This article is part of the series on: History of Lebanon |
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| Ancient History | |||
| Phoenicia | |||
| Ancient history of Lebanon | |||
| Foreign Rule | |||
| Assyrian Rule | |||
| Babylonian Rule | |||
| Persian Rule | |||
| Greek Rule | |||
| Armenian Rule | |||
| Roman Rule | |||
| Byzantine Rule | |||
| Arab Rule | |||
| Ottoman Rule | |||
| French Rule | |||
| Modern Lebanon | |||
| 1958 Lebanon crisis | |||
| Lebanese Civil War | |||
| 1982 Lebanon War | |||
| 2005 Lebanon bombings | |||
| Cedar Revolution | |||
| 2006 Lebanon War | |||
| 2006-7 political protests | |||
| 2007 North Lebanon conflict | |||
| Topical | |||
| Military history | |||
| Economic history | |||
| Timeline of Lebanese history | |||
The history of Lebanon is almost as old as the earliest evidence of humankind. Lebanon (ˈlɛbənɒn Arabic: ar لبنان Lubnān) officially the Republic of Lebanon or Lebanese Republic (ar الجمهورية اللبنانية Its geographic position as a crossroads linking the Mediterranean Basin with the great Asian hinterland has conferred on it a cosmopolitan character and a multicultural legacy. Lebanon stretches along the east side of the Mediterranean Sea, its length almost three times its width The Mediterranean Basin refers to the lands around and surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea. [1]
At different periods of its history, Lebanon has come under the domination of foreign rulers, including Assyrians, Babylonians, Armenians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Ottomans, and French. The Assyrians are an Ethnic group whose origins lie in what is today Iraq, Iran, Turkey and Syria. Babylonia was an Amorite state in lower Mesopotamia (modern southern Iraq) with Babylon as its capital The Armenians (Հայեր Hayer) are a Nation and Ethnic group originating in the Caucasus and in the Armenian Highlands A large layout and formatting it should ensure no clashes with the top of the infobox The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Although often conquered, the Lebanese take pride in their rebellions against despotic and repressive rulers. Moreover, despite foreign domination, Lebanon's mountainous terrain has provided it with a certain protective isolation, enabling it to survive with an identity all its own. [1]
Its proximity to the sea has ensured that throughout its history Lebanon has held an important position as a trading center. This tradition of commerce began with the Phoenicians and continued through many centuries, remaining almost unaffected by foreign rule and the worst periods of internal strife. Phoenicia ( Phoenician: Phoenician nunsvg|12px|נ]]Phoenician nun [1]
Ancient history of Lebanon
- Main article History of ancient Lebanon. The history of ancient Lebanon traces the course of events in what is now known as Lebanon from the beginning of history to the beginning of Arab rule.
The earliest known settlements in Lebanon date back to earlier than 5000 BC. Archaeologists have discovered in Byblos, which is believed to be the oldest continuously inhabited city in the world, remnants of prehistoric huts with crushed limestone floors, primitive weapons, and burial jars which are evidence of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic fishing communities who lived on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea over 7,000 years ago. Byblos ( Βύβλος) is the Greek name of the Phoenician city Gebal (earlier Gubla)
Phoenicia
- Main Article Phoenicia. Phoenicia ( Phoenician: Phoenician nunsvg|12px|נ]]Phoenician nun
The coastal plain of Lebanon is the historic home of a string of coastal trading cities of Semitic culture, which the Greeks termed Phoenicia, whose maritime culture flourished there for more than 2,000 years 255 Ancient ruins in Byblos, Berytus (Beirut), Sidon, Sarepta (Sarafand), and Tyre show a civilized nation, with urban centres and sophisticated arts. Lebanon (ˈlɛbənɒn Arabic: ar لبنان Lubnān) officially the Republic of Lebanon or Lebanese Republic (ar الجمهورية اللبنانية Phoenicia ( Phoenician: Phoenician nunsvg|12px|נ]]Phoenician nun Byblos ( Βύβλος) is the Greek name of the Phoenician city Gebal (earlier Gubla) Beirut (بيروت Bayrūt) is the Capital and Largest city of Lebanon with a population of over 2 Sidon,or Saïda, ( Arabic ar صيدا; Phoenician phoenician yodh For the modern Lebanese town on the site see Sarafand Sarafand is a town in Lebanon, known in ancient times as the Phoenician city of Sarepta, the ruins of which can be seen to the south of the modern settlement Tyre ( Arabic صور Ṣūr, Phoenician Phoenician wawsvg|12px|ו]] Ṣur, Hebrew Present-day Lebanon was a cosmopolitan centre for many nations and cultures. Its people roamed the Mediterranean seas, skilled in trade and in art, and founded trading colonies. They were also the creators of the oldest known 24-letter alphabet, a shortening of earlier 30-letter alphabets such as Proto-Sinaitic and Ugaritic. An alphabet is a standardized set of letters basic written symbols each of which roughly represents a Phoneme, a Spoken language, either The Middle Bronze Age alphabets are two similar Undeciphered scripts dated to be from the Middle Bronze Age (2000-1500 BCE and believed to be ancestral The Ugaritic language, discovered by French archaeologists in 1928 is known only in the form of writings found in the lost city of Ugarit, near the modern
The ancient Lebanese set for sail and colonized overseas. Their most famous colonies were Cadiz in today’s Spain and Carthage in today’s Tunisia. Cádiz ( Spanish:) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the province of the same name, a province which is one of eight Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Carthage (Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Carthago from the Phoenician קרת חדשת phn-Latn Qart-ḥadašt meaning new town) refers Tunisia (تونس Tūnis officially the Tunisian Republic ( is a country located in North Africa.
