( Bengali: মুক্তিযুদ্ধ Muktijuddho) was an armed conflict between West Pakistan (later The Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 was a major military conflict between India and Pakistan. ( Bengali: বাংলাদেশ inc-Latn Bangladesh) officially [9]
Civilian rule resumed from 1972 to 1977 under Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, until he was deposed by General Zia-ul-Haq, who became the country's third military president. Zulfikar Ali Bhutto ( Urdu: ur '''ذوالفقار علی بھٹو''' Sindhi: ذوالفقار علي ڀُٽو, zʊlfɪqɑːɾ ɑli bɦʊʈːoː General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq ( Arabic: محمد ضياء الحق) (b Pakistan's secular policies were replaced by the Islamic Shariah legal code, which increased religious influences on the civil service and the military. Secularity ( adjective form secular) is the state of being separate from Religion. Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. With the death of General Zia in a plane crash in 1988, Benazir Bhutto, daughter of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, was elected as the first female Prime Minister of Pakistan. Benazir Bhutto ( Sindhi: بينظير ڀٽو Urdu: بینظیر بھٹو beːnəziːɾ bɦʊʈːoː (21 June 1953 &ndash 27 December 2007 was a The Prime Minister of Pakistan, in Urdu وزیر اعظم Wazir-e- Azam meaning "Grand Minister", is the Head of Government Over the next decade, she alternated power with Nawaz Sharif, as the country's political and economic situation worsened. Mian Muhammad Nawaz Sharif also known as Nawaz Sharif ( Urdu:) (born December 25, 1949 in Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan Military tensions in the Kargil conflict[10] with India were followed by a Pakistani military coup d'état in 1999 in which General Pervez Musharraf assumed executive powers. The Kargil War, also known as the Kargil conflict, was an armed conflict between India and Pakistan that took place between May and July In October 1999 General Pervez Musharraf, Chief of Army Staff of the Pakistani army launched a coup to topple Nawaz Sharif, then General (ret Pervez Musharraf ( (born 11 August 1943 NI(M, HI(M, TBt, is the former Military dictator and President of [11] In 2001, Musharraf named himself President after the forced resignation of Rafiq Tarar. The President of Pakistan ( Urdū: صدر Sadr-e-Mumlikat) is the Head of state of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. Muhammad Rafiq Tarar ( Urdu: محمد رفیق تارڑ) (b November 2, 1929) was President of Pakistan from January 1, After the 2002 parliamentary elections, Musharraf transferred executive powers to newly elected Prime Minister Zafarullah Khan Jamali, who was succeeded in the 2004 Prime-Ministerial election by Shaukat Aziz, followed by a temporary period in office by Chaudhry Shujaat Hussain. Mir Zafarullah Khan Jamali ( Urdu / Baloch: میر ظفراللہ خان جمالی) (born January 1, 1944) is a former Prime Minister Shaukat Aziz ( Urdu: شوکت عزیز) (born March 6, 1949 in Karachi, Pakistan) was the Prime Minister of Pakistan Chaudhry Shujaat Hussain ( Urdu: چودھری شجاعت حسین) (born January 27, 1946) is a politician from Pakistan who was the On 15 November 2007 the National Assembly completed its term and a caretaker government was appointed with the former Chairman of the Senate, Muhammad Mian Soomro as Prime Minister. Events 655 - Battle of Winwaed: Penda of Mercia is defeated by Oswiu of Northumbria. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. The National Assembly is the Lower house of the bicameral Parliament of Pakistan. Muhammadmian Soomro ( Sindhi: محمد میاں سومرو) (born August 19 1950) is a Pakistani politician who has been the Chairman The assassination of Benazir Bhutto resulted in the general elections being postponed until 18 February 2008. The assassination of Benazir Bhutto occurred on December 27 2007 in Rawalpindi, Pakistan. Events 3102 BC - Epoch (origin of the Kali Yuga. 1229 - The Sixth Crusade: Frederick II Holy 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
Prehistory
- See also: Vedic period, Kushan Empire, Indo-Scythians, Indo-Parthian Kingdom, and Gupta Empire
Mehrgarh, (7000-5500 BCE), on the Kachi plain of Balochistan, is an important Neolithic site discovered in 1974, with early evidence of farming and herding,[12] and dentistry. Mehrgarh, ( Urdu: مﮩرگڑھ) one of the most important Neolithic (7000 BC to 3200 BC sites in Archaeology, lies on what The Indus Valley Civilization (Mature period 2600&ndash1900 BCE abbreviated IVC, was an ancient Civilization that flourished in the Indus River basin The Maurya Empire ( 322 – 185 BCE) ruled by the Mauryan dynasty was a geographically extensive and powerful political and military The Gr(aeco-Bactrian Kingdom was the easternmost part of the Hellenistic world covering Bactria and Sogdiana in Central Asia from 250 The Indo-Greek Kingdom (or sometimes Graeco-Indian Kingdom) covered various parts of the northwest and northern Indian subcontinent during the last two centuries The Vedic Period (or Vedic Age) is the period in the History of India during which the Vedas, the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism, were being The Kushan Empire (c 1st &ndash 3rd centuries) was a Bactrian state that at its cultural zenith Circa 105 &ndash 250 The Indo-Scythians are a branch of the Indo-Iranian Sakas ( Scythians) who migrated from southern Siberia into Bactria, The Indo-Parthian Kingdom was established during the 1st century by Gondophares, and at its greatest extent extended into areas that are in present-day Afghanistan The Gupta Empire ( Hindi: गुप्त राजवंश was ruled by members of the Gupta dynasty from around 320 to 550 C Mehrgarh, ( Urdu: مﮩرگڑھ) one of the most important Neolithic (7000 BC to 3200 BC sites in Archaeology, lies on what Balochistan or Baluchistan is an arid Region located in the Iranian Plateau in Southwest The Neolithic (from Greek νεολιθικός — neolithikos from νέος neos, "new" + λίθος lithos [3] Early residents lived in mud brick houses, stored grain in granaries, fashioned tools with copper ore, cultivated barley, wheat, jujubes and dates, and herded sheep, goats and cattle, while later residents (5500-2600 BCE) engaged in crafts, including flint knapping, tanning, bead production, and metalworking. The Chalcolithic (Greek khalkos + lithos ' Copper stone' period or Copper Age period known as the '''Eneolithic''' ('''Æneolithic''' is a Ziziphus zizyphus (from Greek ζίζυφον - zizuphon, syn Z A knapper is a person who shapes Flint, Chert, Obsidian or other stone through the process of knapping or Lithic reduction to manufacture Tanning is the process of converting Putrescible skin into non-putrescible Leather, usually with Tannin, an Acidic Chemical compound Metalworking is craft and practice of working with Metals to create individual parts assemblies or large scale structures The site was occupied continuously until about 2600 BCE,[13] but climatic changes between 2600 and 2000 BCE caused the area to become more arid. Mehrgarh was abandoned in favour of the Indus valley,[14] where a new civilization was in the early stages of development. The Indus Valley Civilization (Mature period 2600&ndash1900 BCE abbreviated IVC, was an ancient Civilization that flourished in the Indus River basin [15]
The Indus Valley civilization developed between 3300-1700 BCE on the banks of the Indus River and at its peak had as many as five million inhabitants in hundreds of settlements extending as far as the Arabian Sea, southern and eastern Afghanistan, southeastern Iran and the Himalayas. The Indus Valley Civilization (Mature period 2600&ndash1900 BCE abbreviated IVC, was an ancient Civilization that flourished in the Indus River basin The Indus River { Sanskrit: सिन्धु Sindhu; Urdu: urd {{Nastaliq سندھ}} Sindh; Sindhi: snd The Arabian Sea ( Arabic: بحر العرب transliterated: Baḥr al-'Arab Sanskrit: सिन्धु सागर transliterated: Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. [16] The major urban centers were at Dholavira, Harappa, Lothal, Mohenjo-daro, and Rakhigarhi, as well as an offshoot called the Kulli culture (2500-2000 BCE) in southern Balochistan, which had similar settlements, pottery and other artifacts. Dholavira, an ancient metropolitan city, and locally known as Kotada Timba Prachin Mahanagar Dholavira, is one of the largest and most prominent archaeological sites Harappa ( Urdu:, Hindi: हड़प्पा) is a City in Punjab, northeast Pakistan, about 35km (22 miles southwest Lothal ( Gujarātī: લોથલ ˈloːtʰəl Eng Mound of the Dead was one of the most prominent cities of the ancient Indus valley civilization. Mohenjo-daro (موئن جودڑو موئن جو دڙو मोहन जोदड़ो Mound of the Dead was one of the largest city-settlements of the Indus Valley Civilization Rakhigarhi, or Rakhi Garhi, is a village in Hisar District in the northwest Indian state of Haryana, around 150 kilometers from Delhi The Kulli culture was a prehistoric culture in Southern Baluchistan Pakistan ( Gedrosia) ca The Indus Valley civilisation has been tentatively identified as proto-Dravidian, but this cannot be confirmed until the Indus script is fully deciphered. Dravidian peoples refers to the peoples that natively speak languages belonging to the Dravidian language family. The term Indus script (Harappan script refers to short strings of symbols associated with the Harappan civilization ( Indus Valley [17] The civilization collapsed abruptly around 1700 BCE, possible due to a cataclysmic earthquake or the drying up of the Ghaggar-Hakra river or due to the invasion of Aryans. The Ghaggar-Hakra River is a believed to be an intermittent river in India and Pakistan that flows only during the Monsoon season Models of the Indo-Aryan migration discuss scenarios of Prehistoric migrations of the early Indo-Aryans to their historically attested areas of settlement ( North
In the early part of the second millennium BCE, Indo-European tribes from Central Asia or the southern Russian steppes migrated into the region,[18] and settled in the Sapta Sindhu area between the Kabul River and the Upper Ganges-Yamuna rivers. Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south In physical Geography, a steppe ( German, from степь - "a flat and arid land" степ - /stɛp/ тал - tal дала - /dɑlɑ/ pronounced The Sapta Sindhu ( Sanskrit: सप्त सिंधु also Hapta Hindu in Avestan "seven rivers" are the seven sacred rivers in Indian mythology Kabul River (or Kabal River;) classically called the Cophes (ˈkoʊˌfiːz is a river that rises in the Sanglakh Range in Afghanistan, separated The Ganges (ˈgænʤiːz also Ganga, Devanāgarī: hi गंगा in most Indian languages) is the major river in the Indian subcontinent For the goddess of the river who is sometimes called Yamuna see Yami The Yamuna (Sanskrit यमुना [19] The resulting Vedic culture lasted until the middle of the first millennium BCE when there were marked linguistic, cultural and political changes. [20] During the Vedic culture, the hymns of the Rigveda were composed and the foundations of Hinduism were laid. The Rigveda ( Sanskrit sa ऋग्वेद ṛgveda, a compound of ṛc "praise verse" and veda "knowledge" Hinduism is a religious tradition that originated in the Indian subcontinent. The city of Taxila, in northern Pakistan, became important in Hinduism (and later in Buddhism); according to Hindu tradition, the Mahābhārata epic was first recited at Taxila at the snake sacrifice Yagna of King Janamejaya, one of the heroes of the story. For the Genus of metalmark butterflies, see Taxila (butterfly. In Hinduism, Yajna ( Devanagari यज्ञ IAST yajña; also anglicized as Yagna, Yagya or Yadnya Emperor Janamejaya ( Sanskrit: जनमेजय was the son of Maharaja Parikshit and great-grandson of Arjuna the valiant warrior hero of [21]
Early history
- See also: Kushan Empire, Indo-Scythians, Indo-Parthian Kingdom, and Gupta Empire
The Indus plains formed the most populous and richest satrapy of the Persian Achaemenid Empire for almost two centuries, starting from the reign of Darius the Great (522-485 BCE). The Maurya Empire ( 322 – 185 BCE) ruled by the Mauryan dynasty was a geographically extensive and powerful political and military The Gr(aeco-Bactrian Kingdom was the easternmost part of the Hellenistic world covering Bactria and Sogdiana in Central Asia from 250 The Indo-Greek Kingdom (or sometimes Graeco-Indian Kingdom) covered various parts of the northwest and northern Indian subcontinent during the last two centuries The Kushan Empire (c 1st &ndash 3rd centuries) was a Bactrian state that at its cultural zenith Circa 105 &ndash 250 The Indo-Scythians are a branch of the Indo-Iranian Sakas ( Scythians) who migrated from southern Siberia into Bactria, The Indo-Parthian Kingdom was established during the 1st century by Gondophares, and at its greatest extent extended into areas that are in present-day Afghanistan The Gupta Empire ( Hindi: गुप्त राजवंश was ruled by members of the Gupta dynasty from around 320 to 550 C See also the related deity Satrapes. Satrap (Persian ساتراپ was the name given to the governors of the Provinces of ancient The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire ( haχɒmaneʃijɒn (558–330 BC was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of Darius I the Great (c 549 BC&ndash486 BC 𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁 Dārayavahuš: "Possessing goodness" Having ascended to power amidst controversy and bloodshed [22] Its heritage influenced the region e. g. adoption of Aramaic script, which the Achaemenids used for the Persian language; but after the end of Achaemenid rule, other scripts became more popular, such as Kharoṣṭhī (derived from Aramaic) and Greek. Aramaic is a Semitic language with The Kharoṣṭhī script, also known as the Gāndhārī script, is an ancient Abugida (an alphasyllabary based on consonants with graphical variations to express The Greek alphabet (Ελληνικό αλφάβητο is a set of twenty-four letters that has been used to write the Greek language since the late 9th or early The interaction between Hellenistic Greece and Buddhism began when Alexander the Great overthrew the Achaemenid empire in 334 BCE, and marched eastwards. The Hellenistic period of European history was the period between the death of Alexander the Great (Alexander III of Macedon in 323 BC and the annexation Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices Alexander the Great ( or, Mégas Aléxandros; July 20 356 BC June 10 or June 11 323 BC also known as Alexander III of Macedon (el Ἀλέξανδρος Γ' Eventually, after defeating King Porus in the fierce Battle of the Hydaspes (near modern Jhelum), he conquered much of the Punjab region. Conflict alliance and comradeship with Alexander Unlike his neighbour Ambhi (in Greek Omphis, King Porus chose to fight Alexander the Great in The Battle of the Hydaspes River was a Battle fought by Alexander the Great in 326 BC against the Indian king Porus (Pururava Punjab ( ਪੰਜਾਬ پنجاب, पंजाब پنجاب also Panjab (پنجاب meaning "Land of the Five Rivers") (c But, his battle weary troops refused to advance further into India[23] to engage the formidable army of Nanda Dynasty. The Nanda dynasty ruled Magadha during the 5th and 4th centuries BC. Therefore, Alexander proceeded southwest along the Indus valley. [24] Along the way, he engaged in several battles with smaller kingdoms before marching his army westward across the Makran desert towards modern Iran. Alexander founded several new Macedonian/Greek settlements in Gandhara and Punjab. Gandhāra ( Sanskrit: गन्धार Urdu: گندھارا Gandḥārā; also known as Waihind in Persian is the name of an ancient The Punjab ( Urdu:) province of
