History of Mexico |
| Pre-Columbian Civilizations |
| Spanish Conquest of Mexico |
| New Spain |
| Mexican War of Independence |
| Independent Mexico |
| La Reforma |
| French intervention in Mexico |
| Restored Republic |
| Porfiriato |
| Mexican Revolution |
| Modern Mexico |
Mexico is a country in North America and the largest Spanish-speaking country in the world. Mesoamerican chronology divides the history of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica into a number of named successive eras or periods from the earliest evidence of human habitation The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire was one of the most important campaigns in the Spanish colonization of the Americas. The Viceroyalty of New Spain (Virreinato de Nueva España was a name given to the Viceroy -ruled territories of the Spanish Empire in North America, The Mexican War of Independence (1810 - 1821 was an armed conflict between the people of Mexico and Spanish colonial authorities which started on September 16 1810 La Reforma (The Reform was a period halfway through the 19th century in the History of Mexico that was characterized by liberal reforms and the transformation The French intervention in Mexico, also known as the Maximilian Affair and The Franco-Mexican War, was an invasion of Mexico by the army of the José de la Cruz Porfirio Díaz Mori was a Mexican politician ( September 15, 1830 – 2 July 1915) that would later become the president of Mexico The Mexican Revolution (Revolución Mexicana was a major armed struggle that started with an uprising led by Francisco I It also has the largest number of American Indian language speakers on the continent (the majority speaking Nahuatl, Mayan, Mixtec and Zapotec). For indigenous peoples in the United States other than Hawaii and Alaska see also Native Americans in the United States. Nahuatl ( is a group of related languages and dialects of the Aztecan or Nahuan branch of the Uto-Aztecan language family The Mixtecan languages are a group of languages in the Otomanguean family of Mexico, spoken in total by approximately 550500 people Zapotec language(s describes a group of closely-related indigenous Mesoamerican languages spoken by the Zapotec people from Mexico's southwestern-central Human presence in Mexico has been shown to date back 40,000 years based upon ancient human footprints discovered in the Valley of Mexico [1] (previous evidence substantiated indigenous inhabitants at 12,500 years ago). Valley of Mexico is a highland Plateau in central Mexico roughly coterminous with the present-day Distrito Federal and the eastern half of the State For thousands of years, Mexico was a land of hunter-gatherers. Around 9,000 years ago, ancient Mexicans domesticated corn and initiated an agricultural revolution, leading to the formation of many complex civilizations. Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica A Civilization is a society in which large numbers of people share a variety of common elements These civilizations revolved around cities with writing, monumental architecture, astronomical studies, mathematics, and militaries. A city is an Urban area with a large Population and a particular Administrative, Legal, or Historical status A military is an Organization authorized by its Nation to use force usually including use of Weapons in defending its Country (or by attacking After 4,000 years, these civilizations were destroyed with the arrival of the Spaniards in 1519. For three centuries, Mexico was colonized by Spain, during which time the majority of its indigenous population died off. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Formal independence from Spain was recognized in 1821. A war with the United States ended with Mexico losing almost half of its territory in 1848. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the France then invaded Mexico in 1864 and ruled briefly until 1867. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The Mexican Revolution would later result in the death of 10% of the nation's population. The Mexican Revolution (Revolución Mexicana was a major armed struggle that started with an uprising led by Francisco I Since then, Mexico as a nation-state has struggled with reconciling its deeply-entrenched indigenous heritage with the demands of the modern Western cultural model imposed in 1519. For the online game see Jennifer Government NationStates. The nation-state is a certain form of State that derives its legitimacy The nation's name is derived from the Mexican civilization (known in popular culture as the Aztecs). The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. Aztec is a term used to refer to certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who achieved political
Pre-Columbian civilizations
The pre-Columbian history of what now is known as Mexico is known through the work of archaeologists and epigraphers, and through the accounts of the conquistadors, clergymen, and indigenous chroniclers of the immediate post-conquest period. Yaxchilan (also sometimes historically referred to by the names Menché and City Lorillard) is an ancient Maya city located on the Usumacinta River Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from Greek grc ἀρχαιολογία archaiologia – grc ἀρχαῖος archaīos Epigraphy (ἐπιγραφολογία from Greek ἐπιγραφή — "inscription" is the study of inscriptions or epigraphs engraved While relatively few documents (or codices) of the Mixtec and Aztec cultures of the Post-Classic period survived the Spanish conquest, more progress has been made in the area of Mayan archaeology and epigraphy. A codex ( Latin for block of wood, Book; plural codices) is a book in the format used for modern books with separate pages normally The Mixtec (or Mixteca) are an indigenous Mesoamerican people inhabiting the Mexican states of Oaxaca, Guerrero and Puebla Aztec is a term used to refer to certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who achieved political The Post-Classic Stage is an archaeological term describing a particular developmental level [2]
Indigenous peoples began to selectively breed maize plants around 8,000 BC. Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica Evidence shows a marked increase in pottery working by 2300 B. C. and the beginning of intensive corn farming between 1800 and 1500 B. C. .
Between 1800 and 300 BC, complex cultures began to form. Many matured into advanced pre-Columbian Mesoamerican civilizations such as the: Olmec, Izapa, Teotihuacan, Maya, Zapotec, Mixtec, Huastec, Tarascan, "Toltec" and Aztec, which flourished for nearly 4,000 years before the first contact with Europeans. The pre-Columbian era incorporates all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the Americas before the appearance of significant European influences Mesoamerica or Meso-America (Mesoamérica is a Region extending approximately from central Mexico to Honduras and Nicaragua, defined The Olmec were an ancient Pre-Columbian people living in the Tropical lowlands of south-central Mexico, in what are roughly the modern-day states Izapa is a very large Pre-Columbian Archaeological site located in the Mexican state of Chiapas; it was occupied during the Late Formative Teotihuacan is an enormous archaeological site in the Basin of Mexico, containing some of the largest pyramidal structures built in the Pre-Columbian Americas The Maya civilization is a Mesoamerican Civilization, noted for the only known fully developed written language of the Pre-Columbian Americas The Zapotec civilization was an indigenous Pre-Columbian civilization that flourished in the Valley of Oaxaca of southern Mesoamerica. The Mixtec (or Mixteca) are an indigenous Mesoamerican people inhabiting the Mexican states of Oaxaca, Guerrero and Puebla This article is about the Huastec people whose native language Wastek (Huastec is a Mayan language The Tarascan state was a state in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, roughly covering the geographic area of the present day Mexican state of Michoacán Toltec-style Vessel 1jpg|thumb|250px|right|A rather expressive orange-ware clay vessel in the Toltec style Aztec is a term used to refer to certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who achieved political
Accomplishments
These civilizations are credited with many inventions and advancements in many subjects including pyramid-temples, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and theology. Tula is a town of 28432 (2005 census in the southwestern part of the state of Hidalgo in central Mexico, some 100 km to the north-northwest of Mexico City Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study Many claim that ancient Egyptians traded with Mexico, though there is no evidence to suggest such a claim. However, one can find similarities in Egyptian culture and Native American culture.
Archaic inscriptions on rocks and rock walls all over northern Mexico (especially in the state of Nuevo León) demonstrate an early propensity for counting in Mexico. Nuevo León ( Spanish for "New León " after the former kingdom in Spain) is a state located in northeastern Mexico. These very early and ancient count-markings were associated with astronomical events and underscore the influence that astronomical activities had upon Mexican natives, even before they possessed urbanization. Urbanizationn (also spelled urbanisation) is the physical growth of Urban areas into rural or natural land as a result of population in-migration to an existing
In fact, many of the later Mexican-based civilizations would all carefully build their cities and ceremonial centers according to specific astronomical events. Astronomy and the notion of human observation of celestial events would become central factors in the development of religious systems, writing systems, fine arts, and architecture.
Prehistoric Mexican astronomers began a tradition of precise observing, recording, and commemorating astronomical events that later become a hallmark of black Mexican civilized achievements. Cities would be founded and built on astronomical principles, leaders would be appointed on celestial events, wars would be fought according to solar-calendars, and a complex theology using astronomical metaphors would organize the daily lives of millions of people. A city is an Urban area with a large Population and a particular Administrative, Legal, or Historical status hi how are you ?
At some different points in time, three Mexican cities (Teotihuacan, Tenochtitlan, and Cholula) and several others blossomed as centers of commerce, ideas, ceremonies, and theology. Teotihuacan is an enormous archaeological site in the Basin of Mexico, containing some of the largest pyramidal structures built in the Pre-Columbian Americas There are some towns in Mexico which are spelled "Tenochtitlán" like San Lorenzo In turn, they radiated influence outward into neighboring cultures in central Mexico.
Major civilizations
While many city-states, kingdoms, and empires competed with one another for power and prestige, Mexico can be said to have had five major civilizations: The Olmec, Teotihuacan, the Toltec, the Aztec and the Maya. The Olmec were an ancient Pre-Columbian people living in the Tropical lowlands of south-central Mexico, in what are roughly the modern-day states Teotihuacan is an enormous archaeological site in the Basin of Mexico, containing some of the largest pyramidal structures built in the Pre-Columbian Americas Toltec-style Vessel 1jpg|thumb|250px|right|A rather expressive orange-ware clay vessel in the Toltec style Aztec is a term used to refer to certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who achieved political The Maya civilization is a Mesoamerican Civilization, noted for the only known fully developed written language of the Pre-Columbian Americas These civilizations (with the exception of the politically-fragmented Maya) extended their reach across Mexico, and beyond, like no others. They consolidated power and distributed influence in matters of trade, art, politics, technology, and theology. Other regional power players made economic and political alliances with these five civilizations over the span of 3,000 years. Many made war with them. But almost all found themselves within these five spheres of influence.
Olmec civilization
The Olmec were an ancient Pre-Columbian people living in the tropical lowlands of south-central Mexico, roughly in what are the modern-day states of Veracruz and Tabasco on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. The Olmec were an ancient Pre-Columbian people living in the Tropical lowlands of south-central Mexico, in what are roughly the modern-day states Their immediate cultural influence, however, extends far beyond this region. The Olmec flourished during the Formative (or Preclassic) period, dating from 1200 BCE to about 400 BCE, and are believed to have been the progenitor civilization of later Mesoamerican civilizations.