Phoenicia maintained an uneasy tributary relationship with the neo-Assyrian and neo-Babylonian empires; it was conquered outright by the Achaemenid dynasty of Persia, which organized it as a satrapy. Early history The most Neolithic site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the Hassuna culture Babylon was a City-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire ( haχɒmaneʃijɒn (558–330 BC was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of See also the related deity Satrapes. Satrap (Persian ساتراپ was the name given to the governors of the Provinces of ancient It was added to the empire of Alexander the Great, who notably conquered Tyre (332 BC) by extending a still-extant causeway from the mainland in a seven-month effort. Alexander the Great ( or, Mégas Aléxandros; July 20 356 BC June 10 or June 11 323 BC also known as Alexander III of Macedon (el Ἀλέξανδρος Γ' Tyre ( Arabic صور Ṣūr, Phoenician Phoenician wawsvg|12px|ו]] Ṣur, Hebrew It fell to the Seleucid Empire after Alexander's death. The Seleucid Empire /sə'lusɪd/ ( 312 - 63 BC) was a Hellenistic empire i The area was conquered by the Roman Empire in the first century and remained Roman until the advent of the Caliphate. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial A caliphate (from the Arabic خلافة or khilāfa) is the political leadership of the Muslim community in classical and medieval Islamic history Christianity was introduced to Phoenicia from neighboring Galilee soon after the time of Jesus of Nazareth; the Arab advances brought Islam soon after the death of Muhammad. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings "Galil" redirects here For the weapon see IMI Galil. Galilee (הגליל ha-Galil, lit the province, Jesus of Nazareth (7–2 BC / BCE —26–36 AD / CE) Nazareth (ˈnæzərəθ (נָצְרַת Hebrew Natz'rat or Natzeret, الناصرة an-Nāṣira or an-Naseriyye) is the capital and largest For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. IMPORTANT PLEASE READ ##### For all questions relating to the addition of (pbuh peace be upon him or other honorifics Muslim influence increased greatly in the seventh century when the Umayyad capital was established at nearby
Arab rule and the Middle Ages
During the Middle Ages, Lebanon was heavily involved in the Crusades. The history of Lebanon under Arab rule traces the course of human events in the section of West Asia now known as Lebanon. The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents Lebanon was in the main path of the First Crusade's advance on Jerusalem. The First Crusade was launched in 1095 by Pope Urban II with the dual goals of conquering the sacred city of Jerusalem and the Holy Land and freeing Jerusalem (יְרוּשָׁלַיִם, he-Latn Yerushaláyim; Arabic: ar القُدس, ar-Latn al-Quds) is the Later, Frankish nobles occupied present-day Lebanon as part of the southeastern Crusader States. The Crusader states were a number of mostly 12th- and 13th-century feudal states created by Western European Crusaders in Asia Minor, Greece and The southern half of present-day Lebanon formed the northern march of the Kingdom of Jerusalem; the northern half was the heartland of the County of Tripoli. This article is about the Christian kingdom For the history of the city see History of Jerusalem The Kingdom of Jerusalem was a Christian The County of Tripoli (1109–1289 was the last Crusader state founded in the Levant, located in what today is known as northern Lebanon Although Saladin eliminated Christian control of the Holy Land around 1190, the Crusader states in Lebanon and Syria were better defended. Salahadin Ayyubi ( Arabic:صلاح الدين يوسف بن أيوب Kurdish: سهلاحهدین ئهیوبی Selah'edînê Eyubî; c The Holy Land ( Arabic: الأرض المقدسة al-Arḍ ul-Muqaddasah;Ancient Aramaic: ארעא קדישא Ar'a Qaddisha; Hebrew: ארץ_הקודש Muslim control of Lebanon was reestablished in the late 13th century under the Mamluk sultans of Egypt. Lebanon was later contested between Muslim rulers until the Ottoman Empire solidified authority over the eastern Mediterranean. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish Ottoman control was uncontested during the early modern period, but the Lebanese coast became important for its contacts and trades with Venice and other Italian city-states. Venice ( Italian: Venezia, Venetian: Venesia or Venexia) is a city in Northern Italy, the capital of the Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest
The mountainous territory of Mount Lebanon has long been a shelter for minority and persecuted groups, including its historic Maronite Christian majority along with Druze, and local Shi'a Muslims. Mount Lebanon ( Arabic: جبل لبنان as a geographic designation is the Lebanese mountain range known as the Western Mountain Range of Lebanon Maronites ( الموارنة,, Syriac: ܡܪܘܢܝܐ, Latin: Ecclesia Maronitarum) are members of one of the Syriac The Druze ( Arabic: درزي derzī or durzī, plural دروز durūz) are a religious community found primarily in Syria, Lebanon It was an autonomous Maronite region of the Ottoman empire.
Ottoman rule
The Ottoman Turks formed an empire starting from the 14th century which came to encompass the Balkans, Middle east and North Africa. The Ottoman Turks were the subdivision of the Ottoman Muslim Millet that dominated the ruling class of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman sultan, Selim I (1516-20), after defeating the Persians, conquered the Mamluks. Selim I ( Ottoman: سليم الأول, Turkish: ISelim; also known as "the Grim" or "the Brave" Yavuz in His troops, invading Syria, destroyed Mamluk resistance in 1516 at Marj Dabaq, north of Aleppo. [1]
During the conflict between the Mamluks and the Ottomans, the amirs of Lebanon linked their fate to that of Ghazali, governor (pasha) of Damascus. Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī (1058-1111 ( ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد الغزالی or امام محمد غزالی was born and died He won the confidence of the Ottomans by fighting on their side at Marj Dabaq and, apparently pleased with the behavior of the Lebanese amirs, introduced them to Salim I when he entered Damascus. Salim I, moved by the eloquence of the Lebanese ruler Amir Fakhr ad Din I (1516-44), decided to grant the Lebanese amirs a semiautonomous status. The Ottomans, through two great Druze feudal families, the Maans and the Shihabs, ruled Lebanon until the middle of the nineteenth century. It was during Ottoman rule that the term Greater Syria was coined to designate the approximate area included in present-day Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Israel. Greater Syria (سوريّة الكبرى also known (in a historic context simply as Syria, is a term that denotes a historic region in the Middle East bordering [1]
The Maans, 1120-1697
The Maan family, under orders from the governor of Damascus, came to Lebanon in 1120 won against the invading Crusaders. They settled on the southwestern slopes of the Lebanon Mountains and soon adopted the Druze religion. The Druze ( Arabic: درزي derzī or durzī, plural دروز durūz) are a religious community found primarily in Syria, Lebanon Their authority began to rise with Fakhr ad Din I, who was permitted by Ottoman authorities to organize his own army, and reached its peak with Fakhr ad Din II (1570-1635). [1]
Although Fakhr ad Din II's aspirations toward complete independence for Lebanon ended tragically, he greatly enhanced Lebanon's military and economic development. Noted for religious tolerance , Fakhr ad Din attempted to merge the country's different religious groups into one Lebanese community. In an effort to attain complete independence for Lebanon, he concluded a secret agreement with Ferdinand I, duke of Tuscany in Italy, the two parties pledging to support each other against the Ottomans. Informed of this agreement, the Ottoman ruler in Constantinople reacted violently and ordered Ahmad al Hafiz, governor of Damascus, to attack Fakhr ad Din. Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS Realizing his inability to cope with the regular army of Al Hafiz, the Lebanese ruler went to Tuscany in exile in 1613. He returned to Lebanon in 1618, after his good friend Muhammad Pasha became governor of Damascus. [1]
Following his return from Tuscany, Fakhr ad Din, realizing the need for a strong and disciplined armed force, channeled his financial resources into building a regular army. This army proved itself in 1623, when Mustafa Pasha, the new governor of Damascus, underestimating the capabilities of the Lebanese army, engaged it in battle and was decisively defeated at Anjar in the Biqa Valley. Impressed by the victory of the Lebanese ruler, the sultan of Constantinople gave him the title of Sultan al Barr (Sultan of Land). [1]
In addition to building up the army, Fakhr ad Din, who became acquainted with Italian culture during his stay in Tuscany, initiated measures to modernize the country. After forming close ties with the dukes of Tuscany and Florence and establishing diplomatic relations with them, he brought in architects, irrigation engineers, and agricultural experts from Italy in an effort to promote prosperity in the country. He also strengthened Lebanon's strategic position by expanding its territory, building forts as far away as Palmyra in Syria, and gaining control of Palestine. Finally, the Ottoman sultan Murad IV of Constantinople, wanting to thwart Lebanon's progress toward complete independence, ordered Kutshuk, then governor of Damascus, to attack the Lebanese ruler. Murad IV ( Ottoman Turkish: مراد رابع Murād-i rābi‘) ( June 16, 1612 February 9, 1640 This time Fakhr ad Din was defeated, and he was executed in Constantinople in 1635. No significant Maan rulers succeeded Fakhr ad Din II. [1]
The Shihabs, 1697-1842
The Shihabs succeeded the Maans in 1697. They originally lived in the Hawran region of southwestern Syria and settled in Wadi at Taim in southern Lebanon. Hauran, also Hawran or Houran, ( حوران, is the southwestern region of modern-day Syria, it extends to the far northwestern region of modern-day The most prominent among them was Bashir Shihab II, who was much like his predecessor, Fakhr ad Din II. Bashir Shihab II (1767 in Ghazir – 1850 in Constantinople) was a Lebanese Emir who ruled Lebanon in the first half of the 19th century His ability as a statesman was first tested in 1799, when Napoleon besieged Acre, a well-fortified coastal city in Palestine, about forty kilometers south of Tyre. Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. Both Napoleon and Al Jazzar, the governor of Acre, requested assistance from the Shihab leader; Bashir, however, remained neutral, declining to assist either combatant. Unable to conquer Acre, Napoleon returned to Egypt, and the death of Al Jazzar in 1804 removed Bashir's principal opponent in the area. [1]
19th century
During the nineteenth century the town of Beirut became the most important port of the region supplanting Acre further to the south. Beirut (بيروت Bayrūt) is the Capital and Largest city of Lebanon with a population of over 2 This was mostly because Mount Lebanon became a centre of silk production for export to Europe. Silk is a natural Protein Fiber, some forms of which can be woven into Textiles The best-known type of silk is obtained from cocoons This industry made the region wealthy, but also dependent on links to Europe. Since most of the silk went to Marseille the French began to have a great impact in the region. Marseille, ( English alt Marseilles mɑrˈseɪ — French: maʁsɛj locally — Provençal Occitan: Marselha maʀˈsijɔ This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics.