During the time of his campaigns on the Indus plain, Alexander had found an ally in Chandragupta Maurya, who later raised his own military force and overthrew the Nanda Dynasty in Magadha, using Macedonian tactics, and founded the Mauryan dynasty that lasted about 180 years. The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Chandragupta Maurya (चन्द्रगुप्त मौर्य sometimes known simply as Chandragupta (born c Magadha (मगध formed one of the sixteen Mahājanapadas ( Sanskrit, "great countries" or regions in ancient India. [25] Alexander's Diadochi (generals) divided his empire after his death in 323 BCE, with Seleucus setting up the Seleucid Kingdom, which included the Indus plain. The Diadochi (plural of Latin Diadochus, from Greek Διάδοχοι, Diadokhoi, "successors" were the rival successors Seleucus I (surnamed for later generations Nicator, Greek: Σέλευκος Νικάτωρ, i The Seleucid Empire /sə'lusɪd/ ( 312 - 63 BC) was a Hellenistic empire i [26] Chandragupta Maurya took advantage of this fragmentation of Greek power and captured the Punjab and Gandhara. [27] Later, the eastern part of the Seleucid Kingdom broke away to form the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom (third–second century BCE). The Gr(aeco-Bactrian Kingdom was the easternmost part of the Hellenistic world covering Bactria and Sogdiana in Central Asia from 250 Chandragupta's grandson, Ashoka the Great, (273-232 BCE) expanded the Mauryan empire to its greatest extent covering most of South Asia. Ashoka ( Devanāgarī: अशोकः IAST: Aśokaḥ, aɕoːkə(hə Prakrit Imperial title Devanampriya Priyadarsi He converted to Buddhism after feeling remorse for his bloody conquest of Kalinga in eastern India. Kalinga was a Kingdom in central-eastern India, which comprised most of the modern state of Orissa, as well as some northern areas of the bordering state His Edicts were written on pillars in Aramaic (the lingua franca of the Achaemenid Empire) or in Kharoṣṭhī. The Edicts of Ashoka are a collection of 33 inscriptions on the Pillars of Ashoka, as well as boulders and cave walls made by the Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan Aramaic is a Semitic language with A lingua franca (from Italian, literally meaning Frankish language, see etymology under Sabir and Italian below is any Language widely [28]
Greco-Buddhism (or Græco-Buddhism) was the syncretism between the culture of Classical Greece and Buddhism in the area of modern Afghanistan and Pakistan, between the fourth century BCE and the fifth century CE. Syncretism consists of the attempt to reconcile disparate or contradictory beliefs often while melding practices of various schools of thought Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate" generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic The Hellenistic period of European history was the period between the death of Alexander the Great (Alexander III of Macedon in 323 BC and the annexation Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and [29] It influenced the artistic development of Buddhism, and in particular Mahayana Buddhism, before it spread to central and eastern Asia, from the 1st century CE onward. Mahayana ( Sanskrit: mahāyāna, Devanagari: महायान 'Great Vehicle' is one of the two main existing schools of Buddhism and a term for Demetrius (son of the Greco-Bactrian king Euthydemus) invaded northern India in 180 BCE as far as Pataliputra and established an Indo-Greek kingdom. Demetrius I (ΔΗΜΗΤΡΙΟΣ was a Greco-Bactrian king (reigned circa 200-180 BC The Gr(aeco-Bactrian Kingdom was the easternmost part of the Hellenistic world covering Bactria and Sogdiana in Central Asia from 250 Paṭnā ( Hindi: पटना is the capital of the Indian state of Bihar, and one of the oldest continuously inhabited The Indo-Greek Kingdom (or sometimes Graeco-Indian Kingdom) covered various parts of the northwest and northern Indian subcontinent during the last two centuries To the south, the Greeks captured Sindh and nearby coastal areas, completing the invasion by 175 BCE and confining the Sungas to the east. Sindh ( Sindhī: سنڌ Urdu: سندھ is one of the four provinces of Pakistan and historically is home to the Sindhis. For other uses of the term Sunga see Sunga (disambiguation The Sunga Empire (or Shunga Empire) is a Magadha Meanwhile, in Bactria, the usurper Eucratides killed Demetrius in a battle. Eucratides I (or Eukratides I)(reigned ca 170 BCE - 145 BCE was one of the most important Greco-Bactrian kings Although the Indo-Greeks lost part of the Gangetic plain, their kingdom lasted nearly two centuries.
The Indo-Greek Menander I (reigned 155-130 BCE) drove the Greco-Bactrians out of Gandhara and beyond the Hindu Kush, becoming a king shortly after his victory. Menander I Soter "The Saviour" (known as Milinda in Indian sources was one of the rulers of the Indo-Greek Kingdom in northern India Gandhāra ( Sanskrit: गन्धार Urdu: گندھارا Gandḥārā; also known as Waihind in Persian is the name of an ancient The Hindu Kush is a Mountain range located between Afghanistan and Pakistan. His territories covered Panjshir and Kapisa in modern Afghanistan and extended to the Punjab region, with many tributaries to the south and east, possibly as far as Mathura. Panjshir ( literally "Five Lions" also spelled as Panjsher) is one of the thirty-four Provinces of Afghanistan. Kapiśa (=Kapisha (کاپيسا is one of the 34 Provinces of Afghanistan. Punjab ( ਪੰਜਾਬ پنجاب, पंजाब پنجاب also Panjab (پنجاب meaning "Land of the Five Rivers") (c Mathura ( IAST mathurā)( Hindi: मथुरा is a holy City in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. The capital Sagala (modern Sialkot) prospered greatly under Menander's rule and Menander is one of the few Bactrian kings mentioned by Greek authors. Sagala, believed to be modern Sialkot in Pakistan was a city of located in northern Punjab, Pakistan. Sialkot ( Urdu / Punjabi:) the capital of Sialkot District, is a city situated in the north-east of the Punjab province in [30] The classical Buddhist text Milinda Pañha, praises Menander, saying there was "none equal to Milinda in all India". Buddhist texts can be categorized in a number of ways The Western terms "scripture" and "canonical" are applied to Buddhism in inconsistent ways by Western scholars History The earliest part of the text is believed to have been written between 100 BCE and 200 CE [31] His empire survived him in a fragmented manner until the last independent Greek king, Strato II, disappeared around 10 CE. Strato II " Soter " was an Indo-Greek king He (reigned circa 25 BCE to 10CE) according to Bopearachchi Around 125 BCE, the Greco-Bactrian king Heliocles, son of Eucratides, fled from the Yuezhi invasion of Bactria and relocated to Gandhara, pushing the Indo-Greeks east of the Jhelum River. The Greco-Bactrian Heliocles, circ 145-130 BCE relative (son or brother and successor of Eucratides the Great, was probably the last Greek king who reigned The Yuezhi or Rouzhi ( Chinese: 月支 Pinyin: yuè zhī or ròu zhī; also 月氏 Pinyin: yuè shì "Hydaspes" redirects here For the historic battle see Battle of the Hydaspes. Various petty kings ruled into the early first century CE, until the conquests by the Scythians, Parthians and the Yuezhi, who founded the Kushan dynasty. The Indo-Scythians are a branch of the Indo-Iranian Sakas ( Scythians) who migrated from southern Siberia into Bactria, The Indo-Parthian Kingdom was established during the 1st century by Gondophares, and at its greatest extent extended into areas that are in present-day Afghanistan The Yuezhi or Rouzhi ( Chinese: 月支 Pinyin: yuè zhī or ròu zhī; also 月氏 Pinyin: yuè shì The last known Indo-Greek ruler was Theodamas, from the Bajaur area of Gandhara, mentioned on a 1st century CE signet ring, bearing the Kharoṣṭhī inscription "Su Theodamasa" ("Su" was the Greek transliteration of the Kushan royal title "Shau" ("Shah" or "King")). Theodamas ( ''fl'' 1st century) seems to have been an Indo-Greek ruler in the Bajaur area of Gandhara, in modern Pakistan The Kushan Empire (c 1st &ndash 3rd centuries) was a Bactrian state that at its cultural zenith Circa 105 &ndash 250 Shah is an Iranian term for a Monarch (leader that has been adopted in many other languages
The Indo-Scythians were descended from the Sakas (Scythians) who migrated from southern Siberia to Kashmir and Arachosia from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century BCE. The Indo-Scythians are a branch of the Indo-Iranian Sakas ( Scythians) who migrated from southern Siberia into Bactria, The Sakas ( English form of Old Iranian Sakā, Nominative plural masculine case; Ancient Greek Σάκαι, The Scythians or Scyths (Σκύθες Σκύθοι were an Iranian speaking people of horse-riding Nomadic pastoralists who dominated the Pontic Siberia (Сиби́рь Sibir) is the name given to the vast region constituting almost all of Northern Asia and for the most part currently serving This article is about the geographical region of greater Kashmir Arachosia (ˌærəˈkoʊʒə, Arakhōsia) or Arachotae (əˈrækəˌtiː, Arakhōtai) is the latinized form of Greek name of an Achaemenid They displaced the Indo-Greeks and ruled a kingdom that stretched from Gandhara to Mathura and Scythian tribes spread further into northwest India and the Iranian plateau. Gandhāra ( Sanskrit: गन्धार Urdu: گندھارا Gandḥārā; also known as Waihind in Persian is the name of an ancient Mathura ( IAST mathurā)( Hindi: मथुरा is a holy City in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh.
The Parni were a nomadic Central Asian tribe who overthrew the Persian Seleucids and annexed much of the Indus region. The Seleucid Empire /sə'lusɪd/ ( 312 - 63 BC) was a Hellenistic empire i Following the decline of the central Parthian authority after clashes with the Roman Empire, a local Parthian leader, Gondophares established the Indo-Parthian Kingdom in the 1st century CE. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Gondophares was the first king of the Indo-Parthian Kingdom. He seems to have ruled from 21 CE for at least 26 years The Indo-Parthian Kingdom was established during the 1st century by Gondophares, and at its greatest extent extended into areas that are in present-day Afghanistan The kingdom was ruled from Taxila and covered much of modern southeast Afghanistan, Pakistan and northwestern India. For the Genus of metalmark butterflies, see Taxila (butterfly. [32]
The Kushan kingdom founded by King Heraios, and greatly expanded by his successor, Kujula Kadphises. Heraios (often read as Heraus Heraos Miaos was a clan chief of the Kushans (reign 1-30 CE one of the five constituent tribes of the Yuezhi confederacy in Kujula Kadphises, reigned (30-80 CE (Kushan language Κοζουλου Καδφιζου, also Κοζολα Καδαφες, Pali: Kujula Kasasa Kadphises' son, Vima Takto conquered territory now in India, but lost much of the west of the kingdom to the Parthians. Vima Takto or Vima Taktu was a Kushan emperor around 80-90 AD The fourth Kushan emperor, Kanishka I, (circa 127 CE) had a winter capital at Purushapura (Peshawar) and a summer capital at Kapisa (Bagram). Kanishka (Kushan language Κανηϸκι, Middle Chinese: 迦腻色伽 was a king of the Kushan Empire in Central Asia, ruling an empire extending ( پښور; Urdu: پشاور) is the capital of the North-West Frontier Province and the administrative centre for the Federally Administered Bagram or Bagrām (ancient Alexandria of the Caucasus, medieval Kapisa) was an ancient city located at the junction of the Ghorband The kingdom linked the Indian Ocean maritime trade with the commerce of the Silk Road through the Indus valley. The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's Oceanic divisions covering about 20% of the water on the Earth 's surface The Silk Road, or Silk Routes, are an extensive interconnected network of Trade routes across the Asian continent connecting East South and Western Asia with the At its height, the empire extended from the Aral Sea to northern India, encouraging long-distance trade, particularly between China and Rome. The Aral Sea ( Kazakh: Арал Теңізі Aral Tengizi, Orol dengizi Russian: Аральскοе мοре Tajik / Persian: Daryocha-i China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Kanishka convened a great Buddhist council in Kashmir, marking the start of the pantheistic Mahayana Buddhism and its scission with Nikaya Buddhism. Mahayana ( Sanskrit: mahāyāna, Devanagari: महायान 'Great Vehicle' is one of the two main existing schools of Buddhism and a term for The term Nikāya Buddhism was invented by Mahayanist scholars in order to find a more acceptable (less derogatory term than Hinayana to refer to the Early Buddhist schools The art and culture of Gandhara are the best known expressions of the interaction of Greek and Buddhist cultures, which continued over several centuries until the fifth century CE White Hun invasions. The Huna (also known as Indo-Hephthalites or Alchon) as they were known in South Asia, seem to have been part of the Hephthalite group who Over the next few centuries, the White Huns, Indo-Parthians, and Kushans shared control of the Indus plain while the Persian Sassanid Empire dominated the south and southwest. The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire The mingling of Indian and Persian cultures in the region gave rise to the Indo-Sassanid culture, which flourished in Balochistan and western Punjab. The culture of India has been shaped by the long History of India, its unique geography and the absorption of customs traditions and ideas from some of its neighbors To best understand Iran and its people one must first attempt to acquire an understanding of its ancient culture The Indo-Sassanids, Kushano-Sassanids or Kushanshas (also Indo-Sassanians) were a branch of the Sassanid Persians who established their The Gupta Empire arose in northern India around the second century CE and included much of the lower Indus area as a province. The Gupta Empire ( Hindi: गुप्त राजवंश was ruled by members of the Gupta dynasty from around 320 to 550 C The Gupta era was marked by a local Hindu revival, although Buddhism continued to flourish.