Teotihuacan civilization
The decline of the Olmec resulted in a power vacuum in Mexico. Teotihuacan is an enormous archaeological site in the Basin of Mexico, containing some of the largest pyramidal structures built in the Pre-Columbian Americas Emerging from that vacuum was Teotihuacan, first settled in 300 B. Teotihuacan is an enormous archaeological site in the Basin of Mexico, containing some of the largest pyramidal structures built in the Pre-Columbian Americas C. By AD 150, it had grown to become the first true metropolis of what is now called North America. A metropolis (from the Greek μήτηρ mētēr meaning 'mother' and πόλις pólis meaning 'city/town' is a big City, in most cases with Teotihuacan established a new economic and political order never before seen in Mexico. Its influence stretched across Mexico into Central America, founding new dynasties in the Mayan cities of Tikal, Copan, and Kaminaljuyú. Tikal (or Tik’al, according to the more current orthography is the largest of the ancient ruined cities of the Mayan civilization. The Pre-Columbian city today known as Copán is a locale in extreme western Honduras, in the Copán Department, near to the Guatemalan border Kaminaljuyu is a Pre-Columbian site of the Maya civilization. Teotihuacan's influence over the Maya civilization cannot be overstated: it transformed political power, artistic depictions, and the nature of economics. Within the city of Teotihuacan was a diverse and cosmopolitan population.
Most of the regional ethnicities of Mexico were represented in the city, such as Zapotecs from the Oaxaca region. The Zapotec civilization was an indigenous Pre-Columbian civilization that flourished in the Valley of Oaxaca of southern Mesoamerica. The Free and Sovereign State of Oaxaca ( Estado Libre y Soberano de Oaxaca), in Spanish phonemically /oa'xaka/ named for its largest city, is one of the They lived in rural apartment communities where they worked their trades and contributed to the city's economic and cultural prowess. By AD 500, Teotihuacan had become one of the largest cities in the world. Teotihuacan's economic pull impacted areas in northern Mexico as well. It was a city whose monumental architecture reflected a new era in Mexican civilization, declining in political power about AD 650, but lasting in cultural influence for the better part of a millennium, to around AD 950.
Maya civilization
Contemporary with Teotihuacan's greatness was the greatness of the Mayan civilization. The Maya civilization is a Mesoamerican Civilization, noted for the only known fully developed written language of the Pre-Columbian Americas Uxmal ( Yucatec Maya: Óoxmáal is a large Pre-Columbian ruined city of the Maya civilization in the state of Yucatán, Mexico. The Maya civilization is a Mesoamerican Civilization, noted for the only known fully developed written language of the Pre-Columbian Americas The period between 250 and 650 saw an intense flourishing of Maya civilized accomplishments. While the many Maya city-states never achieved political unity on the order of the central Mexican civilizations, they exerted a tremendous intellectual influence upon Mexico. The Maya built some of the most elaborate cities on the continent, and made innovations in mathematics, astronomy, and writing that became the pinnacle of Mexico's scientific achievements. Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study
Toltec civilization
Just as Teotihuacan had emerged from a power vacuum, so too did the Toltec civilization, which took the reins of cultural and political power in Mexico from about 700. Toltec-style Vessel 1jpg|thumb|250px|right|A rather expressive orange-ware clay vessel in the Toltec style Toltec-style Vessel 1jpg|thumb|250px|right|A rather expressive orange-ware clay vessel in the Toltec style Many of the Toltec peoples were northern desert peoples, often called Chichimeca in Nahuatl language. Chichimeca was the name that the Nahuas generically applied to a wide range of semi- Nomadic peoples who inhabited the north of modern-day Mexico, and carried Nahuatl ( is a group of related languages and dialects of the Aztecan or Nahuan branch of the Uto-Aztecan language family They fused their proud desert heritage with the mighty civilized culture of Teotihuacan. This new heritage would give rise to a new empire. The Toltec empire would reach as far south as Central America, and as far north as the Anasazi corn culture in the Southwestern United States. "Anasazi" directs here For the X-Files episode see Anasazi (The X-Files. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The Toltec established a prosperous turquoise trade route with the northern civilization of Pueblo Bonito, in modern-day New Mexico. Turquoise is an opaque blue-to-green Mineral that is a hydrous Phosphate of Copper and Aluminium, with the Chemical Pueblo Bonito, the largest and best known Great House in Chaco Culture National Historical Park, northern New Mexico, was built by ancestral Pueblo people New Mexico ( is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States of America. Toltec traders would trade prized bird feathers with Pueblo Bonito, while circulating all the finest wares that Mexico had to offer with their divorced, immediate neighbors. In the Mayan area of Chichen Itza, the Toltec civilization spread and the Maya were once again powerfully influenced by central Mexicans. Chichen Itza (tʃiːˈtʃɛn iːˈtsɑː from Chi'ch'èen Ìitsha' "At the mouth of the well of the Itza " is a The Toltec political system was so influential, that any serious Maya dynasty would later claim to be of Toltec descent. In fact, it was this prized Toltec lineage that would set the stage for Mesoamerica's last great indigenous civilization. Mesoamerica or Meso-America (Mesoamérica is a Region extending approximately from central Mexico to Honduras and Nicaragua, defined
Mexica civilization
With the decline of the Toltec civilization came political fragmentation in the Valley of Mexico, and into this new game of political contenders for the Toltec throne stepped outsiders: the Mexica. Aztec is a term used to refer to certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who achieved political Toltec-style Vessel 1jpg|thumb|250px|right|A rather expressive orange-ware clay vessel in the Toltec style Valley of Mexico is a highland Plateau in central Mexico roughly coterminous with the present-day Distrito Federal and the eastern half of the State The Mexica ( Nahuatl: Mēxihcah, meːˈʃiʔkaʔ or Mexicans ( Spanish: Mexicanos) were an indigenous people of the They were a proud desert people, one of seven groups who formerly called themselves "Aztecs", but changed their name to Mexica after years of migrating. The Mexica ( Nahuatl: Mēxihcah, meːˈʃiʔkaʔ or Mexicans ( Spanish: Mexicanos) were an indigenous people of the When they arrived in the Valley of Mexico, they were no longer calling themselves "Aztecs". Newcomers to the Valley of Mexico, they were seen as crude and unrefined in the ways of the prestigious Nahua civilizations, such as the fallen Toltec empire.
Latecomers to Mexico's central plateau, the Mexica thought of themselves as heirs to the prestigious civilizations that had preceded them, much as Charlemagne did with respect to the fallen Roman Empire. Charlemagne (ˈʃɑrlɨmeɪn Carolus Magnus or Karolus Magnus meaning Charles the Great) (747 – 28 January 814 was King of the Franks from 768 to his The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial What the Mexica lacked in political power, they made up for with ambition and military skill.
In 1428, the Mexica led a war of liberation against their rulers from the city of Azcapotzalco, which had subjugated most of the Valley of Mexico's peoples. Azcapotzalco was a Pre-Columbian Nahua Altepetl (state in the Valley of Mexico, on the western shore of Lake Texcoco. The revolt was successful, and the Mexica, through cunning political maneuvers and ferocious fighting skills, managed to pull off a true "rags-to-riches" story: they became the rulers of central Mexico as the leaders of the Triple Alliance. This article refers to an alliance of three Aztec city-states
This Alliance was composed of the city-states of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan. There are some towns in Mexico which are spelled "Tenochtitlán" like San Lorenzo Texcoco ( Classical Nahuatl: Tetzco(hco, tetsˈkoʔko was a major Acolhua City-state in the central Mexican plateau region of Mesoamerica Tlacopan (meaning "florid plant on flat ground" also called Tacuba, was a Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican city-state situated on the western shore At their peak, 350,000 Mexica presided over a wealthy tribute-empire comprising around 10 million people, almost half of Mexico's then-estimated population of 24 million. This empire stretched from ocean to ocean, and extended into Central America. The westward expansion of the empire was stopped cold by a devastating military defeat at the hands of the Purepecha (who possessed state-of-the-art copper-metal weapons). The P'urhépecha, sometimes referred to as Tarascan or Purépecha are an indigenous people centered in the northwestern region of the Mexican The empire relied upon a system of taxation (of goods and services) which were collected through an elaborate bureaucracy of tax collectors, courts, civil servants, and local officials who were installed as loyalists to the Triple Alliance (led by Tenochtitlan). Bureaucracy is the structure and set of regulations in place to control activity usually in large organizations and government
The empire was primarily economic in nature, and the Triple Alliance grew very rich: libraries were built, monumental architecture was constructed, and a highly prestigious artistic and priestly class was cultivated. All of this created a "First World" aura of invincibility around the island-city of Tenochtitlan. Unlike the later Spanish, the Mexica did not seek to "convert" or destroy the cultures they conquered. Quite the opposite: the engines of warfare and empire in Central Mexico required that all participants understand and accept common cultural "rules" in order to make the flow of imperial wealth as smooth as possible. The rules of empire in Mexico were old rules, understood by all the power players and "contenders to the throne," as had been shown many times before (the kingdom of Tlaxcala would attempt its own power grab in 1519 by using the Spanish as mercenary-allies). Tlaxcala (tlasˈkala is one of the 31 states of Mexico, located to the east of Mexico City.
By 1519, the Mexica capital, Tenochtitlan, was the largest city in the world with a population of around 350,000 (although some estimates range as high as 500,000). There are some towns in Mexico which are spelled "Tenochtitlán" like San Lorenzo By comparison, the population of London in 1519 was 80,000 people. Tenochtitlan is the site of modern-day Mexico City. Mexico City (in Spanish: Ciudad de México, México DF, México or simply Méjico) is the Capital city of Mexico
Allies of the Mexica-Aztecs
In the formation of Triple Alliance empire, the Mexica-Aztecs established several ally states. This article refers to an alliance of three Aztec city-states Among them were Cholula (the site of an early massacre by Spaniards), Texcoco (the site of a major library, subsequently burned by the Spanish), Tlacopan, and Matatlan. Texcoco ( Classical Nahuatl: Tetzco(hco, tetsˈkoʔko was a major Acolhua City-state in the central Mexican plateau region of Mesoamerica Tlacopan (meaning "florid plant on flat ground" also called Tacuba, was a Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican city-state situated on the western shore Also, many of the kingdoms conquered by the Mexica-Aztecs provided soldiers for further imperial campaigns such as: Culhuacan, Xochimilco, Tepeacac, Amecameca, Coaixtlahuacan, Cuetlachtlan, Ahuilizipan. Culhuacan or Colhuacan (Cōlhuàcān|koːɬ'waʔkaːn was one of the Nahuatl -speaking Pre-Columbian city-states of the Valley of Mexico. Xochimilco is one of the sixteen ''delegaciones'' or boroughs within Mexican Federal District. Amecameca de Juárez is a town and the seat of the municipio (municipality of Amecameca in México State, Mexico. Coixtlahuaca ( Chocho: Nguichee Mixtec: Yodzocoo Nahuatl: Coaixtlahuacan) was a Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican The Mexica-Aztec war machine would become multi-ethnic, comprising soldiers from conquered areas, led by a large core of Mexica warriors and officers. This same strategy would later be employed by the Spaniards.