The rise and fall of Emir Bashir II
In 1788 Bashir Shihab II (sometimes spelled Bachir in French sources) would rise to become the Emir. Bashir Shihab II (1767 in Ghazir – 1850 in Constantinople) was a Lebanese Emir who ruled Lebanon in the first half of the 19th century Born into poverty, he was elected emir upon the abdication of his predecessor, and would rule under Ottoman suzerainty, being appointed wali or governor of Mt Lebanon, the Biqa valley and Jabal Amil. Together this is about two thirds of modern day Lebanon. He would reform taxes and attempt to break the feudal system, in order to undercut rivals, the most important of which was also named Bashir: Bashir Jumblatt, whose wealth and feudal backers equaled or exceeded Bashir II – and who had increasing support in the Druze community. The Druze ( Arabic: درزي derzī or durzī, plural دروز durūz) are a religious community found primarily in Syria, Lebanon In 1822 the Ottoman wali of Damascus went to war with Acre, which was allied with Muhammad Ali, the pasha of Egypt. This article is about the leader of Egypt For other people named Muhammad Ali or Mehmet Ali see Muhammad Ali (disambiguation and Mehemet Ali (disambiguation Pasha or pacha, formerly bashaw, (paşa پاشا ( Persian: پاشا ( Armenian: Փաշա was a high rank in the Ottoman Empire This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. As part of this conflict one of the most remembered massacres of Maronite Christians by Druze forces occurred, forces that were aligned with the wali of Damascus. Jumblatt represented the increasingly disaffected Druze, who were both shut out from official power and angered at the growing ties with the Maronites by Bashir II, who was himself a Maronite Christian.
Bashir II was overthrown as wali when he backed Acre, and fled to Egypt, later to return and organize an army. Jumblatt gathered the Druze factions together, and the war became sectarian in character: the Maronites backing Bashir II, the Druze backing Bashir Jumblatt. Jumblatt declared a rebellion, and between 1821 and 1825 there were massacres and battles, with the Maronites attempting to gain control of the Mt. Lebanon district, and the Druze gaining control over the Biqa valley. In 1825 Bashir II defeated his rival and killed him after the battle of al Simqaniya. Bashir II was not a forgiving man and repressed the Druze, particularly in and around Beirut.
Bashir II, who had come to power through local politics and nearly fallen from power because of his increasing detachment from them, reached out for allies, allies who looked on the entire area as “the Orient” and who could provide trade, weapons and money, without requiring fealty and without, it seemed, being drawn into endless internal squabbles. He disarmed the Druze and allied with France, governing in the name of the Egyptian Pasha Muhammad Ali, who entered Lebanon and formally took overlordship in 1832. For the remaining 8 years, the sectarian and feudal rifts of the 1821–1825 conflict were heightened by the increasing economic isolation of the Druze, and the increasing wealth of the Maronites.
Sectarian conflict: European Powers begin to intervene
The discontent grew to open rebellion, fed by both Ottoman and British money and support: Bashir II fled, the Ottoman empire reasserted control and Mehmed Hüsrev Pasha, whose sole term as Grand Vizier ran from 1839 to 1841, appointed another member of the Shihab family, who styled himself Bashir III. Bashir III, coming on the heels of a man who by guile, force and diplomacy had dominated Mt Lebanon and the Biqa for 52 years, did not last long. In 1841 conflicts between the impoverished Druze and the Maronite Christians exploded: There was a massacre of Christians by the Druze at Deir al Qamar, and the fleeing survivors were slaughtered by Ottoman regulars. The Ottomans attempted to create peace by dividing Mt Lebanon into a Christian district and a Druze district, but this would merely create geographic powerbases for the warring parties, and it plunged the region back into civil conflict which included not only the sectarian warfare but a Maronite revolt against the Feudal class, which ended in 1858 with the overthrow of the old feudal system of taxes and levies. The situation was unstable: the Maronites lived in the large towns, but these were often surrounded by Druze villages living as perioikoi.
In 1860, this would boil back into full scale sectarian war, when the Maronites began openly opposing the power of the Ottoman Empire. The Druze took advantage of this and began burning Maronite villages. The long siege of Deir al Qamar found a Maronite garrison holding out against Druze forces backed by Ottoman soldiers; the area in every direction was despoiled by the besiegers. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish In July of 1860, with European intervention threatening, the Turkish government tried to quiet the strife, but Napoleon III of France sent 7,000 troops to Beirut and helped impose a partition: The Druze control of the territory was recognized as the fact on the ground, and the Maronites were forced into an enclave, arrangements ratified by the concert of Europe in 1861. They were confined to a mountainous district, cut off from both the Biqa and Beirut, and faced with the prospect of ever growing poverty. Resentments and fears would brood, ones which would resurface in the coming decades.
It is estimated that more than 4000 Christians were killed in the conflict, with another 4000 dying of destitution. Furthermore, more than 100 000 were made homeless (Salibi, K. 1965 The Modern History of Lebanon).
Another destabilizing factor was France's support for the Maronite Christians against the Druze which in turn led the British to back the Druze, exacerbating religious and economic tensions between the two communities. The Druze ( Arabic: درزي derzī or durzī, plural دروز durūz) are a religious community found primarily in Syria, Lebanon In 1859–60 violence erupted between the Maronites and the Druze. The Druze had grown increasingly resentful of the favoring of the Maronites by Bashir II, and were backed by the Ottoman Empire and the wali of Damascus in an attempt to gain greater control over Lebanon; the Maronites were backed by the French, out of both economic and political expediency. The Druze began a military campaign that included the burning of villages and massacres, while Maronite irregulars retaliated with attacks of their own. However, the Maronites were gradually pushed into a few strongholds and were on the verge of military defeat when the Congress of Europe intervened and established a commission to determine the outcome. The French forces deployed there were then used to enforce the final decision. The French accepted the Druze as having established control and the Maronites were reduced to a semi-autonomous region around Mt Lebanon, without even direct control over Beirut itself. The Province of Lebanon that would be controlled by the Maronites, but the entire area was placed under direct rule of the governor of Damascus, and carefully watched by the Ottoman Empire.