The Muslim period
In 712 CE, a Syrian Muslim chieftain called Muhammad bin Qasim conquered most of the Indus region for the Umayyad empire, but the instability of the empire resulted in effective control only over Sind and southern Punjab. The Ghaznavid Empire was a Khorāṣānian Sunni Muslim state founded by a dynasty of Turkic Mamluk. Muhammad Shahab-ud-Din Ghori ( Persian, Pashto, Urdu: محمد شہاب الدین غوری also spelled Mohammad Ghauri, originally named Mu'izzuddin The Delhi Sultanate ( Urdu: دلی سلطنت, दिल्ली सलतनत or Sultanat e Hind ( سلطنتِ هند; सलतनत ए The Mughal Empire ( Persian and self-designation گورکانی; مغلیہ سلطنت) was an Islamic imperial power which ruled most The Durrani Empire (also referred to as the Afghan Empire) was a large state based in modern Afghanistan and Pakistan and later included northeastern The Sikh Confederacy was a nation that existed from 1716 to 1799 Muhammad bin Qasim Al-Thaqafi (محمد بن قاسم (c 31 December, 695 &ndash 18 July, 715) born Muhammad bin Qasim bin Yusuf Sakifi The provincial capital of "As-Sindh" was at Al-Mansurah, 72 km north of modern Hyderabad. ( Urdu, Sindhi:; Haidarābād is located in the Sindh province of Pakistan. There was gradual conversion to Islam in the south, especially amongst the native Buddhist majority, but in areas north of Multan, Buddhists, Hindus and other non-Muslim groups remained numerous. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. ( Urdu:, Punjabi ملتان، ਮੁਲਤਾਨ is a city in the Punjab Province of Pakistan and capital of Multan District [33]
In 997 CE, Mahmud of Ghazni conquered the bulk of Khorasan, marched on Peshawar in 1005, and followed it by the conquests of Punjab (1007), Balochistan (1011), Kashmir (1015) and Qanoch (1017). Mahmud of Ghazni (محمود غزنوی Maḥmūd-e Ghaznawī ( November 2, 971 - April 30, 1030) also known as Yāmīn Greater Khorasan (خراسان بزرگ (also written Khorasaan, Khurasan and Khurasaan) is a modern term for eastern territories of ancient Persia By the end of his reign in 1030, Mahmud's empire extended from Kurdistan in the west to the Yamuna river in the east, and the Ghaznavid dynasty lasted until 1187. History See also History of the Kurdish people Ancient period See also Hurrians, Guti, Mannaeans, Medes For the goddess of the river who is sometimes called Yamuna see Yami The Yamuna (Sanskrit यमुना Contemporary historians such as Abolfazl Beyhaqi and Ferdowsi described extensive building work in Lahore, as well as Mahmud's support and patronage of learning, literature and the arts. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abolfazl Beyhaghi (995-1077 Ibn Zeyd ibn Muhammad Abul-Fazl Mohammad ibn Hossein Hakīm Abū l-Qāsim Firdawsī Tūsī ( more commonly transliterated as Ferdowsi, (935&ndash1020 was a highly revered Persian Poet.
In 1160, Muhammad Ghori conquered Ghazni from the Ghaznavids and became its governor in 1173. He marched eastwards into the remaining Ghaznavid territory and Gujarat in the 1180s, but was rebuffed by Gujarat's Solanki rulers. The Solanki (from Chalukya, an ancient Indian dynasty are a Hindu clan who ruled parts of western and central India between the 10th In 1186-7, he conquered Lahore, bringing the last of Ghaznevid territory under his control and ending the Ghaznavid empire. Muhammad Ghori returned to Lahore after 1200 to deal with a revolt of the Rajput Ghakkar tribe in the Punjab. He suppressed the revolt, but was killed during a Ghakkar raid on his camp on the Jhelum River in 1206. Muhammad Ghori's successors established the first Indo-Islamic dynasty, the Delhi Sultanate. The Delhi Sultanate ( Urdu: دلی سلطنت, दिल्ली सलतनत or Sultanat e Hind ( سلطنتِ هند; सलतनत ए The Mamluk Dynasty, (mamluk means "slave" and referred to the Turkic slave soldiers who became rulers throughout the Islamic world), seized the throne of the Sultanate in 1211. As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another Several Turko-Afghan dynasties ruled their empires from Delhi: the Mamluk (1211-90), the Khalji (1290-1320), the Tughlaq (1320-1413), the Sayyid (1414-51) and the Lodhi (1451-1526). Khilji or Khalji ( Pashto: خلجی خاندان, Hindi: ख़िलजी ख़ानदान was an Indian ruling dynasty that was The Tughlaq Dynasty ( Urdu: تغلق) of north India started in 1321 in Delhi when Ghazi Tughlaq assumed the throne under the For the Lost character please see Sayid Jarrah Sayyid ( ar سيد) (plural Saadah is an Honorific title Lodhi (or Lodi; Pashto Urdu: لودھی is a Pashtun tribe most likely a sub-group of the larger Ghilzai Although some kingdoms remained independent of Delhi - in Gujarat, Malwa (central India), Bengal and Deccan - almost all of the Indus plain came under the rule of these large Indo-Islamic sultanates. Perhaps the greatest contribution of the sultanate was its temporary success in insulating South Asia from the Mongol invasion from Central Asia in the thirteenth century; nonetheless the sultans eventually lost Afghanistan and western Pakistan to the Mongols (see the Ilkhanate Dynasty). The Chagatai Khanate was a Mongol and later more Turko-Islamic in language and culture Khanate that comprised the lands ruled by Chagatai Khan Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, The Mongol Empire ( Mongolyn Ezent Güren or mn Их Mонгол улс Ikh Mongol Uls; 1206–1368 was the largest contiguous Empire The Ilkhanate, also spelled Il-khanate or Il Khanate (Ил Хан улс Il Khan uls;) was a Mongol Khanate established in
The sultans (emperors) of Delhi enjoyed cordial relations with Muslim rulers in the Near East but owed them no allegiance. B Syria - Belka Woman from Damascus Arab from Baghdadjpg|thumb|Inhabitants of the Near East late nineteenth century While the sultans ruled from urban centers, their military camps and trading posts provided the nuclei for many towns that sprang up in the countryside. Close interaction with local populations led to cultural exchange and the resulting "Indo-Islamic" fusion has left a lasting imprint and legacy in South Asian architecture, music, literature, life style and religious customs. In addition, the language of Urdu (literally meaning "horde" or "camp" in various Turkic dialects) was born during the Delhi Sultanate period, as a result of the mingling of speakers of Sanskritic prakrits, Persian, Turkish and Arabic languages. Urdu ( ur '''{{Nastaliq اردو}}''' trans Urdū, historically spelled Ordu) is a Central Indo-Aryan language Urdu is a standardised Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical Prakrit (also transliterated as Pracrit) ( Sanskrit: prākṛta प्राकृत (from pra-kṛti प्रकृति according to one Turkish ( tr Türkçe IPA) is a language spoken by over 63 million people worldwide making it the most commonly spoken of the Turkic languages. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language
From the 16th to the 19th century CE the formidable Mughal empire covered much of South Asia and played a major role in the economic and cultural development of the region. The Mughal Empire ( Persian and self-designation گورکانی; مغلیہ سلطنت) was an Islamic imperial power which ruled most The empire was one of the three major Islamic states of its day and sometimes contested its northwestern holdings such as Qandahar against the Uzbeks and the Safavid Persians. For the 2001 film see Kandahar (film; for the Kandahar meteorite of 1959 see Meteorite falls; for the places in Azerbaijan see Cəndəhar and The Uzbeks (Self designation sg O‘zbek, pl O‘zbeklar) are a Turkic people of Central Asia. The Safavids ( صفوی) were an Iranian ref>Helen Chapin Metz The Mughals were descended from Persianized Central Asian Turks (with significant Mongol admixture). The Turkic peoples are Eurasian peoples residing in northern central and western Eurasia who speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family The third emperor, Akbar the Great, was both a capable ruler and an early proponent of religious and ethnic tolerance and favored an early form of multiculturalism. Akbar redirects here For other uses see Akbar (disambiguation Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar ( Jalāl ud-Dīn Muhammad Akbar The term multiculturalism generally refers to a state of racial, cultural and ethnic diversity within the Demographics of a specified For a short time in the late 16th century, Lahore was the capital of the empire. ( lahor is the capital of the Pakistani province of Punjab and is the second largest city in Pakistan after Karachi. The architectural legacy of the Mughals in Lahore includes the Shalimar Gardens built by the fifth emperor, Shahjahan, and the Badshahi Mosque built by the sixth emperor, Aurangzeb. The Shalimar Gardens ( Urdu: شالیمار باغ) sometimes written Shalamar Gardens, is a Persian garden and it was built by the Mughal Shihab-ud-din Muhammad Shah Jahan I (full title Al-Sultan al-'Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram Abu'l-Muzaffar Shihab ud-din Muhammad Sahib-i-Qiran-i-Sani Shah Jahan I Padshah Ghazi The Badshahi Mosque ( Urdu: بادشاھی مسجد) or the 'Emperor's Mosque ' was built in 1673 by the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb in Lahore Aurangzeb ( (full title Al-Sultan al-Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram Abul Muzaffar Muhiuddin Muhammad Aurangzeb Bahadur Alamgir I Padshah Ghazi) ( November 4,
In 1739, the Persian emperor Nader Shah invaded India, defeated the Mughal Emperor Mohammed Shah, and occupied most of Balochistan and the Indus plain. Nāder Shāh Afshār ( also known as Nāder Qoli Beg - نادر قلی بیگ or Tahmāsp Qoli Khān - تهماسپ قلی خان) (November Muhammad Shah ( محمد شاه) (1748 &ndash 1702 also known as Roshan Akhtar was a Mughal emperor of India between 1719 and 1748 After Nadir Shah's death, the kingdom of Afghanistan was established in 1747, by one of his generals, Ahmad Shah Abdali and included Kashmir, Peshawar, Daman, Multan, Sind and Punjab. Ahmad Shāh Durrānī (c1723-1773 ( also known as Ahmad Shāh Abdālī ( احمد شاه ابدالي) and born as Ahmad Khān Abdālī, In the south, a succession of autonomous dynasties (the Daudpotas, Kalhoras and Talpurs) had asserted the independence of Sind, from the end of Aurangzeb's reign. Daudpota ( Urdu: داود پوتا) is the name of a Sindhi tribe in Sindh, Pakistan. Kalhora Dynasty or Kalhoro Dynasty ( Urdu: سلسله کلہوڑا) ruled Sindh, Pakistan. The Talpur dynasty (سلسله تالپور (ٽالپور خاندان was a Baloch dynasty of the Talpur tribe that conquered and ruled Sindh, and other Most of Balochistan came under the influence of the Khan of Kalat, apart from some coastal areas such as Gwadar which were ruled by the Sultan of Oman. Kalat or Qalat ( Urdu: قلات was a princely state located in the centre of the modern province of Balochistan, Pakistan. Gwadar (; 瓜達爾 瓜达尔 is located on the southwestern coast of Pakistan, on the Sea of Oman. Oman, officially the Sultanate of Oman ( Arabic: سلطنة عُمان) is an Arab Country in Southwest Asia on the southeast The Sikh Confederacy (1748-1799) was a group of small states in the Punjab which emerged in a political vacuum created by rivalry between the Mughals, Afghans and Persians. The Sikh Confederacy was a nation that existed from 1716 to 1799 [34] The Confederacy drove out the Mughals, repelled several Afghan invasions and in 1764 captured Lahore. However after the retreat of Ahmed Shah Abdali, the Confederacy suffered instability as disputes and rivalries emerged. [35] The Sikh empire (1799-1849) was formed on the foundations of the Confederacy by Ranjit Singh who proclaimed himself "Sarkar-i-Wala", and was referred to as the Maharaja of Lahore. Maharaja Ranjit Singh (ਮਹਾਰਾਜਾ ਰਣਜੀਤ ਸਿੰਘ also called "Sher-e-Punjab" ("The Lion of the Punjab" (1780-1839 was a [34] His empire eventually extended as far west as the Khyber Pass and as far south as Multan. The Khyber Pass, (also spelled Khaiber or Khaybar (درہ خیبر (altitude m ft is the Mountain pass that links Pakistan and Amongst his conquests were Kashmir in 1819 and Peshawar in 1834, although the Afghans made two attempts to recover Peshawar. After the Maharaja's death the empire was weakened by internal divisions and political mismanagement. The British annexed the Sikh empire in 1849 after two Anglo-Sikh wars. [36]
Independence struggle
The concept of an independent Muslim nation emerged gradually from the aftermath of the Indian Rebellion of 1857. The All India Muslim League ( Urdu: آل انڈیا مسلم لیگ Bengali:?????? ??? founded at Dhaka in 1906 was a political party in British Pakistan Movement or Tehrik-e-Pakistan ( Urdu: تحریک پاکستان) was the struggle carried out by the Muslims of British India The Lahore Resolution ( Qarardad-e-Lahore قرارداد لاھور commonly known as the Pakistan Resolution (قرارداد پاکستان Qarardad-e-Pakistan The Indian Rebellion of 1857 began as a mutiny of Sepoys of British East India Company 's army on the 10th of May 1857 in the town of Meerut, In 1885, the Indian National Congress was founded as a forum, which later became a party, to promote a nationalist cause. Indian National Congress-I (also known as the Congress Party and abbreviated INC) is a major Political party in India. [37] Although the Congress attempted to include the Muslim community in the independence struggle and some Muslims were very active in the Congress, the majority of Muslim leaders did not trust the party, viewing it as a "Hindu-dominated" organization. Hinduism is a religious tradition that originated in the Indian subcontinent. [38] Some Muslims felt that an independent united India would inevitably be "ruled by Hindus", and that there was a need to address the issue of the Muslim identity within India. Thus in 1877, Syed Ameer Ali formed the Central National Muhammadan Association to work towards the political advancement of the Muslims, but the organisation declined towards the end of the nineteenth century. Syed Ameer Ali (1849-1928 was an Indian Muslim religious scholar and teacher at the Aligarh Muslim University, who is credited for his contributions to A turning point came in 1900 when the British administration in the United Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh), acceded to Hindu demands and made Hindi, written in the Devanagari script, the official language. The United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, more commonly the United Provinces, was a Province of British India, which existed from 1902 to 1947 Uttar Pradesh (उत्तर प्रदेश اتر پردیش pronounced, Translation: Northern Province) referred to as '''U Hindi ( Devanāgarī: hi [[wiktहिन्दी हिन्दी]] or hi [[wiktहिंदी हिंदी]] IAST:, IPA:) is The Muslims feared that the Hindu majority would seek to suppress Muslim culture and religion in an independent India. The All-India Muslim League was founded on December 30th, 1906, on the sidelines of the annual All India Muhammadan Educational Conference in Shahbagh, Dhaka. The All India Muslim League ( Urdu: آل انڈیا مسلم لیگ Bengali:?????? ??? founded at Dhaka in 1906 was a political party in British The All India Muhammadan Educational Conference was an organisation promoting modern liberal education for the Muslim community in India. History See also History of Dhaka Although urban settlements in the Dhaka area date back to the 7th century CE, the earliest evidence of urban construction [39] The meeting was attended by three thousand delegates and presided over by Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk. Nawab Mushtaq Husain Viqar al-Mulk(Waqar would be proper spelling ( March 24, 1841 - January 27, 1917) also known as Mushtaq Hussain was a Muslim It addressed the issue of legitimate safeguards for Muslims and finalised a programme. A resolution, moved by Nawab Salimullah and seconded by Hakim Ajmal Khan. Ajmal Khan (1863– December 29, 1927) was a noted Indian Freedom fighter, renowned physician and educationalist Nawab Viqar-ul-Milk, declared:
The musalmans are only a fifth in number as compared with the total population of the country, and it is manifest that if at any remote period the British government ceases to exist in India, then the rule of India would pass into the hands of that community which is nearly four times as large as ourselves …our life, our property, our honour, and our faith will all be in great danger, when even now that a powerful British administration is protecting its subjects, we the Musalmans have to face most serious difficulties in safe-guarding our interests from the grasping hands of our neighbors. [40]
The constitution and principles of the League were contained in the "Green Book", written by Maulana Mohammad Ali. Note: Do not confuse with Maulana Muhammad Ali Lahori Muhammad Ali (the Muslim boxer or any other people named Muhammad Ali see Muhammad Ali (disambiguation Its goals at this stage did not include establishing an independent Muslim state, but rather concentrated on protecting Muslim liberties and rights, promoting understanding between the Muslim community and other Indians, educating the Muslim and Indian community at large on the actions of the government, and discouraging violence. However, several factors over the next thirty years, including sectarian violence, led to a re-evaluation of the League's aims. [41][42] Among those Muslims in the Congress who did not initially join the League was Muhammed Ali Jinnah, a prominent Bombay lawyer and statesman. Muhammad Ali Jinnah Urdu: (December 25 1876 – September 11 1948 was a Pakistani politician and leader of the All India Muslim League who founded Pakistan Mumbai ( Marathi:,, IPA: formerly Bombay, is the capital of the Indian state of Maharashtra and the financial This was because the first article of the League's platform was "To promote among the Mussalmans (Muslims) of India, feelings of loyalty to the British Government". In 1907, a vocal group of Hindu hard-liners within the Indian National Congress movement separated from it and started to pursue a pro-Hindu movement openly. Indian National Congress-I (also known as the Congress Party and abbreviated INC) is a major Political party in India. This group was spearheaded by the famous trio of Lal-Bal-Pal - Lala Lajpat Rai , Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal of Punjab, Bombay and Benagal provinces respectively. Lal Bal Pal ( Hindi: लाल बाल पाल Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal) were the Swadeshi Triumvirate Lala Lajpat Rai ( Punjabi: ਲਾਲਾ ਲਜਪਤ ਰਾਯ لالا لجپت راے Hindi: लाला लाजपत राय was an Indian Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak (बाळ गंगाधर टिळक ( July 23 1856 - August 1 1920) was an Indian nationalist Bipin Chandra Pal ( Bangla:বিপিন চন্দ্র পাল was born on November 7, 1858 in Poil village in the Habiganj, (now Their influence spread rapidly among other like minded Hindus - they called it Hindu nationalism - and it became a cause of serious concern for Muslims. Hindu nationalism is a nationalist Ideology that sees the modern State of the Republic of India as a Hindu Polity However, Jinnah did not join the League until 1913, when it changed its platform to one of Indian independence as a reaction against the British decision - taken under the enormous pressure and vociferous protests of the Hindu majority - to reverse the 1905 Partition of Bengal, which the League regarded as a betrayal of the Bengali Muslims. The Partition of Bengal in 1905, was made on 16 October by then Viceroy of India, Lord Curzon. [43] Even at this stage, Jinnah believed in Muslim-Hindu co-operation to achieve an independent, united India, although he argued that Muslims should be guaranteed one-third of the seats in any Indian Parliament.
The League gradually became the leading representative body of Indian Muslims. Jinnah became its president in 1916, and negotiated the Lucknow Pact with the Congress leader, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, by which Congress conceded the principle of separate electorates and weighted representation for the Muslim community. Lucknow Pact refers to an agreement between Indian National Congress and Muslim League. Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak (बाळ गंगाधर टिळक ( July 23 1856 - August 1 1920) was an Indian nationalist Indian Councils Act of 1909, commonly known as the Morley-Minto Reforms, began when John Morley, the Liberal Secretary of State for India, and the Conservative [44] However, Jinnah broke with the Congress in 1920 when the Congress leader, Mohandas Gandhi, launched a law violating Non-Cooperation Movement against the British, which a temperamentally law abiding barrister Jinnah disapproved of. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi ( Gujarati: મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી moɦən̪d̪äs kəɾəmʧən̪d̪ gän̪d̪ʱi (2 October 1869 – 30 January The non-cooperation movement (असहयोग आन्दोलन was the first-ever series of nationwide people's movements of Nonviolent resistance and Civil Disobedience Jinnah also became convinced that the Congress would renounce its support for separate electorates for Muslims, which indeed it did in 1928. In 1927, the British proposed a constitution for India as recommended by the Simon Commission, but they failed to reconcile all parties. The Indian Statutory Commission was a group of seven British Members of Parliament that had been dispatched to India in 1927 to study constitutional reform The British then turned the matter over to the League and the Congress, and in 1928 an All-Parties Congress was convened in Delhi. The attempt failed, but two more conferences were held, and at the Bombay conference in May, it was agreed that a small committee should work on the constitution. The prominent Congress leader Motilal Nehru headed the committee, which included two Muslims, Syed Ali Imam and Shoaib Quereshi; Motilal's son, Pt Jawaharlal Nehru, was its secretary. Motilal Nehru ( May 6, 1861 – February 6, 1931) was an early Indian independence activist and leader of the Indian National Congress Jawaharlal Nehru (जवाहरलाल नेहरू ʤəʋäɦəɾläl nɛɦɾu (14 November 1889 27 May 1964 was a major political leader of the Congress Party The League, however, rejected the committee's report, the so called Nehru Report, arguing that its proposals gave too little representation (one quarter) to Muslims – the League had demanded at least one-third representation in the legislature. The "Nehru Report" (1928 was a memorandum outlining a proposed new Dominion (see Dominion status) constitution for India Jinnah announced a "parting of the ways" after reading the report, and relations between the Congress and the League began to sour.
The rise of the League
The election of Ramsay MacDonald's Labour government in 1929 in Britain, already weakened by the First World War, fuelled new hopes for progress towards self-government in India. James Ramsay MacDonald ( 12 October 1866 &ndash 9 November 1937) was a British politician and twice Prime Minister of the United The Labour Party is a Political party in the United Kingdom. Founded at the start of the 20th century it has been since the 1920s the principal party of the Year 1929 ( MCMXXIX) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Gandhi travelled to London, claiming to represent all Indians and criticising the League as sectarian and divisive. Round-table talks were held, but these achieved little, since Gandhi and the League were unable reach a compromise. This article is about the Anglo-Indian Round Table Conferences The fall of the Labour government in 1931 ended this period of optimism. By 1930 Jinnah had despaired of Indian politics and particularly of getting mainstream parties like the Congress to be sensitive to minority priorities. A fresh call for a separate state was then made by the famous writer, poet and philosopher Allama Muhammad Iqbal, who in his presidential address to the 1930 convention of the Muslim League said that he felt that a separate Muslim state was essential in an otherwise Hindu-dominated South Asia. [6][45] The name was coined by Cambridge student and Muslim nationalist Choudhary Rahmat Ali,[46] and was published on January 28, 1933 in the pamphlet Now or Never. The University of Cambridge (often Cambridge University) located in Cambridge, England, is the second-oldest university in the The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation Chaudhary Rahmat Ali ( Urdu / Punjabi: چودھری رحمت علی (or Rehmat Ali Khan; Urdu / Punjabi: رحمت علی خان [47] He saw it as an acronym formed from the names of the "homelands" of Muslims in northwest India — P for Punjab, A for the Afghan areas of the region, K for Kashmir, S for Sindh and tan for Balochistan, thus forming "Pakstan". The Punjab ( Urdu:) province of Pashtuns ( Pashto: پښتون Paṣtūn, Paxtūn, also rendered as Pushtuns, Pakhtuns, Pukhtuns) also called This article is about the geographical region of greater Kashmir Sindh ( Sindhī: سنڌ Urdu: سندھ is one of the four provinces of Pakistan and historically is home to the Sindhis. Balochistan or Baluchistan is an arid Region located in the Iranian Plateau in Southwest [48] An i was later added to the English rendition of the name to ease pronunciation, producing "Pakistan". In Urdu and Persian the name encapsulates the concept of "pak" ("pure") and "stan" ("land") and hence a "Pure Land". Urdu ( ur '''{{Nastaliq اردو}}''' trans Urdū, historically spelled Ordu) is a Central Indo-Aryan language Urdu is a standardised In the 1935, the British administration proposed to hand over substantial power to elected Indian provincial legislatures, with elections to be held in 1937. After the elections the League took office in Bengal and Punjab, but the Congress won office in most of the other provinces, and refused to share power with the League in provinces with large Muslim minorities.
Mean while, Muslim ideologues for separatism also felt vindicated by the presidential address of V.D. Savarkar at the 19th session of the famous Hindu nationalist party Hindu Mahasabha in 1937. Vināyak Dāmodar Sāvarkar (विनायक दामोदर सावरकर (born May 28, 1883 in Bhagur – February 26, Akhil Bhāratīya Hindū Mahāsabhā (अखिल भारत हिन्दू महासभा All-Indian Hindu Assembly a Hindu nationalist organization was originally In it, this legendary revolutionary - popularly called Veer Savarkar and known as the iconic father of the Hindutva ideology - propounded the seminal ideas of his Two Nation Theory or Hindu-Muslim exclusivism, which influenced Jinnah profoundly. Vināyak Dāmodar Sāvarkar (विनायक दामोदर सावरकर (born May 28, 1883 in Bhagur – February 26, For Veer Savarkar's book see Hindutva (book. Hindutva (Devanagari हिन्दुत्व "Hinduness" a word coined by Vinayak The Two-Nation Theory was the basis for the Partition of India in 1947
In 1940, Jinnah called a general session of the Muslim League in Lahore to discuss the situation that had arisen due to the outbreak of the Second World War and the Government of India joining the war without consulting Indian leaders. ( lahor is the capital of the Pakistani province of Punjab and is the second largest city in Pakistan after Karachi. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including The meeting was also aimed at analyzing the reasons that led to the defeat of the Muslim League in the general election of 1937 in the Muslim majority provinces. In his speech, Jinnah criticized the Indian National Congress and the nationalist Muslims, and espoused the Two-Nation Theory and the reasons for the demand for separate Muslim homelands. Indian National Congress-I (also known as the Congress Party and abbreviated INC) is a major Political party in India. The Two-Nation Theory was the basis for the Partition of India in 1947 [49] Sikandar Hayat Khan, the Chief Minister of Punjab, drafted the original resolution, but disavowed the final version,[50] that had emerged after endless redrafting by the Subject Committee of the Muslim League. Sir Sikander Hyat-Khan (died 1942 was an Indian Muslim political leader of Punjab, when India was a part of the British Empire. Punjab ( ਪੰਜਾਬ پنجاب, पंजाब پنجاب also Panjab (پنجاب meaning "Land of the Five Rivers") (c The final text unambiguously rejected the concept of a United India because of increasing inter-religious violence[51] and recommended the creation of an independent Muslim state. [52] The resolution was moved in the general session by Shere-Bangla A. K. Fazlul Huq, the Chief Minister of Bengal, supported by Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman and other Muslim leaders and was adopted on 23 March 1940. Sher-e-Bangla redirects here For other uses of the term see Sher-e-Bangla (disambiguation. Etymology and ethnology The exact origin of the word Bangla or Bengal is unknown though it is believed to be derived from the Dravidian-speaking tribe Bang Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman was an Indian Muslim politician and leader of the All India Muslim League in the United Provinces (now Uttar Events 1174 - Jocelin, Abbot of Melrose, is elected Bishop of Glasgow. Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [7] The Resolution read as follows:
No constitutional plan would be workable or acceptable to the Muslims unless geographical contiguous units are demarcated into regions which should be so constituted with such territorial readjustments as may be necessary. That the areas in which the Muslims are numerically in majority as in the North-Western and Eastern zones of India should be grouped to constitute independent states in which the constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign . . . That adequate, effective and mandatory safeguards shall be specifically provided in the constitution for minorities in the units and in the regions for the protection of their religious, cultural, economic, political, administrative and other rights of the minorities, with their consultation. Arrangements thus should be made for the security of Muslims where they were in a minority. [53]
In 1941 it became part of the Muslim League's constitution. [54] However, in early 1941, Sikandar explained to the Punjab Assembly that he did not support the final version of the resolution. [55] The sudden death of Sikandar in 1942 paved the way over the next few years for Jinnah to emerge as the recognised leader of the Indian Muslims. [43] In 1943, the Sind Assembly passed a resolution demanding the establishment of a Muslim homeland. Provincial Assembly of the Sindh is a Unicameral house of elected representatives of People of Sindh established under the Article 106 of the Constitution of [56] Talks between Jinnah and Gandhi in 1944 in Bombay failed to achieve agreement and there were no more attempts to reach a single-state solution.