Legacy of the Mexica
The Mexica left a deep and durable stamp upon Mexican culture. The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. Much of what is considered modern Mexican culture derives from the Mexica civilization: place-names, words, food, art, dress, symbols, and even the name "Mexican". (See also Origin and history of the name "Mexica"). The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America.
The name "Mexica"
Popular culture incorrectly refers to the Mexica as "Aztecs" (a term popularized in the 19th century by European writers). The Mexica ( Nahuatl: Mēxihcah, meːˈʃiʔkaʔ or Mexicans ( Spanish: Mexicanos) were an indigenous people of the In previous centuries, there were tribal groups who referred to themselves as Aztecs. But upon their arrival into the Valley of Mexico, these groups splintered and became the various Nahuatl-language city-states. The one group that rose the highest in power and prestige was the Mexica. Thus, their territory was often referred to as Mexico (not "Azteco"). The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. It is from the name Mexica that the Spaniards continued to call the land Mexico, the name by which it is still known today. The people of this land are themselves known as Mexicans. These names are derived directly from the name Mexica (and not Aztec).
Mexico City as the capital
Today, the Mexicas' capital city of Tenochtitlan surives in modern times as Mexico City, the capital of the modern nation of Mexico. There are some towns in Mexico which are spelled "Tenochtitlán" like San Lorenzo Mexico City (in Spanish: Ciudad de México, México DF, México or simply Méjico) is the Capital city of Mexico As was the case before European arrival, Mexico City remains the largest metropolitan area in the Western Hemisphere (and second-largest in the world following Tokyo, Japan).
In their haste to colonize, the Spanish retained much of the original layout of the city of Tenochtitlan, reflected in the flower district of Xochimilco, the various city districts (barrios), and in the central precinct of the Zócalo (formerly the ceremonial center of Tenochtitlan). Xochimilco is one of the sixteen ''delegaciones'' or boroughs within Mexican Federal District. In many cities in Mexico, a zócalo is the main plaza or square set in the heart of the town Many streets and boulevards lay along the same paths as the previous water canals of Tenochtitlan. Several pyramids and ruins have even remain unearthed within the urban sprawl of the city. Today, Mexico City administers legal rule over 110 million people, whereas in 1519, that number was 25 million.
Food and cuisine
Food and aliments originating from Mexico
Mexico is a Megadiverse country. The megadiverse countries are a group of countries that harbor the majority of the earth's species and are therefore considered extremely Biodiverse. As such, many ingredients commonly used as aliment by today's people worldwide originate from Mexico, the name itself originating from Nahuatl. Nahuatl ( is a group of related languages and dialects of the Aztecan or Nahuan branch of the Uto-Aztecan language family Examples of such ingredients are: Chocolate, Tomato, Maize and Corn, Vanilla, Avocado, Guava, Chayote, Epazote, Camote, Jícama, Tejocote, Nopal, Tejocote, Huitlacoche, Sapote, Mamey_sapote, many varieties of modern Beans. Chocolate ( pronounced or /-ˈələt/ comprises a number of raw and processed foods that are produced from the seed of the tropical Cacao tree The tomato ( Solanum lycopersicum, syn Lycopersicon lycopersicum) is a herbaceous usually sprawling plant in the Solanaceae or nightshade family Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica Vanilla is a Flavoring derived from Orchids of the genus Vanilla native to Mexico. The avocado ( Persea americana) (from Nahuatl āhuacatl) also known as aguacate ( Spanish) butter pear or Guava is a Genus of about 100 Species of Tropical Shrubs and small Trees in the myrtle family Myrtaceae. The chayote ( Sechium edule) also known as sayote, tayota, choko, chocho, chow-chow, christophine or Epazote, Wormseed, Jesuit's Tea, Mexican Tea, or Herba Sancti Mariæ ( Dysphania ambrosioides, formerly Chenopodium ambrosioides The sweet potato ( Ipomoea batatas) is a Dicotyledonous plant which belongs to the family Convolvulaceae Jícama (Spanish hee -kah-mah from Nahuatl xicamatl hee -kah-mahtl also Mexican Potato and Mexican Turnip, is the name Crataegus pubescens, known as Mexican Hawthorn or Tejocote, is a species of hawthorn native to Mexico. Opuntia Nopales are a Vegetable made from the young stem segments of Prickly pear, carefully peeled to remove the spines They are particularly Crataegus pubescens, known as Mexican Hawthorn or Tejocote, is a species of hawthorn native to Mexico. Corn smut is a disease of Maize caused by the pathogenic plant fungus Ustilago maydis. Sapote or tzapotl is a Nahuatl language word for a soft edible Fruit. The mamey sapote ( Pouteria sapota) is a Species of Tree that is native to southern Mexico. Bean is a common name for large plant Seeds of several genera of the family Fabaceae (formerly Leguminosae used for human food or animal
Mexican Cuisine
The majority of Mexico's cuisine are of indigenous origins and are based on the ingredients listed above:
- corn enters in the composition of tortillas, tamales, pozole, enchiladas
- avocado is the principal ingredient of guacamole
- chocolate is used in mole and atole
These foods continue to make up the core of Mexican cuisine today. Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica In Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean, the United States, and Canada, a tortilla is a type of thin unleavened A tamale ( Spanish tamal, from Nahuatl tamalli) is a traditional indigenous American food consisting of steam-cooked corn Pozole (from Spanish pozole, from Nahuatl potzolli; variant spellings posole, pozolé, pozolli) is a traditional Not to be confused with Enceladus. An enchilada ( is a corn Tortilla rolled around a filling and covered with a chili The avocado ( Persea americana) (from Nahuatl āhuacatl) also known as aguacate ( Spanish) butter pear or Guacamole (called guacamol in Central America and Cuba) is an Avocado -based Relish or dip. Chocolate ( pronounced or /-ˈələt/ comprises a number of raw and processed foods that are produced from the seed of the tropical Cacao tree Mole (ˈmole ( Mexican Spanish, from Nahuatl mulli or molli, "sauce" is the generic name for several Sauces Atole ( Mexican Spanish, from Nahuatl atolli) is a traditional Cornstarch -based Mexican and Central American (where it is known as
Nahuatl language
Because the Mexica spoke Nahuatl (the most common language at the time of Spanish arrival) their terms and names were widespread as descriptors of cities, regions, valleys, rivers, mountains, and many cultural objects. Nahuatl ( is a group of related languages and dialects of the Aztecan or Nahuan branch of the Uto-Aztecan language family The Spanish used Nahuatl translators as they waged wars of conquest throughout Mexico. As a result, Nahuatl names were used as geographic identifiers as far away as Guatemala and the northern state of Coahuila on the southern Texas border. Guatemala (República de Guatemala) is a country in Central America bordered by Mexico to the north and west the Pacific Ocean to the southwest Coahuila, formally Coahuila de Zaragoza is one of Mexico 's 31 component states. Numerous words from the Nahuatl language are today interspersed within Mexican Spanish. These words are used to describe geography, foods, colloquialisms, and first names for people (e. g. Xochitl for females and Tenoch for males). Tenoch (or Tenuch) was a purported ruler of the Aztecs (Mexica during the Fourteenth century during the Mexica (or Aztec travels from Aztlán
Today, approximately 1. 5 million people continue to speak the Nahuatl language. Recent years have seen a resurgence of interest in learning Nahuatl by Spanish-speaking and English-speaking Mexicans at-large. Some Mexican-American activists have portrayed Nahuatl language as a path to claiming an identity that is not European-based or Anglo-derivative (i. See also History of Mexican-Americans Mexican Americans are Americans of Mexican ancestry e. "Hispanic", "Latino", or "American").
Modern Flag of Mexico
The official story of Mexico is, the coat of arms of Mexico was inspired by an Aztec legend based on the founding of Tenochtitlan. The Aztecs, then a nomadic tribe, were wandering throughout Mexico in search of a sign that would indicate the precise spot of which they would build their capital. Their god Huitzilopochtli had commanded them to find an eagle devouring a snake, perched on top of a cactus that grew on a rock submerged in a lake. After two hundred years of wandering, they found the promised sign on a small island in the swampy lake of Texcoco. It was there they found their new capital, Tenochtitlan, also known as Mexico.
Art and Symbols
Mexica art has inspired generations of Mexican-descent artists, both inside and outside of Mexico's modern borders. Images of pyramids, the "Aztec calendar", and armed indigenous warriors have been popular themes. The Aztec calendar is the Calendar system that was used by the Aztecs as well as other Pre-Columbian peoples of central Mexico. Also popular have been zig-zag motifs (found on indigenous buildings and pottery) and the theological notion of The Four Directions (found among indigenous cultures across the Western Hemsiphere). In recent years, there has been a resurgence of interest in the ceremonies and art of the Day of the Dead. The The art, architecture, and symbols of the Mexica civilization exert such a unique identity that they are commonly used in advertisements for tourism to Mexico.
Urbanization
For much of its history, the majority of Mexico's population lived an urban lifestyle: cities, towns, and villages. A city is an Urban area with a large Population and a particular Administrative, Legal, or Historical status A town is a type of settlement ranging from a few to several thousand (occasionally hundreds of thousands inhabitants although it may be applied loosely even to huge metropolitan A village is a clustered human settlement or community, larger than a hamlet, but smaller than a Town or City. Only a fraction of the population was tribal and wandering. Most people were permanently-settled, agriculturally-based, and identified with an urban identity, as opposed to a tribal identity. Urban culture is the Culture of cities. Cities all over the world past and present have behaviors and cultural elements that separate them from otherwise comparable Mexico has long been an urbanized land, which was graphically reflected in the writings of the Spaniards who encountered them.