Rising prosperity and peace
The remainder of the 19th century saw a relative period of stability, as Islamic, Druze and Maronite groups focused on economic and cultural development which saw the founding of the American University of Beirut and a flowering of literary and political activity associated with the attempts to liberalize the Ottoman Empire. The American University of Beirut (AUB الجامعة الأميركية في بيروت is a private independent University in Beirut, Lebanon. Late in the century there was a short Druze uprising over the extremely harsh government and high taxation rates, but there was far less of the violence that had scalded the area earlier in the century.
In the approach to World War I, Beirut became a center of various reforming movements, and would send delegates to the Arab Syrian conference and Franco-Syrian conference held in Paris. There was a complex array of solutions, from pan-Arab nationalism, to separatism for Beirut, and several status quo movements that sought stability and reform within the context of Ottoman government. The Young Turk revolution brought these movements to the front, hoping that the reform of Ottoman Empire would lead to broader reforms. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish The outbreak of hostilities changed this, as Lebanon was to feel the weight of the conflict in the Middle East more heavily than most other areas.
League of Nations Mandate
Following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire after World War I, the League of Nations mandated the five provinces that make up present-day Lebanon to the direct control of France. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All The League of Nations was an International organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920 This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Initially the division of the Arab speaking areas of the Ottoman empire were to be divided by the Sykes-Picot Agreement, however, the final disposition was at the San Remo conference of 1920, whose determinations on the mandates, their boundaries, purposes and organization was ratified by the League in 1921 and put into effect in 1922. The San Remo Conference was an international meeting of the post-
According to the agreements reached at San Remo, France also had its control over what was termed Syria recognised, the French having taken Damascus in 1920. Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية However Syria was scheduled to be an independent country, a so called Class A Mandate, and the rights granted to France were far less than over other mandate territories. A Class B mandate granted the right to administer the territories. The entire mandate area was termed "Syria" at the time, including the administrative districts along the Mediterranean coast. Wanting to maximize the area under its direct control, contain an Arab Syria centered on Damascus, and insure a defensible border, France established the Lebanon-Syrian border to the "Anti-Lebanon" mountains, on the far side of the Beqaa Valley, territory which had belonged to the province of Damascus for hundreds of years, and was far more attached to Damascus than Beirut by culture and influence. Beqaa ( Arabic: البقاع "valley" also transliterated as Bekaa, Biqâ‘ or Becaa) is a fertile Valley in This doubled the territory under the control of Beirut, at the expense of what would become the state of Syria.
Consequently, the demographics of Lebanon were profoundly altered, as the territory added contained people who were predominantly Muslim or Druze: Lebanese Christians, of which the Maronites were the largest subgrouping, now constituted barely more than 50% of the population, while Sunni Muslims in Lebanon saw their numbers increase eightfold, Shi'ite Muslims fourfold. Modern Lebanon's constitution, drawn up in 1926, specified a balance of power between the various religious groups, but France designed it to guarantee the political dominance of its Christian allies. The Constitution of Lebanon was adopted on 23 May, 1926. The most recent amendment of the Constitution was for the Charter of Lebanese National Reconciliation The president was required to be a Christian (in practice, a Maronite), the prime minister a Sunni Muslim. On the basis of the 1932 census, parliament seats were divided according to a 6 to 5 Christian/Muslim ratio. The constitution gave the president veto power over any legislation approved by parliament, virtually ensuring that the 6:5 ratio would not be revised in the event that the population distribution changed. By 1960, Muslims were thought to constitute a majority of the population, which contributed to Muslim unrest regarding the political system.
Independence
Lebanon gained independence in 1943, while France was occupied by Germany. General Henri Dentz, the Vichy High Commissioner for Syria and Lebanon, played a major role in the independence of both nations. The Vichy authorities in 1941 allowed Germany to move aircraft and supplies through Syria to Iraq where they were used against British forces. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Britain, fearing that Nazi Germany would gain full control of Lebanon and Syria by pressure on the weak Vichy government, sent its army into Syria and Lebanon.
After the fighting ended in Lebanon, General Charles de Gaulle visited the area. Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle ( ( 22 November 1890 – 9 November 1970) was a French General and statesman who led the Free French Under various political pressures from both inside and outside Lebanon, de Gaulle decided to recognize the independence of Lebanon. On November 26, 1941, General Georges Catroux announced that Lebanon would become independent under the authority of the Free French government. Events 43 BC - The Second Triumvirate alliance of Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus ("Octavian" later "Caesar Augustus" Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Georges Catroux ( 29 January 1877 - 21 December 1969) was a French military figure and diplomat who served in both World War I and Elections were held in 1943 and on November 8, 1943 the new Lebanese government unilaterally abolished the mandate. The French reacted by throwing the new government into prison. In the face of international pressure, the French released the government officials on November 22, 1943 and accepted the independence of Lebanon. The allies kept the region under control until the end of World War Two. The last French troops withdrew in 1946.
Lebanon's history from independence has been marked by alternating periods of political stability and turmoil interspersed with prosperity built on Beirut's position as a freely trading regional center for finance and trade. Beirut (بيروت Bayrūt) is the Capital and Largest city of Lebanon with a population of over 2 Lebanon was also a major center for the production of opium in the Mideast. Beirut became a mecca for institutions of international commerce and finance, as well as wealthy tourists, and enjoyed a reputation as the "Paris of the Middle East" until the outbreak of the Lebanese Civil War. Beirut (بيروت Bayrūt) is the Capital and Largest city of Lebanon with a population of over 2 Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. The Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990 was a multifaceted Civil war whose antecedents can be traced back to the conflicts and political compromises reached after the end
Regional conflict
- See also: Israel-Lebanon conflict
Meanwhile, in the aftermath of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, Lebanon became home to more than 110,000 Palestinian refugees after being expelled from the newly formed Israel and Jordan, where King Hussein saw them as a threat to the stability of his kingdom. Palestinian people or Palestinians ( الشعب الفلسطيني, ash-sha`b al-filasTīni; الفلسطينيون, al-filasTīnīyyūn Hussein bin Talal King of Jordan (حسين بن طلال Ḥusayn bin Ṭalāl) ( November 14, 1935 – February 7, 1999) was More Palestinians found their way to Lebanon than to any other Arab country.