The Second World War had broken the back of both Britain and France and disintigration of their colonial empires was expected soon. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. With the election of another sympathetic Labour government in Britain in 1945, Indians were seeing independence within reach. But, Gandhi and Nehru were not receptive to Jinnah's proposals and were also adamantly opposed to dividing India, since they knew that the Hindus, who saw India as one indivisible entity, would never agree to such a thing. [43] In the Constituent Assembly elections of 1946, the League won 425 out of 496 seats reserved for Muslims (and about 89. A constituent assembly is a body elected with the purpose of drafting and in some cases adopting a Constitution. 2% of Muslim votes) on a policy of creating an independent state of Pakistan, and with an implied threat of secession if this was not granted. [43] By 1946 the British had neither the will, nor the financial resources or military power, to hold India any longer. Political deadlock ensued in the Constituent Assembly, and the British Prime Minister, Clement Attlee, sent a Cabinet Mission to India to mediate the situation. Clement Richard Attlee 1st Earl Attlee, KG, OM, CH, PC ( 3 January 1883 &ndash 8 October 1967 The British Cabinet Mission of 1946 to India aimed to discuss and finalize plans for the transfer of power from the British Raj to Indian leadership providing When the talks broke down, Attlee appointed Louis Mountbatten as India's last Viceroy, to negotiate the partition of India and immediate British withdrawal. Admiral of the Fleet Louis Francis Albert Victor Nicholas Mountbatten 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma, KG, GCB, OM, GCSI, Mountbatten, of imperial blood and a world war admiral, handled the problem as a campaign. Ignorant of the complex ground realities in British India, he rashly preponed the date of transfer of power and told Gandhi and Nehru that if they did not accept partition there would be civil war in his opinion [43] and he would rather consider handing over power to individual provinces and the rulers of princely states. This forced the hands of Congress leaders and the "Independence of India Act 1947" provided for the two dominions of Pakistan and India to become independent on the 14th and 15th of August 1947 respectively.
Independence
On the 14th and 15th of August, 1947, British India was partitioned into the new independent Dominions of Pakistan and India respectively, with both dominions joining the British Commonwealth. However, the ill conceived and controversial decision to partition Punjab and Bengal, two of the biggest provinces, between India and Pakistan had disastrous consequences. Punjab ( ਪੰਜਾਬ پنجاب, पंजाब پنجاب also Panjab (پنجاب meaning "Land of the Five Rivers") (c Etymology and ethnology The exact origin of the word Bangla or Bengal is unknown though it is believed to be derived from the Dravidian-speaking tribe Bang This partition created inter-religious violence of such magnitude that exchange of population along religious lines became a necessity in these provinces. More than two million people migrated across the new borders and more than one hundred thousand died in the spate of communal violence, that spread even beyond these provinces. The partition also resulted in tensions over Kashmir leading to the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947. This article is about the geographical region of greater Kashmir The Indo-Pakistani War of 1947, sometimes known as the First Kashmir War, was fought between India and Pakistan over the region of Kashmir from The post-independence political history of Pakistan has been characterised by several periods of authoritarian military rule and continuing territorial disputes with India over the status of Kashmir, and with Afghanistan over the Pashtunistan issue. This article is about the geographical region of greater Kashmir Pashtunistan ( Pashto: پښتونستان Persian: پشتونستان or Pakhtunistan ( Persian, Urdu: پختونستان is the
In 1948, Jinnah declared in Dhaka that Urdu would be the only state language of Pakistan. This sparked protests in East Bengal (later East Pakistan), where Bengali was spoken by most of the population. The Bengali Language Movement reached its peak on 21 February 1952, when police and soldiers opened fired near the Dhaka Medical College on students protesting for Bengali to receive equal status with Urdu. The Bengali Language Movement, also known as the Language Movement (ভাষা আন্দোলন Bhasha Andolon) was a political effort in Bangladesh Dhaka Medical College and Hospital (DMCH established in 1946 during the British colonial rule is the top medical college in Bangladesh. Several protesters were killed, and the movement gained further support throughout East Pakistan. Later, the Government agreed to provide equal status to Bengali as a state language of Pakistan, a right later codified in the 1956 constitution.
In 1953 at the instigation of religious parties, anti-Ahmadiyya riots erupted, killing scores of Ahmadi Muslims and destroying their properties. Ahmadiyya ( احمدیہ Ahmadiyya) is a movement that arose out of mainstream Islam towards the end of the 19th century [57] The riots were investigated by a two-member court of inquiry in 1954,[58] which was criticised by the Jamaat-e-Islami, one of the parties accused of inciting the riots. [59] This event led to the first instance of martial law in the country and began the inroad of military intervention in the politics and civilian affairs of the country, something that remains to this day. [60]
First military era (1958-1971)
The Dominion was dissolved on 23 March, 1956 and replaced by the Islamic Republic of Pakistan with the last Governor-General, Iskandar Mirza, as the first president. Field Marshal Muhammad Ayub Khan ( Urdu / Pashto: محمد ايوب خان GCMG, MBE, HJ, NPk, ( May 14 Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan ( February 4 1917 &ndash August 10 1980) was the President of Pakistan from 1969 to 1971 following the resignation The Bangladesh Liberation War (i ( Bengali: মুক্তিযুদ্ধ Muktijuddho) was an armed conflict between West Pakistan (later The Governor-General of Pakistan was the resident representative of King George VI in Pakistan from 1947 to 1952 and then Queen Major-General Sahibzada Sayyid Iskander Ali Mirza, CIE, OBE ( Urdu: اسکندر مرزا) (13 November 1899 [61] Just two years later the military took control of the nation. [62] Field Marshal Ayub Khan became president and began a new system of government called Basic Democracy with a new constitution,[63] by which an electoral college of 80,000 would select the President. Field Marshal Muhammad Ayub Khan ( Urdu / Pashto: محمد ايوب خان GCMG, MBE, HJ, NPk, ( May 14 Ayub Khan almost lost the controversial 1965 presidential elections to Fatima Jinnah. Presidential elections were held in Pakistan on 2 January 1965. Fatima Jinnah ( Urdu:) ( July 30, 1893 — July 8, 1967) was the sister of Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah, [64] During Ayub's rule, relations with the United States and the West grew stronger. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Pakistan joined two formal military alliances — the Baghdad Pact (later known as CENTO) which included Iran, Iraq, and Turkey to defend the Middle East and Persian Gulf against the Soviet Union;[65] and SEATO which covered South-East Asia. The Central Treaty Organization (also referred to as CENTO, original name was Middle East Treaty Organization or METO, also known as the Baghdad The Southeast Asia Treaty Organization ( SEATO) was an International organization for Collective defense created by the Southeast Asia Collective [66] However, the United States adopted a policy of denying military aid to both India and Pakistan during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 over Kashmir and the Rann of Kutch. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 was a culmination of Skirmishes that took place between April 1965 and September 1965 between India and Pakistan. The Rann of Kutch is a seasonally marshy region located in the Thar Desert biogeographic province in Gujarat state of northwestern India [67]
Between 1947 and 1971, Pakistan consisted of two geographically separate regions, West Pakistan and East Pakistan. West Pakistan was the popular and sometimes official (1955&ndash1970 name of the western wing of Pakistan until 1971 when the eastern wing became independent East Pakistan ( Bengali: পূর্ব পাকিস্তান Purbo Pakistan, Urdu: مشرقی پاکستان Mashriqi Pakistan) was During the 1960s, there was a rise in Bengali nationalism in East Pakistan, and of allegations that economic development and hiring for government jobs favoured West Pakistan. An independence movement in East Pakistan began to gather ground. After a nationwide uprising in 1969, General Ayub Khan stepped down from office, handing power to General Yahya Khan, who promised to hold general elections at the end of 1970. Field Marshal Muhammad Ayub Khan ( Urdu / Pashto: محمد ايوب خان GCMG, MBE, HJ, NPk, ( May 14 Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan ( February 4 1917 &ndash August 10 1980) was the President of Pakistan from 1969 to 1971 following the resignation On the eve of the elections, a cyclone struck East Pakistan killing approximately 500,000 people. The 1970 Bhola cyclone was a devastating Tropical cyclone that struck East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) and India 's West Bengal on Despite the tragedy and the additional difficulty experienced by affected citizens in reaching the voting sites, the elections were held and the results showed a clear division between East and West Pakistan. The Awami League, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, won a majority with 167 of the 169 East Pakistani seats, but with no seats in West Pakistan, where the Pakistan Peoples Party led by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, won 85 seats. The Bangladesh Awami League ( Bengali: বাংলাদেশ আওয়ামী লীগ also translated Bangladesh People's League) is the mainstream Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (শেখ মুজিবুর রহমান ''Shekh Mujibur Rôhman'' The Pakistan Peoples Party ( PPP) (پاکستان پیپلز پارٹی is Centre-left Political party in Pakistan affiliated with Socialist Zulfikar Ali Bhutto ( Urdu: ur '''ذوالفقار علی بھٹو''' Sindhi: ذوالفقار علي ڀُٽو, zʊlfɪqɑːɾ ɑli bɦʊʈːoː However, Yahya Khan and Bhutto refused to hand over power to Mujib.
Meanwhile, Mujib initiated a civil disobedience movement, which was strongly supported by the general population of East Pakistan, including most government workers. Civil disobedience is the active refusal to obey certain Laws demands and commands of a Government, or of an occupying power, without resorting to physical A round-table conference between Yahya, Bhutto, and Mujib was convened in Dhaka, which, however, ended without a solution. Dhaka (also known as Dacca ( Bangla: ঢাকা ɖʱaka is the Capital of Bangladesh and the principal city of Dhaka District. Soon thereafter, the West Pakistani Army commenced Operation Searchlight, an organized crackdown on the East Pakistani army, police, politicians, civilians, and students in Dhaka. Operation Searchlight was a planned military pacification carried out by the Pakistan Army to curb the Bengali nationalist movement in erstwhile East Pakistan Mujib and many other Awami League leaders were arrested, while others fled to neighbouring India. On 27th March 27 1971, Major Ziaur Rahman, a Bengali war-veteran of the East Bengal Regiment of the Pakistan Army, declared the independence of East Pakistan as the new nation of Bangladesh on behalf of Mujib. Ziaur Rahman (জিয়াউর রহমান Ziaur Rôhman) (January 19 1936 &ndash May 30 1981 was the President of Bangladesh and the founder The East Bengal Regiment ( Bengali:ইস্ট বেঙ্গল রেজিমেন্টis an Infantry Regiment of the Bangladesh Army. The Pakistan Army ( Urdu:) is the largest branch of the Pakistan military, and is mainly responsible for protection of the state borders the security of administered ( Bengali: বাংলাদেশ inc-Latn Bangladesh) officially The crackdown widened and escalated into a guerrilla warfare between the Pakistani Army and the Mukti Bahini (Bengali "freedom fighters"). The Bangladesh Liberation War (i ( Bengali: মুক্তিযুদ্ধ Muktijuddho) was an armed conflict between West Pakistan (later Mukti Bahini (মুক্তি বাহিনী "Liberation Army" also termed as the "Freedom Fighters" or FFs collectively refers to the armed organizations [8] Although the killing of Bengalis was unsupported by the people of West Pakistan, it continued for 9 months. India supplied the Bengali rebels with arms and training, and, in addition, hosted more than 10 million Bengali refugees who had fled the turmoil.
In March, 1971, India's Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi expressed sympathy for the East Pakistani independence movement, opening India's borders to refugees and providing other assistance. Indira Priyadarshini Gandhi ( Indirā Priyadarśinī Gāndhī) ( Née: Nehru (19 November 1917 - 31 October 1984 was the Prime Minister of the Following a period of covert and overt intervention by Indian forces, open hostilities broke out between the two countries on December 3, 1971. Organization and command structure The headquarters of the Indian Armed Forces is in New Delhi, the capital city. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 was a major military conflict between India and Pakistan. In East Pakistan, the Pakistani Army led by General A. A. K. Niazi, had already been weakened and exhausted by the Mukti Bahini's guerrilla warfare. Lieutenant General Amir Abdullah Khan Niazi HJ, MC (1915 - 2 February 2004 was a general officer of the Pakistan Army. Outflanked and overwhelmed, the Pakistani army in the eastern theatre surrendered on December 16, 1971, with nearly 90,000 soldiers taken as prisoners of war. The figures of the Bengali civilian death toll from the war vary greatly, depending on the sources. Although Pakistan's official report, by its Hamood-ur-Rahman Commission, places the figure at only 26,000, other sources put the number between 1. Hamood-ur-Rahman commission was an authority of the Pakistan Government that made an official investigation on Bangladesh atrocities during the Bangladesh Liberation 25 to 1. 5 million. Highest figure, reported in the media, is 3 million.