Spanish conquest
In 1519, the native civilizations of what now is known as Mexico were invaded by Spain, and two years later in 1521, the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan was conquered by an alliance between Spanish and Tlaxcaltecs (the main enemies of Aztecs). Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. The Tlaxcalteca (also Tlaxcalans, Tlaxcallans) were an indigenous group of Nahua ethnicity that inhabited the Kingdom of Tlaxcala located in Aztec is a term used to refer to certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who achieved political Francisco Hernández de Córdoba explored the shores of South Mexico in 1517, followed by Juan de Grijalva in 1518. Juan de Grijalva (born around 1489 in Cuéllar - January 21 1527) was a Spanish Conquistador. The most important of the early Conquistadores was Hernán Cortés, who entered the country in 1519 from a native coastal town which he renamed "Puerto de la Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz" (today's Veracruz). This article is about the Spanish explorer soldiers of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuriesfor other uses see Conquistador (disambiguation A Conquistador Hernán Cortés de Monroy y Pizarro 1st Marqués del Valle de Oaxaca ( 1485&ndash December 2, The city of Veracruz is a major port city and municipality on the Gulf of Mexico in the Mexican state of Veracruz.
Contrary to popular opinion, Spain did not conquer all the empire when Cortes conquered Tenochtitlan in 1521. There are some towns in Mexico which are spelled "Tenochtitlán" like San Lorenzo It would take another two centuries after the Siege of Tenochtitlan before the Conquest of the Aztec Empire would be complete, as rebellions, attacks, and wars continued against the Spanish by other native peoples. San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire was one of the most important campaigns in the Spanish colonization of the Americas.
Role of religion in the fall of the Aztec Empire
The Aztecs' religious beliefs were based on a great fear that the universe would cease functioning without a constant offering of human sacrifice. They sacrificed thousands of people on special occasions. This belief is thought to have been common throughout Nahuatl people. In order to acquire captives in time of peace, the Aztec resorted to a form of "ritual warfare", or flower war. A flower war or flowery war (xōchiyāōyōtl is the name given to the battles fought between the Aztec Triple Alliance and some of their enemies most notably Tlaxcalteca and other Nahuatl nations were forced into such wars, and not particularly liking the idea of being a perpetual source of human sacrifices they willingly joined the Spaniard forces against the Aztecs. The small Spanish force, consisting of about 600 men schooled in European warfare and equipped with steel weapons and armor, was reinforced with thousands of indigenous Indian allies. Their use of ambush during indigenous ceremonies allowed the Spanish to avoid fighting the best native warriors in direct armed battle, such as during The Feast of Huitzilopochtli. An ambush is a long-established military tactic, in which the aggressors (the ambushing force use Concealment to attack a passing enemy
Plagues and epidemics in colonial Mexico
Another important factor for the fall of Tenochtitlan (the Aztec capital) was the various plagues and epidemics brought to America by sick Spaniards and African slaves. The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the Continents of North America and South America Smallpox, flu, Bubonic plague, measles, syphilis and several other diseases took the lives of hundreds of thousands of Aztecs and other natives. Smallpox is an Infectious disease unique to humans caused by either of two virus variants named Variola major and Variola minor. Bubonic plague is the best-known manifestation of the bacterial disease plague, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis (formerly known as Measles (rubeola is a Disease caused by a virus specifically a Paramyxovirus of the genus Morbillivirus. Syphilis is a Sexually transmitted disease caused by the spirochetal Bacterium Treponema pallidum pallidum. These epidemics may have killed over half of the approximately 8,000,000 natives who lived in Tenochtitlan in the course of a few years' time. Syphilis was already a mesoamerican disease.
The colonial period
The Spanish defeat of the Aztecs in 1521 marked the beginning of the 300 year-long colonial period called the New Spain. The Viceroyalty of New Spain (Virreinato de Nueva España was a name given to the Viceroy -ruled territories of the Spanish Empire in North America, Hernán Cortés de Monroy y Pizarro 1st Marqués del Valle de Oaxaca ( 1485&ndash December 2, The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire was one of the most important campaigns in the Spanish colonization of the Americas. The Viceroyalty of New Spain (Virreinato de Nueva España was a name given to the Viceroy -ruled territories of the Spanish Empire in North America, After the fall of Tenochtitlan, it would take decades of sporadic warfare to pacify the rest of Mesoamerica. There are some towns in Mexico which are spelled "Tenochtitlán" like San Lorenzo Mesoamerica or Meso-America (Mesoamérica is a Region extending approximately from central Mexico to Honduras and Nicaragua, defined Particularly fierce was the Chichimeca War in the north of the New Spain (1576-1606). Nine years after the Mixtón Rebellion, the Chichimeca War officially began The Viceroyalty of New Spain (Virreinato de Nueva España was a name given to the Viceroy -ruled territories of the Spanish Empire in North America,
The Council of Indies and the Mendecant establishments that arose in Mesoamerica as early as 1524 labored to generate capital for the broken crown of Spain and convert the Indian populations to Catholicism. Over the period of conquest (1519-c1600s) and the following Colonial periods the sponsorship of Mendecant friars and a process of religious syncretism combined the Pre-Hispanic cultures with Spanish socio-religious tradition. The resulting hodgepodge of culture was a pluriethnic State that relied on the repartimiento of peasant "Republic of Indians" labor to accomplish any work considered necessary. The Repartimiento de Labor was a colonial forced labor system imposed upon the indigenous population of Spanish America and the Philippines. The existing feudal system of pre-Hispanic Mesoamerican culture was replaced by the encomienda feudal-style system of Spain, probably adapted to the pre-Hispanic tradition. The encomienda system is a Trusteeship labor system that was employed by the Spanish crown during the Spanish colonization of the Americas and the It was finally replaced by a debt-based inscription of labor that led to wide-spread revitalization movements and prompted the revolution that ended the colonial state of New Spain.
During the colonial period, which lasted from 1521 to 1810, Mexico was known as "Nueva España" or "New Spain" (as aforementioned), whose claimed territories included today's Mexico, the Spanish Caribbean islands, Central America as far south as Costa Rica, an area comprising today's southwestern United States, and the Philippines. The Viceroyalty of New Spain (Virreinato de Nueva España was a name given to the Viceroy -ruled territories of the Spanish Empire in North America, The Caribbean (ˌkærəˡbiən kæ'rəbiən Cariben|Caraïben or Caraïben; Caraïbe or more commonly Antilles; Caribe is a Region consisting Costa Rica, officially the Republic of Costa Rica ( Spanish: Costa Rica or República de Costa Rica,) is a Country in The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP Spaniards claimed all lands they walked across and all the land drained by the rivers they saw. They did not conquer or develop any territories that did not have an Indian population to catechize and provide a sufficient labor source. They walked over a good part of North America looking for treasures and subsequently claimed the land as was their practice. Finding no treasures or sedentary Indian tribes they could catechize and assimilate, they returned to their ranchos and haciendas in Mexico and stayed there. The result was a lot of maps. The Indians who lived there were mostly ignored or inscribed into labor.
Mexican war of independence
After Napoleon I invaded Spain in 1807 and put his brother, Joseph on the Spanish throne, Mexican Conservatives and rich land-owners who supported Spain's Bourbon royal family objected to the comparatively liberal Napoleonic policies. The Mexican War of Independence (1810 - 1821 was an armed conflict between the people of Mexico and Spanish colonial authorities which started on September 16 1810 Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Joseph-Napoléon Bonaparte King of Naples and Sicily, King of Spain (during a time) and the Indies (never de facto and never de iure The House of Bourbon is an important European Royal house, a branch of the Capetian dynasty. Thus an unlikely alliance was formed in Mexico: liberales, or Liberals, who favored a democratic Mexico, and conservadores, or Conservatives, who favored a Mexico ruled by a Bourbon monarch who would restore the status quo ante. These two elements agreed only that Mexico must achieve independence and determine her own destiny.
Taking advantage of the fact that Spain was severely handicapped under the occupation of Napoleon's army, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a Catholic priest of Spanish descent and progressive ideas, declared Mexico's independence from Spain in the small town of Dolores on September 16, 1810. Miguel Gregorio Antonio Ignacio Hidalgo y Costilla Gallaga Mondarte Villaseñor ( May 8 1753 &ndash July 30 1811) also known as Miguel Dolores Hidalgo (in full Dolores Hidalgo Cuna de la Independencia Nacional) is a city and its surrounding municipality in the north-central part of the Mexican Events 1400 - Owain Glyndŵr is declared Prince of Wales by his followers Year 1810 ( MDCCCX) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year This act started the long war, the first official document of independence was the Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America signed in 1813 by the Congress of Anáhuac. The Mexican War of Independence (1810 - 1821 was an armed conflict between the people of Mexico and Spanish colonial authorities which started on September 16 1810 The Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America ( Spanish: Acta Solemne de la Declaración de Independencia de la América Septentrional The Congress of Chilpancingo (aka Congress of Anáhuac) (Congreso de Chilpancingo was a meeting held in Chilpancingo, in what is the modern-day Mexican [1] Eventually led to the official recognition of independence from Spain in 1821 and the creation of the First Mexican Empire. The Mexican Empire was the name of Mexico on two non-consecutive occasions in the 19th century when it was ruled by an Emperor. As with many early leaders in the movement for Mexican independence, Hidalgo was captured by opposing forces and executed.