In 1958, during the last months of President Camille Chamoun's term, an insurrection broke out, and 5,000 United States Marines were briefly dispatched to the capital Beirut on July 15 in response to an appeal by the government. Camille Nimr Chamoun ( Arabic: كميل نمر شمعون Kamīl Sham'ūn) (b The 1958 Lebanon crisis was a Lebanese political crisis caused by political and religious tensions in the country Operation Blue Bat was the name given to the 1958 operation in which the United States intervened in the Lebanon crisis. Beirut (بيروت Bayrūt) is the Capital and Largest city of Lebanon with a population of over 2 Events 1099 - First Crusade: Christian soldiers take the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem after the final After the crisis, a new government was formed, led by the popular former general Fuad Chehab. Fuad Chehab (name also spelt Fouad Shihab, or Chehab, depending on transliteration from the original Arabic 1902 - April 25, 1973
During the 1960s, Lebanon enjoyed a period of relative calm, with Beirut-focused tourism and banking sector-driven prosperity. Beirut (بيروت Bayrūt) is the Capital and Largest city of Lebanon with a population of over 2 Lebanon reached the peak of its economic success in the mid-1960’s – the country was seen as a bastion of economic strength by the oil-rich Gulf Arab states, whose funds made Lebanon one of the world’s fastest growing economies and fashionable Beirut seen as the “Paris of the East”. This period of economic stability and prosperity was brought to an abrupt halt with the collapse of Yousef Beidas' Intra Bank, the country's largest bank and financial backbone, in 1966. Yousef Beidas ( Arabic يوسف بيدس, also transliterated Yusif Bedas, Yusef Baydas, Yousif Beydas) (December 1912 Intra Bank (also known as Banque Intra or بنك انترا) was a Lebanese Bank, and the largest
Additional Palestinian refugees arrived after the 1967 Arab-Israeli war. Background Suez Crisis aftermath The Suez Crisis of 1956 represented a military defeat but a political victory for Egypt Following their defeat in the Jordanian civil war, thousands of Palestinian militiamen regrouped in Lebanon, led by Yasir Arafat's Palestine Liberation Organization, with the intention of replicating the modus operandi of attacking Israel from a politically and militarily weak neighbour. September 1970 is known as the Black September ( in Arab history and sometimes is referred to as the "era of regrettable events Mohammed Abdel Rahman Abdel Raouf Arafat al-Qudwa al-Husseini ( Arabic: محمد عبد الرؤوف عرفات القدوة الحسيني (August 24 1929 – November 11 The Palestine Liberation Organization ( PLO) (منظمة التحرير الفلسطينية or Munazzamat al-Tahrir al-Filastiniyyah) is a political and paramilitary Starting in 1968, Palestinian militants of various affiliations began to use southern Lebanon as a launching pad for attacks on Israel. Two of these attacks led to a watershed event in Lebanon's inchoate civil war. In July 1968, a faction of George Habash's Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine(PFLP) hijacked an Israeli El Al civilian plane en route to Algiers; in December, Habash himself oversaw an attack on an El Al plane in Athens, resulting in two deaths. George Habash ( جورج حبش) also known by his kunya " al-Hakim " (Arabicالحكيم — the wise one or the doctor) The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine ( PFLP) ( Arabic: الجبهة الشعبية لتحرير فلسطين al-Jabhah al-Sha`biyyah li-Tahrīr El Al (אל על skyward) ( TASE: ELAL is the National airline of Israel. Later that month, Israeli agents flew into Beirut's international airport and demolished 13 civilian airliners belonging to various Arab carriers. Israel defended its actions by informing the Lebanese government that it was responsible for encouraging the PFLP. The retaliation, which was intended to encourage a Lebanese government crackdown on Palestinian militants, instead polarized Lebanese society on the Palestinian question, deepening the divide between pro- and anti-Palestinian factions, with the Muslims leading the former grouping and Maronites primarily constituting the latter. This dispute reflected increasing tensions between Christian and Muslim communities over the distribution of political power, and would ultimately foment the outbreak of civil war in 1975. In the interim, while armed Lebanese forces under the Maronite-controlled government sparred with Palestinian fighters, Egyptian leader Gamal Abd al-Nasser helped to negotiate the 1969 "Cairo Agreement" between Arafat and the Lebanese government, which granted the PLO autonomy over Palestinian refugee camps and access routes to northern Israel in return for PLO recognition of Lebanese sovereignty. Gamal Abdel Nasser (جمال عبد الناصر Gamāl ‘Abd an-Nāṣir; - January 15 1918 September 28 1970) was the second President The Cairo agreement or Cairo accord was an agreement reached on 2 November, 1969 during talks between Yassir Arafat and the Lebanese The agreement incited Maronite frustration over what were perceived as excessive concessions to the Palestinians, and pro-Maronite paramilitary groups were subsequently formed to fill the vacuum left by government forces, which were now required to leave the Palestinians alone. Notably, the Phalange, a Maronite militia, rose to prominence around this time, led by members of the Gemayel family. The Lebanese Kataeb Party ( Arabic: الكتائب اللبنانية Kataeb is the Plural of Katiba which is a translation into Arabic of the Greek word (Charles D. Smith, Palestine and the Arab Israeli Conflict, pp. 310, 353. )
For its part, the PLO used its new privileges to establish an effective "mini-state" in southern Lebanon, and to ramp up its attacks on settlements in northern Israel. Compounding matters, Lebanon received an influx of armed Palestinian militants, including Arafat and his Fatah movement, fleeing the 1970 Jordanian crackdown. Fatah (فتح literally opening, is a reverse Acronym from the Arabic name Harakat al-Tahrir al-Watani al-Filastini (حركة التحرير The PLO's "vicious terrorist attacks in Israel" (Noam Chomsky, The Fateful Triangle, p. 184) dating from this period were countered by Israeli bombing raids in southern Lebanon, where "150 or more towns and villages. . . have been repeatedly savaged by the Israeli armed forces since 1968," of which the village of Khiyam is probably the best-known example (Ibid. Khiam ( Arabic الخيام sometimes spelled Khiyam) is a town located in South Lebanon Governorate, near the city of Nabatieh. , p. 191, quoting Guardian correspondent Irene Beeson). Palestinian terror claimed 106 lives in northern Israel from 1967, according to official IDF statistics, while the Lebanese army had recorded "1. The Israel Defense Forces ( IDF) (צְבָא הַהֲגָנָה לְיִשְׂרָאֵל, lit 4 Israeli violations of Lebanese territory per day from 1968–74" (Ibid. , p. 74, citing Ha'aretz, June 22, 1982, and p. 191, citing The New York Times, October 2, 1977. ) Where Lebanon had no conflict with Israel during the period 1949–1968, after 1968 Lebanon's southern border began to experience an escalating cycle of attack and retaliation, leading to the chaos of the civil war, foreign invasions and international intervention. The consequences of the PLO's arrival in Lebanon continue to this day.
The Lebanese Civil War: 1975–1990
The Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990) had its origin in the conflicts and political compromises of Lebanon's colonial period and was exacerbated by the nation's changing demographic trends, inter-religious strife, and proximity to Syria, the Palestine Liberation Organization, and Israel. The Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990 was a multifaceted Civil war whose antecedents can be traced back to the conflicts and political compromises reached after the end Lebanon (ˈlɛbənɒn Arabic: ar لبنان Lubnān) officially the Republic of Lebanon or Lebanese Republic (ar الجمهورية اللبنانية Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية The Palestine Liberation Organization ( PLO) (منظمة التحرير الفلسطينية or Munazzamat al-Tahrir al-Filastiniyyah) is a political and paramilitary For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. By 1975, Palestinians in Lebanon numbered more than 300,000.
Events and political movements that contributed to Lebanon's violent implosion include, among others, the departure of European colonial powers, the emergence of Arab Nationalism, Arab Socialism in the context of the Cold War, the Arab-Israeli Conflict, Ba'athism, the Iranian Revolution, Palestinian militants, Black September in Jordan, Islamic fundamentalism, and the Iran-Iraq War. Arab nationalism ( Arabic: القومية العربية is a Nationalist ideology which rose to prominence amongst Arabs from the early 20th century onwards Arab Socialism (الاشتراكية العربية al-ishtirākīya al-‘arabīya) is a political ideology based on an amalgamation of Pan-Arabism and Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the The Arab Socialist Ba'th Party (also spelled Baath or Ba'ath; Arabic: حزب البعث العربي الاشتراكي was founded in Damascus The Iranian Revolution' (mostly known as the Islamic Revolution, Persian: انقلاب اسلامی Enghelābe Eslāmi was the Revolution that transformed Palestinian political violence or Palestinian terrorism refers to acts of violence committed for political reasons by Palestinians Palestinian groups that support September 1970 is known as the Black September ( in Arab history and sometimes is referred to as the "era of regrettable events Islamic fundamentalism Arabic: usul (from usul the "fundamentals"] is a term used to describe religious ideologies seen as advocating a return to the
In all, it is estimated that more than 100,000 were killed, and another 100,000 handicapped by injuries, during Lebanon's 16-year war. Up to one-fifth of the pre-war resident population, or about 900,000 people, were displaced from their homes, of whom perhaps a quarter of a million emigrated permanently. Thousands of people lost limbs during many stages of planting of land-mines.