The result was the emergence of the new nation of Bangladesh. [9] Discredited by the defeat, General Yahya Khan resigned. Bhutto was inaugurated as president and chief martial law administrator on 20 December, 1971, but, in the following years, he and the other two key players in this tragic war, Mujibur Rehman and Indira Gandhi suffered a violent end under different circumstances. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (শেখ মুজিবুর রহমান ''Shekh Mujibur Rôhman'' Indira Priyadarshini Gandhi ( Indirā Priyadarśinī Gāndhī) ( Née: Nehru (19 November 1917 - 31 October 1984 was the Prime Minister of the
Second democratic era (1971-1977)
Civilian rule returned after the war, when General Yahya Khan handed over power to Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. In 1972, Pakistani intelligence learned that India was close to developing a nuclear bomb, and in response, Bhutto formed a group of engineers and scientists, headed by nuclear scientist Abdus Salam — who later won the Nobel Prize for physics — to develop nuclear devices. Abdus Salam ( Urdu: محمد عبد السلام) ( January 29, 1926; Jhang Punjab &ndash November 21, In 1973, Parliament approved a new constitution. The Constitution of Pakistan (آئین پاکستان is the supreme law of Pakistan. Pakistan was alarmed by the Indian nuclear test of 1974, and Bhutto promised that Pakistan would also have a nuclear device "even if we have to eat grass and leaves. "
During Bhutto's rule, a serious rebellion also took place in Balochistan province and led to harsh suppression of Baloch rebels with purported assistance from the Shah of Iran lending air support in order to avoid a spilling over the conflict into Iranian Balochistan. Sistān o Balūchestān ( Persian: استان سیستان و بلوچستان is one of the 30 provinces of Iran. The conflict ended later after an amnesty and subsequent stabilization by the provincial military ruler Rahimuddin Khan. General Rahimuddin Khan ( رحیم الدین خان; born 21 July, 1926) was the Governor of Balochistan, the largest Province In 1974, Bhutto succumbed to increasing pressure from religious parties and helped Parliament to declare the Ahmadiyya adherents as non-Muslims. Ahmadiyya ( احمدیہ Ahmadiyya) is a movement that arose out of mainstream Islam towards the end of the 19th century Elections were held in 1977, with the People's Party won but this was challenged by the opposition, which accused Bhutto of rigging the vote. General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq took power in a bloodless coup and Bhutto was later executed, after being convicted of authorizing the murder of a political opponent, in a controversial 4-3 split decision by the Supreme Court. General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq ( Arabic: محمد ضياء الحق) (b The Supreme Court ( Urdu: عدالت عظمیٰ) is the apex court in Pakistan 's judicial hierarchy the final arbiter of legal and constitutional
Second military era (1977-1988)
Pakistan had been a US ally for much of the Cold War, from the 1950s and as a member of CENTO and SEATO. The Central Treaty Organization (also referred to as CENTO, original name was Middle East Treaty Organization or METO, also known as the Baghdad On December 2, 1978, General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq delivered a nationwide address on the occasion of the first day of the Hijra calendar Calls for Balochistan's independence The 1971 Indo-Pakistani War had ended with the humiliating defeat of Pakistan at the hands of neighboring India Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan renewed and deepened the US-Pakistan alliance. The Soviet war in Afghanistan, also known as the Soviet-Afghan War or just the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan, was a nine-year conflict involving The Reagan administration in the United States helped supply and finance an anti-Soviet insurgency in Afghanistan, using Pakistan as a conduit. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the In retaliation, the Afghan secret police, KHAD, carried out a large number of terrorist operations against Pakistan, which also suffered from an influx of illegal weapons and drugs from Afghanistan. Khadamat-e Etela'at-e Dawlati ( Persian ' خدمات اطلاعات دولتی') ( English: "State Information Agency" almost always In the 1980s, as the front-line state in the anti-Soviet struggle, Pakistan received substantial aid from the United States as it took in millions of Afghan (mostly Pashtun) refugees fleeing the Soviet occupation. The Demographics of Afghanistan are ethnically and linguistically mixed Pashtuns ( Pashto: پښتون Paṣtūn, Paxtūn, also rendered as Pushtuns, Pakhtuns, Pukhtuns) also called According to the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, a refugee is a person who owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race The influx of so many refugees - the largest refugee population in the world[68] - had a heavy impact on Pakistan and its effects continue to this day. General Zia's martial-law administration gradually reversed the socialist policies of the previous government, and also introduced strict Islamic law in 1978, often cited as the contributing factor in the present climate of sectarianism and religious fundamentalism in Pakistan. Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. Sectarianism is Bigotry, Discrimination, Prejudice or Hatred arising from attaching importance to perceived differences between subdivisions Fundamentalism refers to a "deep and totalistic commitment" to a belief in and strict adherence to a set of basic principles (often Religious in nature a reaction Ordinance XX was introduced to limit the freedom of the Ahmadi's to call themselves Muslims in Pakistan. Ordinance XX is an ordinance of the government of Pakistan that is meant to prevent "Anti-Islamic activities" Further, in his time, secessionist uprisings in Balochistan were put down violently but successfully by the provincial governor, General Rahimuddin Khan. General Rahimuddin Khan ( رحیم الدین خان; born 21 July, 1926) was the Governor of Balochistan, the largest Province
General Zia lifted martial law in 1985, holding non-partisan elections and handpicking Muhammad Khan Junejo to be the new Prime Minister, who readily extended Zia's term as Chief of Army Staff until 1990. Muhammad Khan Junejo ( Urdu / Sindhi: محمد خان جونیجو) ( August 18, 1932 &ndash March 16, 1993) was the eleventh Junejo however gradually fell out with Zia as his administrative independence grew; for example, Junejo signed the Geneva Accord, which Zia greatly frowned upon. After a large-scale blast at a munitions dump in Ojhri, Junejo vowed to bring to justice those responsible for the significant damage caused, implicating several senior generals. Zia dismissed the Junejo government on several charges in May 1988 and called for elections in November 1988. However, General Zia died in a plane crash on August 17 1988.
Third democratic era (1988-1999)
From 1988 to 1999, Pakistan was ruled by civilian governments, alternately headed by Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif, who were each elected twice and removed from office on charges of corruption. Benazir Bhutto ( Sindhi: بينظير ڀٽو Urdu: بینظیر بھٹو beːnəziːɾ bɦʊʈːoː (21 June 1953 &ndash 27 December 2007 was a Mian Muhammad Nawaz Sharif also known as Nawaz Sharif ( Urdu:) (born December 25, 1949 in Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan Benazir Bhutto ( Sindhi: بينظير ڀٽو Urdu: بینظیر بھٹو beːnəziːɾ bɦʊʈːoː (21 June 1953 &ndash 27 December 2007 was a Mian Muhammad Nawaz Sharif also known as Nawaz Sharif ( Urdu:) (born December 25, 1949 in Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan During the late 1990s, Pakistan was one of three countries which recognized the Taliban government and Mullah Mohammed Omar as the legitimate ruler of Afghanistan. The Taliban ( طالبان, also anglicised as Taleban; translation "students" is a Sunni Islamist, predominately Mullah Mohammed Omar ( Pashto: ملا محمد عمر (born c Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, [69] Allegations have been made of Pakistan and other countries providing economic and military aid to the group from 1994 as a part of supporting the anti-Soviet alliance. It is alleged that some post-invasion Taliban fighters were recruits drawn from Pakistan's madrassahs. "Madrasa" and "Medrese" redirect here For the village in Azerbaijan see Mədrəsə. Economic growth declined towards the end of this period, hurt by the Asian financial crisis, and economic sanctions imposed on Pakistan after its first tests of nuclear devices in 1998. Economic sanctions are domestic penalties applied by one country (or group of countries on another for a variety of reasons The Pakistani testing came shortly after India tested nuclear devices and increased fears of a nuclear arms race in South Asia. The next year, the Kargil Conflict in Kashmir threatened to escalate to a full-scale war. The Kargil War, also known as the Kargil conflict, was an armed conflict between India and Pakistan that took place between May and July [10]
In the election that returned Nawaz Sharif as Prime Minister in 1997, his party received a heavy majority of the vote, obtaining enough seats in parliament to change the constitution, which Sharif amended to eliminate the formal checks and balances that restrained the Prime Minister's power. Majlis-e-Shoora ( Urdu: مجلس شوری) ( Council of Advisors in Urdu, although referred to as " Parliament " is the federal The Constitution of Pakistan (آئین پاکستان is the supreme law of Pakistan. The Constitution (Fourteenth Amendment Act 1997 was an amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan passed in 1997 during the government of Prime Minister Nawaz Separation of powers, a term ascribed to French Enlightenment Political philosopher Baron de Montesquieu, is a model for the Governance Institutional challenges to his authority led by the civilian President Farooq Leghari, military chief Jehangir Karamat and Chief Justice Sajjad Ali Shah were put down and all three were forced to resign - Shah doing so after the Supreme Court was stormed by Sharif partisans. The President of Pakistan ( Urdū: صدر Sadr-e-Mumlikat) is the Head of state of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. Sardar Farooq Ahmad Khan Leghari ( Urdu: سردار فاروق احمد خان لغاری) (born May 29 1940 was President of Pakistan from November 14 General (retd Jehangir Karamat ( Urdu: جہانگیر کرامت) is the former Chief of Army Staff of the Pakistan Army from The Chief Justice of Pakistan heads the Supreme Court of Pakistan. Syed Sajjad Ali Shah was the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Pakistan. [70]
Third military era (1999 - 2007)
On 12 October, 1999, Sharif attempted to dismiss army chief Pervez Musharraf and install ISI director Ziauddin Butt in his place, but senior generals refused to accept the decision. In October 1999 General Pervez Musharraf, Chief of Army Staff of the Pakistani army launched a coup to topple Nawaz Sharif, then General (ret Pervez Musharraf ( (born 11 August 1943 NI(M, HI(M, TBt, is the former Military dictator and President of General (ret Pervez Musharraf ( (born 11 August 1943 NI(M, HI(M, TBt, is the former Military dictator and President of History After independence in 1947 two new intelligence agencies were created in Pakistan called the Intelligence Bureau (IB and Military Intelligence [71] Musharraf, who was out of the country, boarded a commercial airliner to return to Pakistan. Sharif ordered the Jinnah International Airport to prevent the landing of the airliner, which then circled the skies over Karachi. Jinnah International Airport previously Quaid-e-Azam International Airport is Pakistan 's largest international and domestic Airport In a coup, the generals ousted Sharif's administration and took over the airport. [11] The plane landed with only a few minutes of fuel to spare, and General Musharraf assumed control of the government. He arrested Sharif and those members of his cabinet who took part in this conspiracy. American President Bill Clinton had felt that his pressure to force Sharif to withdraw Pakistani forces from Kargil, in Indian-controlled Kashmir, was one of the main reasons for disagreements between Sharif and the Pakistani army. William Jefferson "Bill" Clinton (born William Jefferson Blythe III, August 19 1946 served as the forty-second President of the United States Clinton and King Fahd then pressured Musharraf to spare Sharif and, instead, exile him to Saudi Arabia, guaranteeing that he would not be involved in politics for ten years. King Fahd bin Abdul Aziz Al Saud, Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, ( 1921 - August 1, 2005) was the King of the Kingdom Sharif lived in Saudi Arabia for more than six years before moving to London in 2005.
On May 12, 2000 the Supreme Court of Pakistan ordered the Government to hold general elections by October 12, 2002. The Supreme Court ( Urdu: عدالت عظمیٰ) is the apex court in Pakistan 's judicial hierarchy the final arbiter of legal and constitutional In an attempt to legitimize his presidency[72] and assure its continuance after the impending elections, Musharraf held a controversial national referendum on April 30, 2002,[73] which extended his presidential term to a period ending five years after the October elections. [74] Musharraf strengthened his position by issuing a Legal Framework Order in August 2001 which established the constitutional basis for his continuance in office. The Legal Framework Order 2002 (LFO was issued by Pakistani president Pervez Musharraf in August 2002 [75] The general elections were held in October 2002 and the centrist, pro-Musharraf PML-Q won a majority of the seats in Parliament. The Pakistan Muslim League (Q or officially Pakistan Muslim League (پاکستان مسلم لیگ ق is a centrist conservative Political party in Pakistan Majlis-e-Shoora ( Urdu: مجلس شوری) ( Council of Advisors in Urdu, although referred to as " Parliament " is the federal However, parties opposed to the Legal Framework Order effectively paralyzed the National Assembly for over a year. The National Assembly is the Lower house of the bicameral Parliament of Pakistan. The deadlock ended in December 2003, when Musharraf and some of his parliamentary opponents agreed upon a compromise, and pro-Musharraf legislators were able to muster the two-thirds majority required to pass the Seventeenth Amendment, which retroactively legitimized Musharraf's 1999 coup and many of his subsequent decrees. The Constitution (Seventeenth Amendment Act 2003 was an amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan passed in December 2003, after over a year of political wrangling In a vote of confidence on 1st January 2004, Musharraf won 658 out of 1,170 votes in the Electoral College of Pakistan, and according to Article 41(8) of the Constitution of Pakistan, was elected to the office of President. A Motion of Confidence is a motion of support proposed by a government in a Parliament or other assembly of elected representatives to give members of parliament (or The President of Pakistan is chosen by an Electoral college. According to article 41(3 of the Constitution of Pakistan, this electoral college consists of the The Constitution of Pakistan (آئین پاکستان is the supreme law of Pakistan. [76]
While economic reforms undertaken during his regime have yielded some results, social reform programmes and his liberal views on reforming the practice of Islam appear to have met with resistance. Musharraf's power is threatened by extremists who have grown in strength since the September 11, 2001 attacks and who are particularly angered by Musharraf's close political and military alliance with the United States, including his support of the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan. The War in Afghanistan, which began on October 7 2001 as the U Musharraf has survived several assassination attempts by terrorist groups believed to be part of Al-Qaeda, including at least two instances where the terrorists had inside information from a member of his military security. Pakistan continues to be involved in a dispute over Kashmir, with allegations of support of terrorist groups being leveled against Pakistan by India, while Pakistan charges that the Indian government abuses human rights in its use of military force in the disputed region. This article is about the geographical region of greater Kashmir India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country What makes this dispute a source of special concern for the world community is, that both India and Pakistan possess nuclear weapons. A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from Nuclear reactions either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. It had led to a nuclear standoff in 2002, when Kashmiri-militants (supposedly backed by the ISI) attacked the Indian parliament. In reaction to this, serious diplomatic tensions developed and India and Pakistan deployed 500,000 and 120,000 troops to the border respectively. [77] While the Indo-Pakistani peace process has since made progress, it is sometimes stalled by infrequent insurgent activity in India (including the 11 July 2006 Mumbai train bombings). Pakistan also has been accused of contributing to nuclear proliferation; indeed, its leading nuclear scientist, Abdul Qadeer Khan, admitted to selling nuclear secrets, though he denied government knowledge of his activities. Nuclear proliferation is a term now used to describe the spread of Nuclear weapons, fissile material and weapons-applicable nuclear technology and information to nations Abdul Qadeer Khan ( عبدالقدیر خان; born April 1 1936 in Bhopal, India) is a Pakistani scientist and metallurgical engineer