Prominent figures in Mexico's war for independence were Father José María Morelos, Vicente Guerrero, and General Agustín de Iturbide. José María Teclo Morelos y Pavón ( September 30, 1765, Valladolid now Morelia Michoacán – December 22, 1815, San Cristóbal Vicente Ramón Guerrero Saldaña ( August 10 1782 &ndash February 14 1831) was the 2nd President of Mexico and one of the Agustín Cosme Damián de Iturbide y Arámburu ( September 27, 1783 &ndash July 19, 1824) was Emperor of Mexico as Augustin The war for independence lasted eleven years until the troops of the liberating army entered Mexico City in 1821. Thus, although independence from Spain was first proclaimed in 1810, it was not achieved until 1821, by the Treaty of Córdoba, which was signed on August 24 in Córdoba, Veracruz, by the Spanish viceroy Juan de O'Donojú and Agustín de Iturbide, ratifying the Plan de Iguala. The Treaty of Córdoba gave Mexico independence from Spain at the conclusion of the Mexican War of Independence. Events 49 BC - Julius Caesar 's General Gaius Scribonius Curio is defeated in the Second Battle of the Bagradas River Córdoba (founded in 1618) is a City and is the seat of the municipality of the same name in the state of Veracruz on the Bay of Campeche on Juan O'Donojú O'Rian (O'Donahue O'Ryan (1762 Seville, Spain &mdash October 8, 1821, Mexico City) was a Spanish military officer Plan of Iguala, also known as Plan of the Three Guarantees ("Plan Trigarante" was a peace treaty proclaimed on February 24 1821 in the final stage of Mexican
In 1821, Agustín de Iturbide, a former Spanish general who switched sides to fight for Mexican independence, proclaimed himself emperor – officially as a temporary measure until a member of European royalty could be persuaded to become monarch of Mexico (see Mexican Empire for more information). Agustín Cosme Damián de Iturbide y Arámburu ( September 27, 1783 &ndash July 19, 1824) was Emperor of Mexico as Augustin The Mexican Empire was the name of Mexico on two non-consecutive occasions in the 19th century when it was ruled by an Emperor. A revolt against Iturbide in 1823 established the United Mexican States. In 1824, "Guadalupe Victoria" became the first president of the new country; his given name was actually Félix Fernández but he chose his new name for symbolic significance: Guadalupe to give thanks for the protection of Our Lady of Guadalupe, and Victoria, which means Victory. Guadalupe Victoria, born José Miguel Ramón Adaucto Fernández y Félix ( September 29, 1786 - March 21, 1843) was a Mexican Our Lady of Guadalupe, also called the Virgin of Guadalupe (Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe or Virgen de Guadalupe is a 16th century Roman Catholic Mexican
After independence
After independence, several Spanish possessions in Central America which also proclaimed their independence were incorporated into Mexico from 1822 to 1823, with the exception of Chiapas and several other Central American states. The mostly vacant northern claims of the Spanish were claimed by Mexico and almost totally ignored, since little wealth was being extracted from them and the fledgling governments had neither money nor inclination to develop them.
Soon after achieving its independence from Spain, the Mexican government, in an effort to populate some of its sparsely-settled northern land claims, awarded extensive land grants in a remote area of the state of Coahuila y Tejas to thousands of immigrant families from the United States, on the condition that the settlers convert to Catholicism and assume Mexican citizenship. Coahuila y Tejas (or Coahuila and Texas) was one of the constituent states of the newly established United Mexican States under its 1824 Constitution It also forbade the importation of slaves, a condition that, like the others, was largely ignored.
First Republic
The government of the newly independent Mexico soon fell to rogue republican forces led by Antonio López de Santa Anna and others. The Mexican Empire was the name of Mexico on two non-consecutive occasions in the 19th century when it was ruled by an Emperor. Antonio de Padua María Severino López de Santa Anna y Pérez de Lebrón ( February 21, 1794 &ndash June 21, 1876) often known as Santa The first Republic was formed with Guadalupe Victoria as its first president, followed in office by Vicente Guerrero who won the electoral vote but lost the popular vote. Guadalupe Victoria, born José Miguel Ramón Adaucto Fernández y Félix ( September 29, 1786 - March 21, 1843) was a Mexican Vicente Ramón Guerrero Saldaña ( August 10 1782 &ndash February 14 1831) was the 2nd President of Mexico and one of the The Mexican constitution was at that time very similar to the US constitution; but was largely disregarded by the majority of the population. The conservative party saw the opportunity to control the government and led a revolution under the leadership of Gen. Anastasio Bustamante who became president from 1830 to early 1832. Anastasio Bustamante y Oseguera ( Jiquilpan, Michoacán, July 27, 1780 &ndash February 6, 1853 in San Miguel de Allende The federalists asked Gen. Antonio López de Santa Anna to overthrow Bustamante and he did, declaring General Manuel Gómez Pedraza (who won the electoral vote back in 1828) as the "true" president. Antonio de Padua María Severino López de Santa Anna y Pérez de Lebrón ( February 21, 1794 &ndash June 21, 1876) often known as Santa Manuel Gómez Pedraza ( Querétaro, April 22, 1789 &ndash May 14, 1851 in Mexico City) was a Mexican general Elections took place, and Santa Ana took office on 1832. Constantly changing political beliefs, as president (he was president eleven different times),[2] in 1834 Santa Anna abrogated the federal constitution, causing insurgencies in the southeastern state of Yucatán and the northernmost portion of the northern state of Coahuila y Tejas. The 1824 Constitution of Mexico was the first full Constitution adopted by the Mexican Republic. Yucatán is one of the 31 states of Mexico, located on the north of the Yucatán Peninsula. Coahuila y Tejas (or Coahuila and Texas) was one of the constituent states of the newly established United Mexican States under its 1824 Constitution Both areas sought independence from the central government. After negotiations and the presence of Santa Anna's army eventually brought Yucatán to again recognize Mexican sovereignty, Santa Anna's army turned to the northern rebellion. Sovereignty is the exclusive Right to control a Government, a country, a people or oneself The inhabitants of Tejas, calling themselves Texans and led mainly by relatively recently-arrived English-speaking settlers, declared independence from Mexico at Washington-on-the-Brazos, giving birth to the Republic of Texas. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States Washington-on-the-Brazos is a Ghost town along the Brazos River in Washington County, Texas, United States. The Republic of Texas was a sovereign Nation in North America between the United States and Mexico that existed from 1836 to Texan militias defeated the Mexican army and won independence in 1836, further reducing the claimed territory of the fledgling Mexican republic. Texas ( is a state geographically located in the South Central United States and is also known as the Lone Star State. In 1845, Texans voted to be annexed by the United States, and this was agreed to by the U. S. Congress and signed into law by President John Tyler. John Tyler Jr (March 29 1790 January 18 1862 was the tenth President of the United States (1841-1845 and the first ever to obtain that office via succession
War with the United States
Many presidents, dictators, etc. Antonio de Padua María Severino López de Santa Anna y Pérez de Lebrón ( February 21, 1794 &ndash June 21, 1876) often known as Santa came and went during a long period of instability which lasted most of the 19th century. One of the dominant figures of the second quarter of that century was the dictator Antonio López de Santa Anna. Antonio de Padua María Severino López de Santa Anna y Pérez de Lebrón ( February 21, 1794 &ndash June 21, 1876) often known as Santa
During this period, nearly half of Mexico's territory was annexed by the United States with the pretext of being "unsettled". The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Mexico had a population of about 8,000,000 in 1846 of which about 60,000 lived in the northern territories – mostly in New Mexico (53,000) and California (7,000). Santa Anna was Mexico's leader during the conflict with Texas, which declared itself independent from Mexico in 1836 and ensured that independence by defeating the Mexican army and Santa Anna. Texas ( is a state geographically located in the South Central United States and is also known as the Lone Star State. Santa Anna was in and out of power again during the U.S.-Mexican War (1846-48). After accepting Texas's application for statehood in 1846, the US government sent troops to Texas in order to secure the territory, subsequently ignoring Mexico's demands for US withdrawal. Mexico saw this as a US intervention in their internal affairs by supporting a rebel province.
The Historical boundary of Texas had long been the Rio Nueces, yet the U. S. and Texas annexed territory up to the Rio Bravo beyond the state boundary. This made war inevitable.
Disagreements about boundaries made the conflict inevitable. Mexican troops then attacked and killed several American soldiers and captured a small American detachment between the Rio Grande (which the Republic of Texas, and subsequently the U. S. , claimed as the southern border) and the Nueces River (which had been considered the historic southern border of the Mexican department of Tejas). As a result, President James K. Polk requested a declaration of war, and the US Congress voted in favor on May 13, 1846. James Knox Polk ( November 2 1795&ndashJune 15 1849 was the eleventh President of the United States, serving from March 4 1845 to March 4 1849 Events 1497 - Pope Alexander VI excommunicates Girolamo Savonarola. For the game see 1846 (board game. Year 1846 ( MDCCCXLVI) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display Mexico formally declared war on 23 May. Events 1430 - Siege of Compiègne: Joan of Arc is captured by the Burgundians while leading an army to relieve Compiègne This resulted in the U.S.-Mexican War, which lasted from 1846 to 1848. Mexico was defeated by United States forces, which occupied Mexico City and many other parts of the country. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The war was terminated with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hildalgo which stipulated that, as a condition for peace, Mexico was obligated to sell the mostly vacant northern territories to the United States for US$15 million. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ( Tratado de Guadalupe Hidalgo in Spanish) is the Peace treaty, largely dictated by the United States to Over the next few decades, Americans settled these territories and petitioned for statehood, forming the states of California, Nevada, and Utah, and most of Arizona, New Mexico, and Colorado. California ( is a US state on the West Coast of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean. Nevada ( is a state located in the western region of the United States of America. The State of Utah (ˈjuːtɔː or) is a western state of the United States. The State of Arizona ( is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States. New Mexico ( is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States of America. The State of Colorado ( or chiefly by nonresidents) is a state located in the Rocky Mountain region of the United States of America. Baja California was not included in the U. S. purchases or in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hildalgo despite being occupied by U. S. troops at the end of the war.
In 1853, mostly vacant desert territory containing parts of present-day Arizona and New Mexico were sold to the United States in the Gadsden Purchase. The State of Arizona ( is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States. New Mexico ( is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States of America. The Gadsden Purchase (known as Venta de La Mesilla or Treaty of La Mesilla in Mexico is a region of what is today southern Arizona and New Mexico This land was sold by President Santa Anna in order to gain personal profit and to pay off his army. The Americans had not realized when they were negotiating the Treaty of Hidalgo (when they accepted the Gila River as the southern U. S. boundary) that a much easier railroad route to California lay slightly south of the Gila River. The Southern Pacific Railroad, the second transcontinental railroad to California, was built through this purchased land in 1881. As a bonus, the city of Tucson (Arizona) and its few hundred inhabitants was added to the United States territory of New Mexico.