The War can be divided broadly into several periods: The initial outbreak in the mid-1970s, the Syrian and then Israeli intervention of the late 1970s, escalation of the PLO-Israeli conflict in the early 1980s, the 1982 Israeli invasion, a brief period of multinational involvement, and finally resolution which took the form of Syrian occupation.
See also: Lebanese Civil War
Initial outbreak, 1975–76 and Syrian intervention
Constitutionally guaranteed Christian control of the government had come under increasing fire from Muslims and leftists, leading them to join forces as the National Movement in 1969, which called for the taking of a new census and the subsequent drafting of a new governmental structure that would reflect the census results. The Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990 was a multifaceted Civil war whose antecedents can be traced back to the conflicts and political compromises reached after the end Political tension became military conflict, with full-scale civil war in April 1975. The Maronite leadership called for Syrian intervention in 1976, leading to the presence of Syrian troops in Lebanon, and an Arab summit in 1976 was called to stop the crisis.
PLO and Israeli conflict, Israeli intervention 1976–82
In the south, military exchanges between Israel and the PLO led Israel to support Saad Haddad's South Lebanon Army (SLA) in an effort to establish a security belt along Israel's northern border, an effort which intensified in 1977 with the election of new Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. The Palestine Liberation Organization ( PLO) (منظمة التحرير الفلسطينية or Munazzamat al-Tahrir al-Filastiniyyah) is a political and paramilitary Saad Haddad (1936-1984 was the founder and head of the South Lebanon Army (SLA The South Lebanon Army (SLA also "South Lebanese Army" (جيش لبنان الجنوبي transliterated: Jaysh Lubnān al-Janūbi (מְנַחֵם בְּגִין Mieczysław Biegun Менахем Вольфович Бегин 16 August 1913 – 9 March 1992 was the sixth prime minister of the State of Israel Israel invaded Lebanon in response to Fatah attacks in Israel in March 1978, occupying most of the area south of the Litani River, and resulting in the evacuation of at least 100,000 Lebanese (Smith, op. The Litani River (نهر الليطاني transliterated: Nahr al-Līţānī classical name Leontes is an important waterway in southern Lebanon cit. , 356), as well as approximately 2,000 deaths (Newsweek, March 27, 1978; Time, April 3, 1978; cited in Chomsky, Towards a New Cold War, p. 485 n115).
The UN Security Council passed Resolution 425 calling for an immediate Israeli withdrawal and creating the UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL), charged with maintaining peace. The United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon, or UNIFIL, was created by the United Nations, with the adoption of Security Council Resolution Israeli forces withdrew later in 1978, leaving an SLA-controlled border strip as a protective buffer against PLO cross-border attacks.
Concurrently, tension between Syria and Phalange increased Israeli support for the Maronite group and led to direct Israeli-Syrian exchanges in April 1981, leading to American diplomatic intervention. The Lebanese Kataeb Party ( Arabic: الكتائب اللبنانية Kataeb is the Plural of Katiba which is a translation into Arabic of the Greek word Philip Habib was dispatched to the region to head off further escalation, which he successfully did via an agreement concluded in May. Philip Charles Habib ( February 25, 1920 &ndash May 25, 1992) was a United States career diplomat known for work in Vietnam
Intra-Palestinian fighting and PLO-Israeli conflict continued, and July 24, 1981, Habib brokered a cease-fire agreement with the PLO and Israel: the two sides agreed to cease hostilities in Lebanon proper and along the Israeli border with Lebanon.
Israeli invasion and international intervention: 1982–84
After continued PLO-Israeli exchanges, Israel invaded Lebanon on June 6 in Operation Peace for Galilee. The 1982 Lebanon War (מלחמת לבנון Milhemet Levanon) (الإجتياح Al-Ijtīāḥ, "the invasion" called by Israel the Operation Peace The 1982 Lebanon War (מלחמת לבנון Milhemet Levanon) (الإجتياح Al-Ijtīāḥ, "the invasion" called by Israel the Operation Peace By June 15, Israeli units were entrenched outside Beirut and Yassir Arafat attempted through negotiations to evacuate the PLO. Mohammed Abdel Rahman Abdel Raouf Arafat al-Qudwa al-Husseini ( Arabic: محمد عبد الرؤوف عرفات القدوة الحسيني (August 24 1929 – November 11 It is commonly estimated that during the entire campaign, approximately 20,000 were killed on all sides, including many civilians. A multinational force composed of U. The Multinational Force in Lebanon (also MNF) was an international Peacekeeping force created in 1982 and sent to Lebanon to oversee the withdrawal of S. Marines, French, Italian units arrived to ensure the departure of the PLO and protect defenseless civilians. Nearly 15,000 Palestinian militants were evacuated by September 1.
President Bashir Gemayel agreed to send troops from his Phalange militia into camps to clear out 2,000 PLO fighters. Bachir Gemayel ( 10 November 1947 – 14 September 1982) (also known as Sheikh Bachir Gemayel first name also spelled On September 14, Gemayel was assassinated. Phalangists entered the camps on September 16 at 6:00 PM and remained until the morning of September 19, massacring 700–800 Palestinians, according to official Israeli statistics, "none apparently members of any PLO unit" (Smith, op. cit. , 380-1). These are known as the Sabra and Shatila massacres. This page is related to the 1982 events only For the 1985&ndash1987 events see War of the camps.
Amine Gemayel succeeded his brother and focused on securing the withdrawal of Israeli and Syrian forces. Amine Pierre Gemayel (أمين بيار الجميٌل (born 22 January 1942) was President of Lebanon from 1982 A May 17, 1983, agreement among Lebanon, Israel, and the United States arranged an Israeli withdrawal conditional on the departure of Syrian troops. Events 1521 - Edward Stafford 3rd Duke of Buckingham, is executed for Treason. Year 1983 ( MCMLXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays the 1983 Gregorian calendar) Syria opposed the agreement and declined to discuss the withdrawal of its troops, effectively stalemating further progress.
In 1983 the IDF withdrew southward, and would remain only in the "security zone" until the year 2000. The Israel Defense Forces ( IDF) (צְבָא הַהֲגָנָה לְיִשְׂרָאֵל, lit
Intense attacks against U. S. and Western interests, including two truck bombings of the US Embassy in 1983 and 1984 and the landmark attacks on the U.S. Marine and French parachute regiment barracks on October 23, 1983, led to an American withdrawal, while the virtual collapse of the Lebanese Army in February 1984 was a major blow to the government. The 1983 US Embassy bombing was a suicide bombing against the United States Embassy in Beirut, Lebanon on April 18, 1983 that killed over The Beirut barracks bombing was a major incident on October 23, 1983, during the Lebanese Civil War. On March 5 the Lebanese Government canceled the May 17 agreement and the Marines departed a few weeks later. Events 1521 - Edward Stafford 3rd Duke of Buckingham, is executed for Treason.