After the U.S.A. led invasion of Afghanistan, the Pakistani government, as an ally, sent thousands of troops into the region of Waziristan in 2002 in search of bin-Laden and other al-Qaeda fugitives sought by U. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Waziristan ( Pashto: وزیرستان "land of the Wazir " is a mountainous region of northwest Pakistan, bordering Afghanistan S. A. In March 2004, heavy fighting broke out at Azam Warsak, near the South Waziristan town of Wana, between Pakistani troops and an estimated 400 militants holed up in several fortified settlements. It was speculated that bin Laden's deputy Ayman al-Zawahiri was among those trapped by the Pakistani Army. On September 5, 2006 a truce was signed with the militants (who call themselves the Islamic Emirate of Waziristan) in which the rebels were to cease supporting cross-border jihadist attacks on Afghanistan in return for a general ceasefire and a hand-over of border patrol and check-point responsibilities formerly handled by the Pakistan Army. The Islamic Emirate of Waziristan (اسلامی امارات وزیرستان also known as the Islamic Republic of Waziristan, is a rebel organization in Waziristan A Mujahid (Arabic ar مجاهد, literally "struggler" is a Muslim involved in a Jihad, id est fighting in a war or The Pakistan Army ( Urdu:) is the largest branch of the Pakistan military, and is mainly responsible for protection of the state borders the security of administered
Former prime minister Nawaz Sharif attempted to return from exile on September 10, 2007 but was arrested on corruption charges after landing at Islamabad International Airport. Sharif was then put on a plane bound for Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, whilst outside the airport there were violent confrontations between Sharif's supporters and the police. [78] This did not deter another former prime minister, Benazir Bhutto, from returning on October 18, 2007 after an eight year exile in Dubai and London, to prepare for the parliamentary elections to be held in 2008. Dubai (in دبيّ,) is one of the seven emirates and most populous city of the United Arab Emirates (UAE London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. A general election was held in Pakistan on February 18, 2008, after being postponed from 8 January 2008, the original date to elect [79][80] However, on the same day, two suicide bombers attempted to kill Bhutto as she travelled towards a rally in Karachi. The 2007 Karachi bombing of October 18, 2007 in Karachi, Pakistan, was an attack on a motorcade carrying former Prime Minister Bhutto escaped unharmed but there were 136 casualties and at least 450 people were injured. [81]
On November 3, 2007, General Musharraf proclaimed a state of emergency and sacked the Chief Justice of Pakistan, Justice Iftikhar Muhammad Choudhry along with other 14 judges of the Supreme Court. A 2007 Pakistani state of emergency was declared by Pervez Musharraf on November 3, 2007 and lasted until December 15, 2007,during [82][83] Lawyers launched a protest against this action but they were arrested. All private media channels were banned including foreign channels. Musharraf declared that the state of emergency would end on December 16, 2007. [84] On November 28, 2007, General Musharraf retired from the Army and the following day was sworn in for a second presidential term. [85][86]
On November 25, 2007, Nawaz Sharif made a second attempt to return from exile, this time accompanied by his brother, the former Punjab chief minister, Shahbaz Sharif. Hundreds of their supporters, including a few leaders of the party were detained before the pair arrived at Lahore International Airport. [87][88] The following day, Nawaz Sharif filed his nomination papers for two seats in the forthcoming elections whilst Benazir Bhutto filed for three seats including one of the reserved seats for women. [89]
On December 27, 2007, Benazir Butto was leaving an election rally in Rawalpindi when she was assassinated by a gunman who shot her in the neck and set off a bomb,[90][91] killing 20 other people and injuring several more. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ( Urdu: Rāwalpindī) is a city in the Potwar Plateau near Pakistan 's capital city of Islamabad, in the province The assassination of Benazir Bhutto occurred on December 27 2007 in Rawalpindi, Pakistan. [92] The exact circumstances of the attack remain unclear because although early reports indicated that Bhutto was hit by shrapnel or the gunshots,[93] the Pakistani Interior Ministry stated that she died from a skull fracture sustained when the explosion threw Bhutto against the sunroof of her vehicle. Shrapnel is the term originally applied to an anti-personnel artillery shell which carried a large number of individual bullets to the target and then ejected them forwards relying [94] Bhutto's aides rejected this claim and insisted that she suffered two gunshots prior to the bomb detonation. [95] The Interior Ministry subsequently backtracked from its previous claim. [96] The Election Commission, after a meeting in Islamabad, announced that, due to the assassination of Benazir Bhutto,[97]the elections, which had been scheduled for 8 January 2008, would take place on 18 February. The assassination of Benazir Bhutto occurred on December 27 2007 in Rawalpindi, Pakistan. Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 3102 BC - Epoch (origin of the Kali Yuga. 1229 - The Sixth Crusade: Frederick II Holy [98]
A General Election was held in Pakistan, according to the revised schedule, on February 18, 2008,). Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and Events 3102 BC - Epoch (origin of the Kali Yuga. 1229 - The Sixth Crusade: Frederick II Holy 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common [99][100] Pakistan's two big and main opposition parties, the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPPP) and the Pakistan Muslim League (N) (PML (N)) won the majority of seats in the election, although the Pakistan Muslim League (Q) (PML (Q)) actually was second in the popular vote; the PPP and PML (N) have formed the new coalition-government. The Pakistan Muslim League (N ( Urdu: پاکستان مسلم لیگ ن) is a Political party in Pakistan. The Pakistan Muslim League (Q or officially Pakistan Muslim League (پاکستان مسلم لیگ ق is a centrist conservative Political party in Pakistan
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- ^ Herodotus; Aubrey De Sélincourt (trans. Herodotus of Halicarnassus ( Greek: Hēródotos Halikarnāsseús) was a Greek Historian who lived in the 5th century BC ( 484 BC&ndash ) (1954). Herodotus: the Histories. Harmondsworth, Middlesex; Baltimore: Penguin Books. Retrieved on 2007-11-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1095 - Pope Urban II declares the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont
- ^ Plutarchus, Mestrius; Bernadotte Perrin (trans. Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Greek: Μέστριος Πλούταρχος c ) (1919). Plutarch's Lives. London: William Heinemann, Ch. LXII. ISBN 0674991109. Retrieved on 2007-11-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1095 - Pope Urban II declares the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont
- ^ Plutarchus, Mestrius; Bernadotte Perrin (trans. Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Greek: Μέστριος Πλούταρχος c ) (1919). Plutarch's Lives. London: William Heinemann, Ch. LXIII. ISBN 0674991109. Retrieved on 2007-11-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1095 - Pope Urban II declares the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont
- ^ Marshall, John (1975). Sir John Hubert Marshall ( March 19, 1876 Chester - August 17, 1958 Guildford) was the Director-General of the Archaeological Taxila. Orient Book Distributors. ISBN 0896843270.
- ^ Appian of Alexandria; Horace White (trans. ) (1899). The Roman History of Appian of Alexandria. Macmillan & Co. . Retrieved on 2007-11-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1095 - Pope Urban II declares the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont
- ^ Mookerji, Radha Kumud (1966). Chandragupta Maurya and his times, 4th, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 8120804058. Retrieved on 2007-11-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1095 - Pope Urban II declares the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont
- ^ Avari, Burjor (2007). India, the ancient past. London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 0415356156.
- ^ McEvilley, Thomas (2002). The shape of ancient thought. New York: Allworth Press. ISBN 1581152035. Retrieved on 2007-11-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1095 - Pope Urban II declares the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont
- ^ Strabo; H. Strabo ( Greek: Στράβων 63/64 BC – ca AD 24 was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher. L. Jones (ed. ) (1924). Geographica. London: William Heinemann, Ch. XI. ISBN 0674990552. Retrieved on 2007-11-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 498 - Kofi Aseidu- After the death of Anastasius II, Symmachus is elected Pope in the Lateran
- ^ Davids, T. W. Rhys (trans.) (2000, 1930). Rhys Davids as a surname may refer to Thomas William Rhys Davids, British scholar founder and president of the Pali Text Society husband of next The Milinda-questions. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415244757. Retrieved on 2007-11-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 498 - Kofi Aseidu- After the death of Anastasius II, Symmachus is elected Pope in the Lateran
- ^ Parthian Pair of Earrings. Marymount School, New York. Retrieved on 2007-11-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 498 - Kofi Aseidu- After the death of Anastasius II, Symmachus is elected Pope in the Lateran
- ^ Sindh. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved March 15, 2007, from: Encyclopædia Britannica Online
- ^ a b Heath, Ian; Michael Perry (2005). The Sikh army 1799-1849. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 3. ISBN 1841767778.
- ^ Steinbach, Henry (1846). The Punjaub, being a brief account of the country of the Sikhs. London: Smith, Elder, 9-14.
- ^ Edwardes, Herbert B. (1851). Sir Herbert Benjamin Edwardes DCL KCSI KCB ( November 12, 1819 &ndash December 23, 1868) English soldier-statesman A year on the Punjab frontier in 1848-49. London: Richard Bentley.
- ^ Chandra, Bipan; Amales Tripathi; Barun De (1972). Freedom struggle. New Delhi: National Book Trust, India.
- ^ Jaffrelot, Christophe (2004). A history of Pakistan and its origins. London: Anthem Press, 16. ISBN 1843311496.
- ^ Jalal, Ayesha (1985). Ayesha Jalal (عائشہ جلال is a Pakistani-American historian The sole spokesman : Jinnah, the Muslim League, and the demand for Pakistan. Cambridge (UK); New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521244625.
- ^ The Statesman: The All India Muslim League. Government of Pakistan. Retrieved on 2007-12-04. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. "December 4th" redirects here For the song by Jay-Z, see December 4th (song.
- ^ Talbot, Ian (1999). Pakistan: a modern history. New Delhi; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195650735.
- ^ Blood, Peter R. (1995). Pakistan: a country study. Washington, D. C. : Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 28-29. ISBN 0844408344.
- ^ a b c d e Kulke, Hermann; Dietmar Rothermund (1986). A History of India. Totowa, New Jersey: Barnes & Noble, pp. 300-312. ISBN 0389206709.
- ^ Kulke, Hermann; Dietmar Rothermund (1986). A History of India. Totowa, New Jersey: Barnes & Noble, pp. 272-273. ISBN 0389206709.
- ^ Mir, Mustansir (2006). Iqbal. London; New York: I. B. Tauris, 138. ISBN 1845110943.
- ^ Ihsan Aslam (February 11, 2004). The History Man: Cambridge remembers Rahmat Ali. Daily Times, Pakistan. Retrieved on 2007-12-04. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. "December 4th" redirects here For the song by Jay-Z, see December 4th (song.
- ^ Choudhary Rahmat Ali (January 28, 1933). Now or never: Are we to live or perish for ever?. Pakistan Movement Historical Documents. Retrieved on 2007-12-04. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. "December 4th" redirects here For the song by Jay-Z, see December 4th (song.
- ^ Brown, W. Norman (19th October, 1946). "India's Pakistan Issue". Proceedings 91 (2): 161. American Philosophical Society.
- ^ Wolpert, Stanley A. (1984). Stanley Wolpert (b 1927 is an American historian who specializes in the history of India and Pakistan. Jinnah of Pakistan. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195034120.
- ^ Tinker, Hugh (1987). Men who overturned empires : fighters, dreamers, and schemers. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, pp. 50. ISBN 0299114600.
- ^ Malik, Muhammad Aslam (2001). The making of the Pakistan resolution. Karachi: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195795385.
- ^ Ahmed, Syed Iftikhar (1983). Essays on Pakistan. Lahore: Alpha Bravo Publishers.
- ^ Qureshi, Ishtiaq Husain (1967). Prof Dr Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi SP, HI ( اﺸﺘﻴﺎﻖ حسين قریشی) was a noted Litterateur, Historian, Educationist Prof Dr Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi SP, HI ( اﺸﺘﻴﺎﻖ حسين قریشی) was a noted Litterateur, Historian, Educationist A Short history of Pakistan. Karachi: University of Karachi.
- ^ Qureshi, Ishtiaq Husain (1965). The struggle for Pakistan. Karachi: University of Karachi.
- ^ Ahmad, Syed Nur; Mahmud Ali; Craig Baxter (1985). From martial law to martial law : politics in the Punjab, 1919-1958. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, pp. 153. ISBN 086531845X.
- ^ Legislative Assembly of Sind under Government of India Act 1935.. Provincial Assembly of Sindh. Retrieved on 2007-12-04. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. "December 4th" redirects here For the song by Jay-Z, see December 4th (song.
- ^ Blood, Peter R. (1995). Pakistan: a country study. Washington, D. C. : Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 130-131.
- ^ Munir, Muhammad; Malik Rustam Kayani (1954). Muhammad Munir ( 1895 - 1974) After doing MA from Government College Lahore he joined Law College to earn his L Muhammad Rustam Kayani also known as M R Kayani was a distinguished Pakistani jurist who served as Chief Justice of West Pakistan from 1958 Punjab. Court of Inquiry to Enquire into the Punjab Disturbances of 1953.. Lahore: Superintendent, Government Printing, Punjab.
- ^ Ahmad, Khurshid (1956). An Analysis of the Munir report; a critical study of the Punjab disturbances inquiry report. . Karachi: Jamaat-e-Islami Publications.
- ^ Rizvi, Hasan Askari (1974). The military and politics in Pakistan. Lahore: Progressive Publishers.
- ^ Blood, Peter R. (1995). Pakistan: a country study. Washington, D. C. : Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 41.
- ^ Kapur, Ashok (1991). Pakistan in crisis. London; New York: Routledge, 70. ISBN 0415000629.
- ^ Mahmood, Shaukat (1966). The second Republic of Pakistan; an analytical and comparative evaluation of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. Lahore: Ilmi Kitab Khana.
- ^ Lakhi, M. V. ; Virendra Narain; Kashi Prasad Misra (1965). Presidential election in Pakistan: 1965. Jaipur: University of Rajasthan.
- ^ Peaslee, Amos J. ; Dorothy Peaslee Xydis (1974). International governmental organizations. The Hague: Nijhoff, 266. ISBN 9024716012.
- ^ Tarling, Nicholas (1992). The Cambridge history of Southeast Asia. Cambridge, UK; New York, N. Y. : Cambridge University Press, 603. ISBN 0521355052.
- ^ Tahir-Kheli, Shirin (1997). India, Pakistan, and the United States : breaking with the past. New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 35-36. ISBN 0876091990.
- ^ Refugees from Afghanistan: The world's largest single refugee group. Amnesty International (1 November 1999). Retrieved on 2007-11-21. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 164 BC - Judas Maccabaeus, son of Mattathias of the Hasmonean family restores the Temple in Jerusalem.
- ^ Who are the Taleban?. BBC News (Saturday, 2 September 2006). Retrieved on 2007-11-21. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 164 BC - Judas Maccabaeus, son of Mattathias of the Hasmonean family restores the Temple in Jerusalem.
- ^ Protesters halt Pakistani PM court case. BBC News (November 28, 1997). Retrieved on 2007-11-21. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 164 BC - Judas Maccabaeus, son of Mattathias of the Hasmonean family restores the Temple in Jerusalem.
- ^ Pakistan army seizes power. BBC News (1999-10-12). Year 1999 ( MCMXCIX) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1999 Gregorian calendar) Events 539 BC - The army of Cyrus the Great of Persia takes Babylon. Retrieved on 2008-01-08. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army
- ^ Baxter, Craig (2004). Pakistan on the brink: politics, economics, and society. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books, 106. ISBN 0739104985.