The primary reason for Mexico's defeat was its problematic internal situation, which led to a lack of unity and organization for a successful defense. One of the very few commemorated groups of Mexicans in the U. S. invasion of 1847 was a group of very young Military College cadets (now considered by some as Mexican national heroes). Los Niños Héroes (the "Boy Heroes" or "Heroic Cadets" were six teenage military cadets who died defending Mexico at Mexico City 's Chapultepec A hero (from Greek grc ἥρως hērōs) in Greek mythology and Folklore, was originally a Demigod, the offspring of a mortal and These cadets fought to the death defending their college against a detachment of American soldiers during the Battle of Chapultepec (September 13, 1847). The Battle of Chapultepec (September 1847 was a US victory over Mexican forces holding Chapultepec Castle west of Mexico City during the Mexican-American Events 509 BC - The Temple of Jupiter on Rome 's Capitoline Hill is dedicated on the ides of September Year 1847 ( MDCCCXLVII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common Another group of combatants revered by Mexicans was the Batallón de San Patricio, a unit composed of hundreds of mostly Irish-born American deserters who fought under Mexican command until their overwhelming defeat at the Battle of Churubusco (August 20, 1847). The Saint Patrick's Battalion ( Spanish: Batallón de San Patricio) was a unit of several hundred Immigrants and Expatriates of European The Battles of Churubusco took place on August 20, 1847, in the immediate aftermath of the Battle of Contreras (Padierna during the Mexican-American Events 636 - Battle of Yarmouk: Arab forces led by Khalid ibn al-Walid take control of Syria and Palestine Year 1847 ( MDCCCXLVII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common Most of the "San Patricios" were killed and a few captured. Many of the captured men were court-martialled by the U. S. Army as deserters and traitors, and were subsequently executed at Chapultepec.
The struggle for liberal reforms
In 1855, Santa Anna, who had become dictator one more time, was overthrown by the liberals, in what was called the Revolution of Ayutla. La Reforma (The Reform was a period halfway through the 19th century in the History of Mexico that was characterized by liberal reforms and the transformation The Plan of Ayutla was a plan aimed at removing Antonio López de Santa Anna as dictator of Mexico. The moderate liberal Ignacio Comonfort became president. Ignacio Comonfort (1812 &ndash 1863 was a Mexican politician and military officer The Moderados tried to find a middle ground between the nation's Liberals and Conservatives.
The 1857 Constitution
During Comonfort's presidency, a new Constitution was drafted. The Constitution of 1858 retained most of the Roman Catholic Church's Colonial era privileges and revenues, but, unlike the earlier constitution, did not mandate that the Catholic Church be the nation's exclusive religion. The 1857 Constitution was a liberal Constitution drafted in Mexico during the presidency of Ignacio Comonfort. Such reforms were unacceptable to the leadership of the clergy and the Conservatives. Comonfort and members of his administration were excommunicated, and a revolt was then declared. Excommunication is a religious Censure used to deprive or suspend membership in a religious community
The War of Reform
This led to the War of Reform, from December 1857 to January 1861. The War of Reform was a Mexican Civil war fought from December 1857 to January 1861 This civil war became increasingly bloody and polarized the nation's politics. A civil war is a War between a State and domestic political actors that are in control of some part of the territory claimed by the state Many of the Moderates came over to the side of the Liberals, convinced that the great political power of the Church needed to be curbed. For some time, the Liberals and Conservatives had their own governments, the Conservatives in Mexico City and the Liberals headquartered in Veracruz. The city of Veracruz is a major port city and municipality on the Gulf of Mexico in the Mexican state of Veracruz. The war ended with Liberal victory, and Liberal president Benito Juárez moved his administration to Mexico City. Benito Pablo Juárez García (benit̪o paβ̞lo xwaɾes gaɾsia ( March 21, 1806 – July 18, 1872) was a Zapotec Amerindian
French intervention and the Second Mexican Empire
In the 1860s, the country again underwent a military occupation, this time by France, establishing the Habsburg Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian of Austria on the throne of Mexico as Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico, with support from the Roman Catholic clergy and conservative elements of the upper class as well as some indigenous communities. The French intervention in Mexico, also known as the Maximilian Affair and The Franco-Mexican War, was an invasion of Mexico by the army of the Franz Xaver Winterhalter (20 April 1805 &ndash 8 July 1873 was a German painter and lithographer, known for his portraits of royalty in the mid-nineteenth century This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Maximilian I Emperor of Mexico (Emperador Maximiliano I de México (6 July 1832 – 19 June 1867 (born Ferdinand Maximilian Joseph was a member of Austria Clergy is the generic term used to describe the formal religious leadership within a given Religion. Although the French, then considered one of the most efficient armies of the world, suffered an initial defeat in the Battle of Puebla on May 5, 1862 (now commemorated as the Cinco de Mayo holiday) they eventually defeated the Mexican government forces led by the general Ignacio Zaragoza and set the couple upon the throne. The Battle of Puebla took place on May 5, 1862 near the city of Puebla during the French intervention in Mexico. Events 553 - The Second Council of Constantinople begins 1215 - Rebel Barons renounce their allegiance to King John Year 1862 was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting on Monday Cinco de Mayo (Spanish for "5th of May" is a Mexican national holiday that honors the Mexican victory over the French army at Puebla de Los Angeles in 1862 The holiday commemorates Ignacio Zaragoza Seguín ( March 25, 1829 &ndash September 8, 1862) was a General in the Mexican Army, best
The Mexican monarchy set up its government in the Capital of Mexico City and used the National Palace as their government seat. Benito Pablo Juárez García (benit̪o paβ̞lo xwaɾes gaɾsia ( March 21, 1806 – July 18, 1872) was a Zapotec Amerindian The Emperor's consort, born a Belgian princess, was Empress Carlota of Mexico, a cousin of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom. Charlotte of Belgium ( Princess Marie Charlotte Amélie Augustine Victoire Clémentine Léopoldine of Belgium) ( 7 June, 1840 &ndash 19 January Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901 was from 20 June 1837 the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland The Imperial couple chose as their home Chapultepec Castle, and later adopted two grandchildren of the first Mexican Emperor, Augustin I. Chapultepec Castle ( Castillo de Chapultepec in Spanish is located on top of Chapultepec Hill. The Imperial couple noticed how the people of Mexico were treated, especially the Indians, and wanted to ensure their human rights. They were interested in a Mexico for the Mexicans, and did not share the views of Napoleon III, who was interested in exploiting the rich mines in the north-west of the country.
Emperor Maximilian I favored the establishment of a limited monarchy sharing powers with a democratically elected congress. This was too liberal to please Mexico's Conservatives, while the liberals refused to accept a monarch, leaving Maximilian with few enthusiastic allies within Mexico. Maximilian was eventually captured and executed in the Cerro de las Campanas, Querétaro, by the forces loyal to President Benito Juárez, who kept the federal government functioning during the French intervention that put Maximilian in power.
In mid-1867, following repeated losses in battle to the Republican Army and ever decreasing support by Napoleon III, Maximilian was captured and executed by Juárez's soldiers, along with his last loyal generals, Mejia and Miramon in Querétaro. From then on, Juárez remained in office until his death from heart failure in 1872.
Restoration of the Republic
In 1867, the republic was restored and Juárez was reelected, continuing to implement his reforms. In 1871 he was elected a second time, much to the dismay of his opponents within the liberal party, who considered reelection to be something undemocratic. Juárez died one year later and was succeeded by Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada. Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada y Corral ( Jalapa, Veracruz, April 24, 1823 &ndash April 21, 1889 in New York City
Order, progress and the Díaz dictatorship
In 1876 Lerdo was re-elected, defeating Porfirio Díaz in the elections. José de la Cruz Porfirio Díaz Mori was a Mexican politician ( September 15, 1830 – 2 July 1915) that would later become the president of Mexico Díaz rebelled against the government with the proclamation of the Plan de Tuxtepec, in which he opposed reelection, in 1876. The Plan de Tuxtepec was a plan in Mexican history. It was drafted by Porfirio Díaz in 1876 and proclaimed on January 10 1876 in the Villa Díaz managed to overthrow Lerdo, who fled the country, and was named president.
Díaz became the new president. Thus began a period of more than thirty years (1876–1911) during which Díaz was the strong man in Mexico. This period of relative prosperity and peace is known as the Porfiriato. During this period, the country's infrastructure improved greatly thanks to increased foreign investment. However, the period is also characterized by social inequality and discontent among the working classes.
The Mexican Revolution
- See also: Mexican Revolution
1910-1921
In 1910 the 80-year-old Díaz decided to hold an election to serve another term as president. The Mexican Revolution (Revolución Mexicana was a major armed struggle that started with an uprising led by Francisco I José de la Cruz Porfirio Díaz Mori was a Mexican politician ( September 15, 1830 – 2 July 1915) that would later become the president of Mexico He thought he had long since eliminated any serious opposition in Mexico; however, Francisco I. Madero, an academic from a rich family, decided to run against him and quickly gathered popular support, despite Díaz putting Madero in jail. Francisco Indalecio Madero González ( October 30, 1873 &ndash February 22, 1913) was a politician writer and Revolutionary who served
When the official election results were announced, it was declared that Díaz had won re-election almost unanimously, with Madero receiving only a few hundred votes in the entire country. This fraud by the Porfiriato was too blatant for the public to swallow, and riots broke out. Madero prepared a document known as the Plan de San Luis Potosí, in which he called the Mexican people to take their weapons and fight against the government of Porfirio Díaz on November 20, 1910. The Plan of San Luis de Potosí was a political document written in San Antonio, Texas, United States, and published in the Mexican Events 284 - Diocletian was chosen as Roman Emperor. 762 - Bögü Khan of the Uyghurs, Year 1910 ( MCMX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting Madero managed to flee to San Antonio, Texas, where he started to prepare his overthrow of the Díaz government. This started what is known as the Mexican Revolution. The Mexican Revolution (Revolución Mexicana was a major armed struggle that started with an uprising led by Francisco I
The Federal Army was defeated by the revolutionary forces which were led by, amongst others, Emiliano Zapata in the South, Pancho Villa and Pascual Orozco in the North, and Venustiano Carranza. Emiliano Zapata Salazar ( August 8, 1879 – April 10, 1919) was a leading figure in the Mexican Revolution, which broke out in Doroteo Arango Arámbula ( June 5 1878 &ndash July 20 1923) better known as Francisco or " Pancho " Villa Pascual Orozco (in contemporary documents sometimes spelled "Oroszco" ( 28 January 1882 &ndash 30 August 1915) was a Mexican Porfirio Díaz resigned in 1911 for the "sake of the peace of the nation" and went to exile in France, where he died in 1915.