Assassination of Bachir el Gemayel
Israeli forces invaded Lebanon in 1982. Bachir Gemayel ( 10 November 1947 – 14 September 1982) (also known as Sheikh Bachir Gemayel first name also spelled Although Gemayel did not cooperate with the Israelis publicly, his long history of tactical collaboration with Israel counted against him in the eyes of many Lebanese, especially Muslims. Although the only announced candidate for the presidency of the republic, the National Assembly elected him by the second narrowest margin in Lebanese history (57 votes out of 92) on August 23, 1982; most Muslim members of the Assembly boycotted the vote. Nine days before he was due to take office, Gemayel was assassinated along with twenty-five others in an explosion at the Kataeb headquarters in Achrafieh on September 14, 1982. Bachir Gemayel was succeeded as president by his older brother Amine Gemayel, who served from 1982 to 1988. Rather different in temperament, Amine Gemayel was widely regarded as lacking the charisma and decisiveness of his brother, and many of the latter's followers were dissatisfied.
Habib Tanious Shartouni, a member of the pro-Damascus Syrian Social Nationalist Party, confessed to the crime, was apprehended and handed to Amine Gemayel. He escaped but was captured again a few hours later and handed over to Lebanon's justice system. He was imprisoned in the Roumieh prison. He was released from Roumieh in October 1990 in the post-war amnesty.
Worsening conflict and political crisis: 1985–89
Between 1985 and 1989, heavy fighting took place in the "War of the Camps. The War of the Camps was a subconflict within the Lebanese Civil War in which Palestinian refugee camps were besieged by the Shi'ite Amal " The Shi'a Muslim Amal militia sought to rout the Palestinians from Lebanese strongholds. For other uses of Amal see the disambiguation page. Amal Movement ( Arabic: abbreviation of أفواج المقاومة اللبنانية transliterated
Combat returned to Beirut in 1987, with Palestinians, leftists, and Druze fighters allied against Amal, eventually drawing further Syrian intervention. Violent confrontation flared up again in Beirut in 1988 between Amal and Hezbollah. Hezbollah (حزب الله, literally " party of God " is a Shi'a Islamic political and Paramilitary organisation
Meanwhile, on the political front, Prime Minister Rashid Karami, head of a government of national unity set up after the failed peace efforts of 1984, was assassinated on June 1, 1987. Rashid Abdul Hamid Karami ( December 30 1921 &ndash June 1 1987) (رشيد كرامي was a Lebanese statesman Events 193 - Roman Emperor Didius Julianus is Assassinated 987 - Hugh Capet is elected Year 1987 ( MCMLXXXVII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link displays 1987 Gregorian calendar) President Gemayel's term of office expired in September 1988. Before stepping down, he appointed another Maronite Christian, Lebanese Armed Forces Commanding General Michel Aoun, as acting Prime Minister, as was his right under the Lebanese constitution of 1943. The Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF' ( Arabic: القوات المسلحة اللبنانية al-Quwa'at al-Musalha al-Lubna'ani Michel Naim Aoun ( Arabic: ميشال عون (born 19 february 1935 in Haret Hreik, Lebanon) is a former Lebanese This action was highly controversial.
Muslim groups rejected the move and pledged support to Selim al-Hoss, a Sunni who had succeeded Karami. Selim Ahmed El-Hoss (spelled "Salim El-Hoss" on his website Arabic: سليم أحمد الحص (born 1929 is a veteran Lebanese politician Lebanon was thus divided between a Christian government in East Beirut and a Muslim government in West Beirut, with no President.
In February 1989, General Aoun launched the "Harb El Tahrir", a war against the Syrian Armed Forces in Lebanon. He did not receive aid or support from any other Lebanese group or militia, except the Lebanese Forces (who were to later side with the Syrian regime against Aoun). The Lebanese Forces (LF ( Arabic: القوات اللبنانية al-quwat al-lubnāniyya) is a Lebanese political party and a former In October 1990, the Syrian air force, backed by the US and pro-Syrian Lebanese groups (including Hariri, Joumblatt, Berri, Geagea and Lahoud) attacked the Presidential Palace at B'abda and forced Aoun to take refuge in the French embassy in Beirut and later go into exile in Paris. Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city October 13, 1990 is regarded as the date the civil war ended, and Syria is widely recognized as playing a critical role in its end. [1]
End of the Civil War: 1989–91
The Taif Agreement of 1989 marked the beginning of the end of the war, and was ratified on November 4. The Taif Agreement ( Arabic: اتفاقية الطائف) (also "National Reconciliation Accord" or "Document of National Accord" was an agreement Events 1333 - Flood of the Arno River, causing massive damage in Florence as recorded by the Florentine chronicler Giovanni Villani President Rene Mouawad was elected the following day, but was assassinated in a car bombing in Beirut on November 22 as his motorcade returned from Lebanese independence day ceremonies. René Moawad ( April 17, 1925 - November 22, 1989) (رينيه معوض was President of Lebanon for 17 days in 1989 A car bomb is an explosive device placed in a car or other Vehicle and then detonated. He was succeeded by Elias Hrawi, who remained in office until 1998. Elias Hrawi (الياس الهراوي,( September 4, 1925 - July 7, 2006) was a President of Lebanon, whose term of office
In August 1990, the parliament and the new president agreed on constitutional amendments embodying some of the political reforms envisioned at Taif. The National Assembly expanded to 128 seats and was divided equally between Christians and Muslims. In March 1991, parliament passed an amnesty law that pardoned most political crimes prior to its enactment, excepting crimes perpetrated against foreign diplomats or certain crimes referred by the cabinet to the Higher Judicial Council.
In May 1991, the militias (with the important exception of Hizballah) were dissolved, and the Lebanese Armed Forces began to slowly rebuild themselves as Lebanon's only major non-sectarian institution. The Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF' ( Arabic: القوات المسلحة اللبنانية al-Quwa'at al-Musalha al-Lubna'ani
Some violence still occurred. In late December 1991 a car bomb (estimated to carry 100 kg (220 pounds) of TNT) exploded in the Muslim neighborhood of Basta. Basta is a village on Mainland Shetland, Scotland. It is on the shores of Basta Voe At least thirty people were killed, and 120 wounded, including former Prime Minister Shafik Wazzan, who was riding in a bulletproof car. Shafik Dib al-Wazzan (1925&mdash July 8, 1999) was the Prime Minister of Lebanon from 1980 until 1984 It was the deadliest car bombing in Lebanon since June 18, 1985, when an explosion in the northern Lebanese port of Tripoli killed sixty people and wounded 110. Events 618 - Coronation of the Chinese governor Li Yuan as Emperor Gaozu of Tang, the new Emperor of China, initiating three centuries Year 1985 ( MCMLXXXV) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link displays 1985 Gregorian calendar) Tripoli ( Lebanese Arabic: طرابلس Ṭrāblos or Ṭrēblos locally Ṭrōbles Standard Arabic: Ṭarābulus Τρίπολις Tripolis is the second-largest
The last of the Westerners kidnapped by Hezbollah during the mid-1980s were released in May 1992.
Postwar reconstruction: 1992 to July 2006
Since the end of the war, the Lebanese have conducted several elections, most of the militias have been weakened or disbanded, and the Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) have extended central government authority over about two-thirds of the country. The Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF' ( Arabic: القوات المسلحة اللبنانية al-Quwa'at al-Musalha al-Lubna'ani Only Hezbollah retained its weapons, and was supported by Lebanon's parliament in doing so, because it was defending Lebanon against the ongoing Israeli occupation of almost one-quarter of the country. That occupation finally ended in 2000.
Postwar social and political instability, fueled by economic uncertainty and the collapse of the Lebanese currency, led to the resignation of Prime Minister Omar Karami, also in May 1992, after less than 2 years in office. Omar Abdul Hamid Karami (last name also spelled Karamé) (عمر عبد الحميد كرامي (born September 7 1934) was the Prime Minister of He was replaced by former Prime Minister Rashid al Sulh, who was widely viewed as a caretaker to oversee Lebanon's first parliamentary elections in 20 years.