- ^ Rafaqat Ali (2002-04-09). See also 2002 (disambiguation Year 2002 ( MMII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 193 - Septimius Severus is proclaimed Roman Emperor by the army in Illyricum (in the Balkans) Question finalized for referendum. Dawn Group of Newspapers. Retrieved on 2007-12-02. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1409 - The University of Leipzig opens 1755 - The second Eddystone Lighthouse is destroyed by fire
- ^ 98pc of voters supported Musharraf: EC. Dawn Group of Newspapers (2002-05-02). See also 2002 (disambiguation Year 2002 ( MMII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1194 - King Richard I of England gives Portsmouth its first Royal Charter. Retrieved on 2007-12-02. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1409 - The University of Leipzig opens 1755 - The second Eddystone Lighthouse is destroyed by fire
- ^ Legal Framework Order, 2002 (PDF). National Reconstruction Bureau, Government of Pakistan (2002-08-21). See also 2002 (disambiguation Year 2002 ( MMII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1192 - Minamoto Yoritomo becomes Seii Tai Shōgun and the De facto ruler of Japan. Retrieved on 2007-12-02. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1409 - The University of Leipzig opens 1755 - The second Eddystone Lighthouse is destroyed by fire
- ^ The President of the Federation of Pakistan. Pakistani. org. Retrieved on 2007-12-02. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1409 - The University of Leipzig opens 1755 - The second Eddystone Lighthouse is destroyed by fire
linked from Text of the Constitution of Pakistan. Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of Pakistan. Retrieved on 2007-12-02. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1409 - The University of Leipzig opens 1755 - The second Eddystone Lighthouse is destroyed by fire - ^ 2002 - Kashmir Crisis. GlobalSecurity. org. Retrieved on 2007-11-21. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 164 BC - Judas Maccabaeus, son of Mattathias of the Hasmonean family restores the Temple in Jerusalem.
- ^ Former PM Nawaz Sharif arrested and deported on return to Pakistan. Independent News and Media (2007-09-11). Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 9 - The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest ends 506 - The Bishops of Visigothic Gaul Retrieved on 2007-12-02. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1409 - The University of Leipzig opens 1755 - The second Eddystone Lighthouse is destroyed by fire
- ^ Supporters flock to Karachi for Bhutto's return. CBC News (October 17, 2007). Retrieved on 2007-12-02. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1409 - The University of Leipzig opens 1755 - The second Eddystone Lighthouse is destroyed by fire
- ^ Huge crowds greet Bhutto return. BBC News (October 18, 2007). Retrieved on 2007-12-02. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1409 - The University of Leipzig opens 1755 - The second Eddystone Lighthouse is destroyed by fire
- ^ After Bombing, Bhutto Assails Officials' Ties. New York Times (October 20, 2007). Retrieved on 2007-12-02. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1409 - The University of Leipzig opens 1755 - The second Eddystone Lighthouse is destroyed by fire
- ^ Gen Musharraf’s second coup. Dawn Group of Newspapers (November 4, 2007). Retrieved on 2007-12-02. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1409 - The University of Leipzig opens 1755 - The second Eddystone Lighthouse is destroyed by fire
- ^ Pakistan under martial law. CNN (November 4, 2007). Retrieved on 2007-12-02. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1409 - The University of Leipzig opens 1755 - The second Eddystone Lighthouse is destroyed by fire
- ^ Musharraf promises to end emergency rule by December 16. Guardian News and Media (November 30, 2007). Retrieved on 2007-12-02. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1409 - The University of Leipzig opens 1755 - The second Eddystone Lighthouse is destroyed by fire
- ^ New term for civilian Musharraf. BBC News (November 29, 2007). Retrieved on 2007-12-02. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1409 - The University of Leipzig opens 1755 - The second Eddystone Lighthouse is destroyed by fire
- ^ "Musharraf Quits Pakistani Army Post", The New York Times, 28 November 2007. Retrieved on 2008-01-08. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army
- ^ Sharifs finally home: Jubilant welcome in Lahore. Dawn Group of Newspapers (November 26, 2007). Retrieved on 2007-12-02. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1409 - The University of Leipzig opens 1755 - The second Eddystone Lighthouse is destroyed by fire
- ^ Nawaz Sharif returns to Pakistan. Telegraph Media Group (November 26, 2007). Retrieved on 2007-12-02. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1409 - The University of Leipzig opens 1755 - The second Eddystone Lighthouse is destroyed by fire
- ^ Pakistan rivals enter poll fray. BBC News (November 26, 2007). Retrieved on 2007-12-02. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1409 - The University of Leipzig opens 1755 - The second Eddystone Lighthouse is destroyed by fire
- ^ Benazir Bhutto killed in attack. BBC News (2007-12-27). Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the Retrieved on 2007-12-31. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 406 – Vandals, Alans and Suebians cross the Rhine, beginning an invasion of Gallia.
- ^ "Benazir Bhutto killed in gun and bomb attack", Telegraph, 2007-12-28. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1065 - Westminster Abbey is Consecrated. 1308 - The reign of Emperor Hanazono, Emperor of Retrieved on 2007-12-31. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 406 – Vandals, Alans and Suebians cross the Rhine, beginning an invasion of Gallia.
- ^ Bhutto exhumation OK, Pakistan official says. CNN (2007-12-29). Cable News Network, usually referred to by its Initialism CNN, is a major English language Television network founded in 1980 by Ted Turner Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1170 - Thomas Becket: Thomas Becket Archbishop of Canterbury is assassinated inside Canterbury Cathedral by followers of King Henry II Retrieved on 2007-12-31. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 406 – Vandals, Alans and Suebians cross the Rhine, beginning an invasion of Gallia.
- ^ Benazir Bhutto assassinated. CNN (2007-12-28). Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1065 - Westminster Abbey is Consecrated. 1308 - The reign of Emperor Hanazono, Emperor of Retrieved on 2007-12-31. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 406 – Vandals, Alans and Suebians cross the Rhine, beginning an invasion of Gallia.
- ^ Bhutto died after hitting sun roof. CNN (2007-12-28). Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1065 - Westminster Abbey is Consecrated. 1308 - The reign of Emperor Hanazono, Emperor of Retrieved on 2007-12-28. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1065 - Westminster Abbey is Consecrated. 1308 - The reign of Emperor Hanazono, Emperor of
- ^ Bhutto death explanation 'pack of lies'. Herald and Weekly Times (2007-12-29). The Herald Sun is a morning Tabloid Newspaper based in Melbourne, Australia Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1170 - Thomas Becket: Thomas Becket Archbishop of Canterbury is assassinated inside Canterbury Cathedral by followers of King Henry II Retrieved on 2007-12-28. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1065 - Westminster Abbey is Consecrated. 1308 - The reign of Emperor Hanazono, Emperor of
- ^ Pak Govt makes U-turn on cause of Bhutto's death. Hindustan Times (2008-01-01). 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common New Year See also New Year The Ancient Romans began their consular year on January 1st since 153 BC Retrieved on 2008-01-08. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army
- ^ "Pakistan Delays Vote After Bloodshed", Sky News, 2008-02-01. Sky News is a rolling TV news channel providing 24 hour news coverage including the latest breaking news 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1327 - Teenaged Edward III is crowned King of England, but the country is ruled by his mother Queen Retrieved on 2008-02-01. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1327 - Teenaged Edward III is crowned King of England, but the country is ruled by his mother Queen
- ^ "Pakistan's uncertain year ahead", BBC News, 8 January 2008. Retrieved on 2008-01-08. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army
- ^ Ahmed Rashid. "Pakistan's uncertain year ahead", BBC News, 2007-01-10. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 49 BC - Julius Caesar crosses the Rubicon, signaling the start of civil war. Retrieved on 2007-07-09. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 455 - Roman military commander Avitus is proclaimed Emperor of the Western Roman Empire.
- ^ "Election Tracker: Pakistan", Angus Reid Global Monitor. The Angus Reid Global Monitor (ARGM is an affiliate company of Angus Reid Strategies. Retrieved on 2007-07-09. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 455 - Roman military commander Avitus is proclaimed Emperor of the Western Roman Empire.
Further reading
- Ahmed, Akbar S. (1976). Millennium and charisma among Pathans : a critical essay in social anthropology. London; Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 0710083483.
- Allchin, Bridget; Allchin, F. Raymond (1982). Bridget Allchin (Born 1927 in Oxford) is an archaeologist who specializes in South Asian archaeology The rise of civilization in India and Pakistan. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521242444.
- Baluch, Muhammad Sardar Khan (1977). History of the Baluch race and Baluchistan. Quetta: Gosha-e-Adab.
- Weiner, Myron; Ali Banuazizi (1994). The Politics of social transformation in Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press. ISBN 0815626088.
- Bhutto, Benazir (1988). Benazir Bhutto ( Sindhi: بينظير ڀٽو Urdu: بینظیر بھٹو beːnəziːɾ bɦʊʈːoː (21 June 1953 &ndash 27 December 2007 was a Daughter of the East. London: Hamilton. ISBN 0241123984.
- Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (1963). Clifford Edmund Bosworth (born December 29, 1928, Sheffield, United Kingdom) is an English historian and orientalist, specializing The Ghaznavids; their empire in Afghanistan and eastern Iran, 994 : 1040. Edinburgh: University Press.
- Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (1977). The later Ghaznavids: splendour and decay. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0231044283.
- Bryant, Edwin F. Edwin Bryant is an Author and Indologist. He received a PhD in religion from Columbia University in 1997 (2001). The quest for the origins of Vedic culture : the Indo-Aryan migration debate. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195137779.
- Cohen, Stephen P. Stephen P Cohen is senior fellow in Foreign policy studies at the Brookings Institution. (2004). The idea of Pakistan. Washington, D. C. : Brookings Institution. ISBN 0815715021.
- Davoodi, Schoresch & Sow, Adama (2007): The Political Crisis of Pakistan in 2007 - EPU Research Papers: Issue 08/07, Stadtschlaining
- Dupree, Louis (1973). The European University Center for Peace Studies (EPU is an international non-governmental organisation with UNESCO status and is affiliated to the Austrian Study Center for Afghanistan. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691030065.
- Elliot, Henry Miers; John Dowson (1867-77). The History of India, as told by its own historians. The Muhammadan Period. London: Trübner and Co.
- Elphinstone, Mountstuart (1815). Mountstuart Elphinstone ( October 6, 1779 &ndash November 20, 1859) was a Scottish Statesman and Historian, An account of the kingdom of Caubul and its dependencies in Persia, Tartary, and India. London: Unknown.
- Esposito, John L. (1999). The Oxford history of Islam. New York, N. Y. : Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195107993.
- Gascoigne, Bamber (2002). Bamber Gascoigne (born 24 January 1935 in London) is a British Television presenter and Author. A Brief History of the Great Moguls. New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers. ISBN 0786710403.
- Gauhar, Altaf (1996). Altaf Gauhar ( الطاف گوہر) (1923 – 2000 was a civil servant Journalist, and writer from Pakistan. Ayub Khan, Pakistan's first military ruler. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 019577647X.
- Hardy, Peter (1972). The Muslims of British India. London: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521084881.
- Hopkirk, Peter (1992). Peter Hopkirk (born December 15, 1930) is a British Journalist and author who has written six books about the British Empire The Great Game : the struggle for empire in Central Asia. New York: Kodansha International. ISBN 4770017030.
- Iqbal, Muhammad (1934). The reconstruction of religious thought in Islam. London: Oxford University Press.
- Jaffrelot, Christophe (2004). A history of Pakistan and its origins. London: Anthem Press. ISBN 1843311496.
- Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1998). Dr Jonathan Mark Kenoyer (born May 28, 1952, in Shillong, India) is an American Archaeologist and Professor of Anthropology Ancient cities of the Indus valley civilization. Karachi: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195779401.
- Mallory, James Patrick (1989). In search of the Indo-Europeans : language, archaeology, and myth. New York, N. Y. : Thames and Hudson. ISBN 050005052X.
- Moorhouse, Geoffrey (1992). Geoffrey Moorhouse (Born 1931 is an English author Moorhouse was born in Bolton and attended Bury Grammar School. To the frontier : a journey to the Khyber Pass. New York: H. Holt. ISBN 0805021094.
- Olmstead, A. T. (1948). History of the Persian Empire : Achaemenid period. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.
- Qureshi, Ishtiaq Husain (1967). A Short history of Pakistan. Karachi: University of Karachi.
- Reat, N. Ross (1994). Buddhism : a history. Berkeley, California: Asian Humanities Press. ISBN 0875730019.
- Sidky, H. (2000). The Greek kingdom of Bactria : from Alexander to Eucratides the Great. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America. ISBN 076181695X.
- Smith, Vincent Arthur (1958). The Oxford history of India. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
- Tarn, William Woodthorpe (1951). Sir William Woodthorpe Tarn ( February 26, 1869 – November 7, 1957) was a British classical scholar and a writer The Greeks in Bactria and India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Thackston, Wheeler M. Wheeler M Thackston Jr (born 1944 is an Orientalist and distinguished editor and translator of numerous Chaghatai, Arabic and Persian literary ; Robert Irwin (1996). The Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, Prince and Emperor. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195096711.
- Thapar, Romila; Thomas George Percival Spear (1990, 1965). Romila Thapar (born 1931 is an Indian Historian whose principal area of study is ancient India. A history of India. New York: Penguin. ISBN 0140138366.
- Welch, Stuart Cary (1978). Imperial Mughal painting. New York: George Braziller. ISBN 080760870X.
- Wheeler, Robert Eric Mortimer (1950). Brigadier Sir Robert Eric Mortimer Wheeler CH, CIE, MC, FBA, FSA ( September 10, 1890 Glasgow Five thousand years of Pakistan : an archaeological outline. London: C. Johnson.
- Wheeler, Robert Eric Mortimer (1959). Early India and Pakistan: to Ashoka. New York: Praeger.
- Wolpert, Stanley A. Stanley Wolpert (b 1927 is an American historian who specializes in the history of India and Pakistan. (1984). Jinnah of Pakistan. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195034120.
- Ziring, Lawrence (1997). Pakistan in the twentieth century : a political history. Karachi; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195778162.
See also
- Indus Valley Civilization
- History of South Asia
- Mehrgarh
- Meluhha
- A Short History of Pakistan
- History of Iran
- History of Afghanistan
- Islam in Pakistan
- Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent
- History of Bangladesh
- Timeline of Indian history
- History of India
External links
- National Fund for Cultural Heritage, Government of Pakistan
- Story of Pakistan
- History of Pakistan at the Open Directory Project
- Wikia has a wiki on this subject: History of Pakistan
Wikimedia Atlas of the History of Pakistan
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