The revolutionary leaders had many different objectives; revolutionary figures varied from liberals such as Madero to radicals such as Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa. As a consequence, it proved very difficult to reach agreement on how to organize the government that emanated from the triumphant revolutionary groups. The result of this was a struggle for the control of Mexico's government in a conflict that lasted more than twenty years. This period of struggle is usually referred to as part of the Mexican Revolution, although it might also be considered a civil war. Presidents Francisco I. Madero (1913), Venustiano Carranza (1920), and former revolutionary leaders Emiliano Zapata (1919) and Pancho Villa (1923) were assassinated during this time, amongst many others. Emiliano Zapata Salazar ( August 8, 1879 – April 10, 1919) was a leading figure in the Mexican Revolution, which broke out in Doroteo Arango Arámbula ( June 5 1878 &ndash July 20 1923) better known as Francisco or " Pancho " Villa
Following the resignation of Díaz and a brief reactionary interlude, Madero was elected President in 1911. He was ousted and killed in 1913 by Victoriano Huerta, with the support of the U. José Victoriano Huerta Márquez ( Colotlán, Jalisco, December 22, 1850, &ndash January 13, 1916 in El Paso S. ambassador to Mexico, Henry Lane Wilson, but not that of U. Henry Lane Wilson (1857 &ndash 1932 was an American diplomat. S. President-elect Woodrow Wilson. Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28 1856—February 3 1924 was the twenty-eighth President of the United States. Huerta was a former General of Porfirio Díaz. José de la Cruz Porfirio Díaz Mori was a Mexican politician ( September 15, 1830 – 2 July 1915) that would later become the president of Mexico Huerta's brutality soon lost him his domestic support, and his regime was actively opposed by the Wilson Administration. In 1915 he was overthrown by Venustiano Carranza, a former revolutionary general. Carranza promulgated a new Constitution on February 5, 1917. Events 1576 - Henry of Navarre converts to Roman Catholicism in order to ensure his right to the throne of France. Year 1917 ( MCMXVII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year The Mexican Constitution of 1917 still guides Mexico. The Political Constitution of the United Mexican States of 1917 is the present Constitution of Mexico. Carranza was assassinated in an internal feud of his former supporters over who would replace him as President.
In 1920 Álvaro Obregón, one of Carranza's former allies who plotted against him, became president. Cuernavaca (Cuauhnāhuac|kʷaw̥'naːwak is the capital and largest city of the state of Morelos in Mexico. For other uses including places named after this person see Obregón. He accommodated all elements of Mexican society except the most reactionary clergy and landlords, and successfully catalyzed social liberalization, particularly in curbing the role of the Catholic Church, improving education and taking steps toward instituting women's civil rights.
While the Mexican revolution and civil war may have subsided after 1920, armed conflicts did not cease. The most widespread conflict of this era was the battle between those favoring a secular society with separation of Church and State and those favoring supremacy of the Roman Catholic Church, which developed into an armed uprising by supporters of the Church that came to be called "la Guerra Cristera."
It is estimated that between 1910 and 1921 about 900,000 people died. The Cristero War (also known as the Cristiada of 1926 to 1929 was an uprising and Counter-revolution against the Anti-Catholic Mexican government of the time set
The Cristero War 1926-1929
Between 1926 and 1929 an armed conflict in the form of a popular uprising broke out against the anti-Catholic/anti-clerical Mexican government, set off specifically by the anti-clerical provisions of the Mexican Constitution of 1917. Discontent over the provisions had been simmering for years. The conflict is known as the Cristero War. The Cristero War (also known as the Cristiada of 1926 to 1929 was an uprising and Counter-revolution against the Anti-Catholic Mexican government of the time set A number of articles of the 1917 Constitution were at issue. Article 5 outlawed monastic religious orders. Article 24 forbade public worship outside of church buildings, while Article 27 restricted religious organizations' rights to own property. Finally, Article 130 took away basic civil rights of members of the clergy: priests and religious leaders were prevented from wearing their habits, were denied the right to vote, and were not permitted to comment on public affairs in the press.
The Cristero War was eventually resolved diplomatically, largely with the influence of the U. S. Ambassador. The conflict claimed the lives of some 90,000: 56,882 on the federal side, 30,000 Cristeros, and numerous civilians and Cristeros who were killed in anticlerical raids after the war's end. As promised in the diplomatic resolution, the laws considered offensive to the Cristeros remained on the books, but no organized federal attempts to enforce them were put into action. Nonetheless, in several localities, persecution of Catholic priests continued based on local officials' interpretations of the law.
The Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI)
In 1929, the National Mexican Party (PNM) was formed by the serving president, General Plutarco Elías Calles. Plutarco Elías Calles ( September 25 1877 – October 19 1945) was a Mexican general and politician (It would later become the Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI) that ruled the country for the rest of the 20th century. The Institutional Revolutionary Party ( Spanish: Partido Revolucionario Institucional or PRI) is a Mexican Political party that wielded ) The PNM succeeded in convincing most of the remaining revolutionary generals to dissolve their personal armies to create the Mexican Army, and so its foundation is considered by some the real end of the Mexican Revolution.
The Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI) was the political party of Mexico that set up a new type of system, led by a caudillo. The Institutional Revolutionary Party ( Spanish: Partido Revolucionario Institucional or PRI) is a Mexican Political party that wielded Caudillo is a Spanish ( caudilho in Portuguese word usually used to designate "a political-military leader at the head of an authoritarian power
The PRI is typically referred to as the three-legged stool, in reference to Mexican workers, peasants and bureaucrats.
- See also: Confederation of Mexican Workers
After it was founded in 1929, the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) monopolized all the political branches. Template talkInfobox Union for usage --> The Confederation of Mexican Workers ( Spanish: Confederación The Institutional Revolutionary Party ( Spanish: Partido Revolucionario Institucional or PRI) is a Mexican Political party that wielded The PRI did not lose a senate seat until 1988 or a gubernatorial race until 1989. [3] It wasn't until July 2, 2000, that Vicente Fox of the opposition "Alliance for Change" coalition, headed by the National Action Party (PAN), was elected president. Events 310 - Pope Miltiades is elected 626 - In fear of assassination Li Shimin ambushes and kills his rival 2000 ( MM) was a Leap year that started on Saturday of the Common Era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. See also the Alliance for Change (Guyana and Alliance for Change (UK. The National Action Party ( Spanish Partido Acción Nacional) known by the acronym PAN, is a conservative and Christian democratic His victory ended the Institutional Revolutionary Party's 71-year hold on the presidency.
President Lázaro Cárdenas
President Lázaro Cárdenas came to power in 1935 and transformed Mexico. This article is about Gen Lázaro Cárdenas del Río For his grandson see Lázaro Cárdenas Batel. On April 1, 1936 he exiled Calles, the last general with dictatorial ambitions, thereby removing the army from power. Events 527 - Byzantine Emperor Justin I names his nephew Justinian I as co-ruler and successor to the throne Year 1936 ( MCMXXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.
Cárdenas managed to unite the different forces in the PRI and set the rules that allowed his party to rule unchallenged for decades to come without internal fights. He nationalized the oil industry on March 18, 1938, the electricity industry, created the National Polytechnic Institute, granted asylum to Spanish expatriates fleeing the Spanish Civil War, started land reform and the distribution of free textbooks for children. Events 37 - The Roman Senate annuls Tiberius ' will and proclaims Caligula emperor Year 1938 ( MCMXXXVIII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The National Polytechnic Institute (in Spanish: Instituto Politécnico Nacional IPN) is one of the largest and finest public universities The Spanish Civil War was a major conflict in Spain that started after an attempted Coup d'état committed by parts of the army against the government of
President Manuel Ávila Camacho
Manuel Ávila Camacho, Cárdenas's successor, presided over a "bridge" between the revolutionary era and the era of machine politics under PRI that would last until 2000. Manuel Ávila Camacho ( April 24, 1897 &ndash October 13, 1955) served as the President of Mexico from 1940 to 1946 Camacho, moving away from nationalistic autarchy, proposed to create a favorable climate for international investment, favored nearly two generations ago by Madero. Camacho's regime froze wages, repressed strikes, and persecuted dissidents with a law prohibiting the "crime of social dissolution. " During this period, the PRI regime thus betrayed the legacy of land reform. Miguel Alemán Valdés, Camacho's successor, even had Article 27 amended to protect elite landowners. Miguel Alemán Valdés ( September 29 1900 &ndash May 14 1983)served as the President of Mexico from 1946 to 1952
The Mexican economic miracle
During the next four decades, Mexico experienced impressive economic growth (from a very low base), and historians call this period "El Milagro Mexicano", the Mexican Miracle. This was in spite of failing foreign confidence in investment during the worldwide Great Depression. The assumption of mineral rights and subsequent nationalisation of the oil industry into Pemex during the presidency of Lázaro Cárdenas del Río was a popular move. Petróleos Mexicanos ( PEMEX) is Mexico 's state-owned Petroleum company This article is about Gen Lázaro Cárdenas del Río For his grandson see Lázaro Cárdenas Batel.
Economy collapses
However, the economy collapsed several times afterwards. Although PRI regimes achieved economic growth and relative prosperity for almost three decades after World War II, the management of the economy collapsed several times, and political unrest grew in the late 1960s, culminating in the Tlatelolco massacre in 1968. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including The Tlatelolco Massacre, also known as The Night of Tlatelolco (from a book title by the Mexican writer Elena Poniatowska) took place on the afternoon and night of In the 1970s, economic crises affected the country in 1976 and 1982, after which the banks were nationalized, having been blamed for the economic problems. (La Década Perdida) On both occasions, the Mexican peso was devalued, and, until 2000, it had been normal to expect a big devaluation and a recessionary period after each presidential term ended every six years. " La Decada Perdida " meaning the lost decade is a designation to the financial period of crisis in Latin America during the 80's The crisis that came after a devaluation of the peso in late 1994 threw Mexico into economic turmoil, triggering the worst recession in over half a century. The 1994 economic crisis in Mexico, widely known as the Mexican peso crisis, was triggered by the sudden Devaluation of the Mexican peso in the early
1985 earthquake
On September 19, 1985, an earthquake measuring approximately 8. Events 335 - Dalmatius is raised to the rank of Caesar by his uncle Constantine I. Year 1985 ( MCMLXXXV) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link displays 1985 Gregorian calendar) An earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth 's crust that creates Seismic waves Earthquakes are recorded with a Seismometer 0 on the Richter scale struck Michoacán and inflicted severe damage on Mexico City. The Richter magnitude scale, or more correctly local magnitude M L scale assigns a single number to quantify the amount of seismic energy released Michoacán formally Michoacán de Ocampo (from Nahuatl Michhuacān "place of the fishermen" is one of the 31 constituent states Estimates of the number of dead range from 6,500 to 30,000. (See 1985 Mexico City earthquake. The 1985 Mexico City earthquake was one of the most devastating Earthquakes in the history of the Americas )
NAFTA
On January 1, 1994, Mexico became a full member of the North American Free Trade Agreement, joining the United States of America and Canada in a large and prosperous economic bloc. New Year See also New Year The Ancient Romans began their consular year on January 1st since 153 BC Year 1994 ( MCMXCIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1994 Gregorian calendar) The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page It is on this date that the Zapatista Army of National Liberation emerged, capturing several towns and sparking a brief conflict with the government. On March 23, 2005, the Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America was signed by the elected leaders of those countries. Events 1174 - Jocelin, Abbot of Melrose, is elected Bishop of Glasgow. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Organization The initial SPP Working Groups are the Manufacture Goods and Sectoral and Regional Competitiveness Working Group E-Commerce & ICT Working Group Energy Working
According to the U. S. CIA Factbook for 2006: Mexico has a free market economy that recently entered the trillion dollar class. It contains a mixture of modern and outmoded industry and agriculture, increasingly dominated by the private sector. Recent administrations have expanded competition in seaports, railroads, telecommunications, electricity generation, natural gas distribution, and airports. Per capita income is one-fourth that of the US; income distribution remains highly unequal. Trade with the US and Canada has tripled since the implementation of NAFTA in 1994. Mexico has 12 free trade agreements with over 40 countries including, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, the European Free Trade Area, and Japan, putting more than 90% of trade under free trade agreements.
The Fox administration was cognizant of the need to upgrade infrastructure, modernize the tax system and labor laws, and allow private investment in the energy sector, but has been unable to win the support of the opposition-led Congress. The current Calderón government that took office in December 2006 is confronting the same challenges of boosting economic growth, improving Mexico's international competitiveness, and reducing poverty. This article is about the current president of Mexico For the Filipino politician and historical figure see Felipe Calderón y Roca.
The end of PRI's hegemony
Accused many times of blatant fraud, the PRI's candidates continually held almost all public offices until the end of the 20th century. It was not until the 1980s that the PRI lost the first state governorship, an event that marked the beginning of the party's loss of hegemony. The United Mexican States (or Mexico) is a union of 31 thirty one States and one Federal District (the Mexican Federal District, or Distrito Through the electoral reforms started by president Carlos Salinas de Gortari and consolidated by president Ernesto Zedillo, by the mid 1990s, the PRI had lost its majority in Congress. Carlos Salinas de Gortari ( Mexico City, April 3, 1948) is a Mexican economist and politician affiliated to the Institutional Revolutionary Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de León (born December 27, 1951) is a Mexican economist and politician Congress (formally Congreso de la Unión or Congress of the Union) is the Legislative branch of the Mexican government. In 2000, after seventy years, the PRI lost a presidential elections to a candidate of the National Action Party (PAN - Partido Acciòn Nacional), Vicente Fox. The National Action Party ( Spanish Partido Acción Nacional) known by the acronym PAN, is a conservative and Christian democratic Vicente Fox Quesada ( born July 2 1942) is a Mexican politician who served as President of Mexico from 2000 to 2006 and currently He was the 69th president of Mexico. The continued non-PAN majority in the Congress of Mexico prevented him from implementing most of his reforms.
President Ernesto Zedillo
In 1995, President Ernesto Zedillo faced an economic crisis. Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de León (born December 27, 1951) is a Mexican economist and politician The 1994 economic crisis in Mexico, widely known as the Mexican peso crisis, was triggered by the sudden Devaluation of the Mexican peso in the early There were public demonstrations in Mexico City and constant military presence after the 1994 rising of the Zapatista Army of National Liberation in Chiapas. Mexico City (in Spanish: Ciudad de México, México DF, México or simply Méjico) is the Capital city of Mexico The Zapatista Army of National Liberation ( Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional, EZLN) is an armed Revolutionary group based in Chiapas Zedillo also oversaw political and electoral reforms that reduced the PRI's hold on power. After the 1988 election, which was strongly disputed and arguably lost by the government party, the IFE (Instituto Federal Electoral – Federal Electoral Institute) was created in the early 1990s. The general election was held in Mexico on Wednesday July 6, 1988. The Federal Electoral Institute ( Spanish: Instituto Federal Electoral, IFE is an autonomous public organization responsible for organizing federal elections It is run by ordinary citizens, overseeing that elections are conducted legally and fairly.
President Vicente Fox Quesada
As a result of popular discontent, the presidential candidate of the National Action Party, (PAN) Vicente Fox Quesada won the federal election of July 2, 2000, but did not win a majority in the chambers of congress. The National Action Party ( Spanish Partido Acción Nacional) known by the acronym PAN, is a conservative and Christian democratic Vicente Fox Quesada ( born July 2 1942) is a Mexican politician who served as President of Mexico from 2000 to 2006 and currently Events 310 - Pope Miltiades is elected 626 - In fear of assassination Li Shimin ambushes and kills his rival 2000 ( MM) was a Leap year that started on Saturday of the Common Era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. Congress (formally Congreso de la Unión or Congress of the Union) is the Legislative branch of the Mexican government. The results of this election ended 71 years of PRI hegemony in the presidency. The Constitutional Citizen President of the United Mexican States (the official title in Spanish is Ciudadano Presidente Constitucional de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos
Many in Mexico claim that, even if Fox won the election, President Zedillo did not give his party (PRI) a chance to dispute the results of the election by making Fox's victory "official" by addressing the nation the same night of the election, a first in Mexican politics (and in other places, too, where it is more normal for the losing candidate to admit defeat, rather than the outgoing incumbent). One reason offered for this is that Zedillo sought a quick and peaceful election in 2000 to avoid another crisis after the change of government.
See also
- 1884 in Mexico
- List of Presidents of Mexico
- History of the west coast of North America
- Illegal immigration to the United States from Mexico - now a major political issue in the two countries. Events June 2 &ndash Banamex was formed from the merger of Banco Nacional Mexicano and Banco Mercantil Mexicano, two banks that First Mexican Empire (1822-1823 Presidents of Mexico (1824-1864 Between the time of Emperor Agustín de Iturbide's abdication ( March 19, 1823 The human history of the west coast of North America is believed to stretch back to the arrival of the earliest people over the Bering Strait, or alternately along a now-submerged Illegal immigration to the United States refers to the act of foreign nationals voluntarily resettling in the United States in violation of U
Footnotes
- ^ This Declaration of Independence promised to maintain the Catholic religion and announced recovery of Mexico's "usurped sovereignty" under "the present circumstances in Europe" and "the inscrutable designs of Providence. " Vazquez, Josefina Zoraida (March 1999) "The Mexican Declaration of Independence" The Journal of American History 85(4): pp. 1362-1369, p. 1368
- ^ Scheina, Robert L. (2002) Santa Anna: a curse upon Mexico Brassey's, Washington D. C. , ISBN 1-57488-405-0
Further reading
- Daily Life of the Aztecs, on the Eve of the Spanish Conquest , Jacques Soustelle, Stanford University Press, 1970, ISBN 0-8047-0721-9
- Mexico: From the Olmecs to the Aztecs, Michael Coe, Thames & Hudson, 2004, 5th edition, ISBN 0-500-28346-X
- 1491 : New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus, Charles Mann, Knopf, 2005, ISBN 1-4000-4006-X
- American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World, David Stannard, Oxford University Press, 1993, Rep edition, ISBN 0-19-508557-4
- Mexico Profundo, Guillermo Bonfil Batalla, University of Texas Press, 1996, ISBN 0-292-70843-2
- Mexico's Indigenous Past, Alfredo Lopez Austin, Leonardo Lopez Lujan, University of Oklahoma Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8061-3214-0
- American Indian Contributions to the World: 15,000 Years of Inventions and Innovations , Kay Marie Porterfield, Emory Dean Keoke, Checkmark Books, 2003, paperback edition, ISBN 0-8160-5367-7
- Great River, The Rio Grande in North American History, Paul Horgan, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, reprint, 1977, in one hardback volume, ISBN 0-03-029305-7
- An Archaeological Guide to Central and Southern Mexico, Joyce Kelly, University of Oklahoma Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8061-3349-X
- The Course of Mexican History , Michael C. The Stanford University Press is the Publishing house of Stanford University. The University of Texas Press (or UT Press) is a University press that is part of the University of Texas at Austin. The University of Oklahoma Press is the publishing arm of the University of Oklahoma. The University of Oklahoma Press is the publishing arm of the University of Oklahoma. Meyer, William L. Sherman, Susan M. Deeds, Oxford University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-19-514819-3
- Skywatchers : A Revised and Updated Version of Skywatchers of Ancient Mexico , Anthony Aveni, University of Texas Press, 2001, ISBN 0-292-70502-6
- The Olmecs: America's First Civilization, Richard A. The University of Texas Press (or UT Press) is a University press that is part of the University of Texas at Austin. Diehl, Thames & Hudson , 2004, ISBN 0-500-02119-8
- The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico , Miguel Leon-Portillo, Beacon Press, 1992, ISBN 0-8070-5501-8
- Prehistoric Mesoamerica: Revised Edition, Richard E. W. Adams, University of Oklahoma Press, 1996, ISBN 0-8061-2834-8
- Michael Snodgrass, Deference and Defiance in Monterrey: Workers, Paternalism, and Revolution in Mexico, 1890-1950 (Cambridge University Press, 2003) (ISBN 0-521-81189-9)
- Borderlands/La Frontera, Gloria Anzaldua, Aunt Lute Books, San Francisco, 1987, ISBN 1-879960-56-7
[edit] External links
- The "Aztec" abacus calculator – The base 20 numerical calculator invented in Mexico
- Mexico's Astronomical Heriage – Provides information on Mexico's astronomical heritage
- Hernán Cortés: Página de relación
- Brown University Library: Three for Three Million – Information about the Paul R. The University of Oklahoma Press is the publishing arm of the University of Oklahoma. Cambridge University Press (known colloquially as CUP is a Publisher given a Royal Charter by Henry VIII in 1534 Mexico is a country in North America and the largest Spanish -speaking country in the world Dupee Jr. '65 Mexican History Collection in the John Hay Library, including maps and photos of books
- History of Mexico – Provides a history of Mexico from ancient times to today
- Mexico: From Empire to Revolution – Photographs from the Getty Research Institute's collections exploring Mexican history and culture though images produced between 1857 and 1923
- US-Mexican War – US political context and overview of military campaign that ended with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, 1816-1848. Provides links to US military sources
- Civilizations in America – Overview of Mexican civilization
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