By early November 1992, a new parliament had been elected, and Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri had formed a cabinet, retaining for himself the finance portfolio. The formation of a government headed by a successful billionaire businessman was widely seen as a sign that Lebanon would make a priority of rebuilding the country and reviving the economy. Solidere, a private real estate company set up to rebuild downtown Beirut, was a symbol of Hariri's strategy to link economic recovery to private sector investment. After the election of then-commander of the Lebanese Armed Forces Émile Lahoud as President in 1998 following Hrawi's extended term as President, Salim al-Hoss again served as Prime Minister. General Émile Jamil Lahoud ( اميل لحود; born 12 January 1936 is a former President of Lebanon. Selim Ahmed El-Hoss (spelled "Salim El-Hoss" on his website Arabic: سليم أحمد الحص (born 1929 is a veteran Lebanese politician This article is about the government position For other uses see Prime Minister (disambiguation. Hariri returned to office as Prime Minister in November 2000. Although problems with basic infrastructure and government services persist, and Lebanon is now highly indebted, much of the civil war damage has been repaired throughout the country, and many foreign investors and tourists have returned.
If Lebanon has in part recovered over the past decade from the catastrophic damage to infrastructure of its long civil war, the social and political divisions that gave rise to and sustained that conflict remain largely unresolved. Parliamentary and more recently municipal elections have been held with fewer irregularities and more popular participation than in the immediate aftermath of the conflict, and Lebanese civil society generally enjoys significantly more freedoms than elsewhere in the Arab world. However, there are continuing sectarian tensions and unease about Syrian and other external influences.
In the late 1990s, the government took action against Sunni Muslim extremists in the north who had attacked its soldiers, and it continues to move against groups such as Asbat al-Ansar, which has been accused of being partnered with Osama bin Laden's al-Qaida network. Osama bin Laden, with some spelling variations is the name used in English to refer to (أسامة بن محمد بن عوض بن لادن born 10 March Al-Qaeda, alternatively spelled al-Qaida, al-Qa`ida or al-Qa`idah, ( Arabic:; ar-Latn ''al-qāʿidah'' Translation: The On January 24, 2002, Elie Hobeika, another former Lebanese Forces figure associated with the Sabra and Shatilla massacres who later served in three cabinets and the parliament, was assassinated in a car bombing in Beirut. Events 41 - Gaius Caesar (Caligula, known for his eccentricity and cruel Despotism, is Assassinated by his disgruntled See also 2002 (disambiguation Year 2002 ( MMII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. Elie Hobeika (إيلي حبيقة (1956 in Kleiat Lebanon – 24 January, 2002) was a Phalangist and Lebanese Forces militia
Syrian military presence
During Lebanon's civil war, Syria's troop deployment in Lebanon was legitimized by the Lebanese Parliament in the Taif Agreement, supported by the Arab League, and is given a major share of the credit for finally bringing the civil war to an end in October of 1990. The Taif Agreement ( Arabic: اتفاقية الطائف) (also "National Reconciliation Accord" or "Document of National Accord" was an agreement In the ensuing fifteen years, Damascus and Beirut justified Syria's continued military presence in Lebanon by citing the continued weakness of a Lebanese armed forces faced with both internal and external security threats, and the agreement with the Lebanese Government to implement all of the constitutional reforms in the Taif Agreement. The Taif Agreement ( Arabic: اتفاقية الطائف) (also "National Reconciliation Accord" or "Document of National Accord" was an agreement Under Taif, the Hezbollah militia was eventually to be dismantled, and the LAF allowed to deploy along the border with Israel. Hezbollah (حزب الله, literally " party of God " is a Shi'a Islamic political and Paramilitary organisation Lebanon was called on to deploy along its southern border by UN Security Council Resolution 1391, urged to do so by UN Resolution UN Security Council Resolution 1496, and deployment was demanded by UN Security Council Resolution 1559. United Nations Security Council Resolution 1559 was a resolution adopted by the United Nations Security Council on September 2, 2004. The Syrian military and intelligence presence in Lebanon was criticised by some on Lebanon's right-wing inside and outside of the country, others believed it helped to prevent renewed civil war and discourage Israeli aggression, and others believed its presence and influence was helpful for Lebanese stability and peace but should be scaled back. [2] Major powers United States and France rejected Syrian reasoning that they were in Lebanon by the consent of the Lebanese government. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. They insist that the latter had been co-opted and that in fact Lebanon's Government was a Syrian puppet[3].
Up to 2005, 14-15,000 Syrian troops (down from 35,000)[4] remained in position in many areas of Lebanon, although the Taif called for an agreement between the Syrian and Lebanese Governments by September 1992 on their redeployment to Lebanon's Bekaa Valley. Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية The Taif Agreement ( Arabic: اتفاقية الطائف) (also "National Reconciliation Accord" or "Document of National Accord" was an agreement Syria's refusal to exit Lebanon following Israel's 2000 withdrawal from south Lebanon first raised criticism among the Lebanese Maronite Christians[5] and Druze, who were later joined by many of Lebanon's Sunni Muslims. Maronites ( الموارنة,, Syriac: ܡܪܘܢܝܐ, Latin: Ecclesia Maronitarum) are members of one of the Syriac The Druze ( Arabic: درزي derzī or durzī, plural دروز durūz) are a religious community found primarily in Syria, Lebanon Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam. Sunni Islam is also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h (Arabic [6]) Lebanon's Shiites, on the other hand, have long supported the Syrian presence, as has the Hezbollah militia group and political party. The U.S. began applying pressure on Syria to end its occupation and cease interfering with internal Lebanese matters[7]. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the In 2004, many believe Syria pressured Lebanese MPs to back a constitutional amendment to revise term limitations and allow Lebanon's two term pro-Syrian president Émile Lahoud to run for a third time. General Émile Jamil Lahoud ( اميل لحود; born 12 January 1936 is a former President of Lebanon. France, Germany and the United Kingdom, along with many Lebanese politicians joined the U. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located S. in denouncing alleged Syria's interference[8]. On September 2, 2004, the UN Security Council adopted UN Security Council Resolution 1559, authored by France and the U. United Nations Security Council Resolution 1559 was a resolution adopted by the United Nations Security Council on September 2, 2004. S. in an uncommon show of cooperation. The resolution called "upon all remaining foreign forces to withdraw from Lebanon" and "for the disbanding and disarmament of all Lebanese and non-Lebanese militias".
On May 25, 2000, Israel completed its withdrawal from the south of Lebanon in accordance with UN Security Council Resolution 425 [9]. Events 1085 - Alfonso VI of Castile takes Toledo Spain back from the Moors. 2000 ( MM) was a Leap year that started on Saturday of the Common Era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. On March 19, 1978, five days after the Israeli invasion of Lebanon, United Nations Security Council Resolution 425 called on A 50 square kilometer piece of Lebanese mountain terrain, commonly referred to as the Shebaa Farms, remains under the control of Israel. Golan Heights The Shebaa Farms (مزارع شبعا; חוות שבעא Havot Sheba‘a or הר דוב Har Dov) is a small area of land with disputed The UN has certified Israel's pullout [10], and regards the Shebaa Farms as occupied Syrian territory, while Lebanon and Syria have stated they regard the area as Lebanese territory. [11] The January 20, 2005, UN Secretary-General's report on Lebanon stated: "The continually asserted position of the Government of Lebanon that the Blue Line is not valid in the Shab'a farms area is not compatible with Security Council resolutions. Events 250 - Emperor Decius begins a widespread persecution of Christians in Rome. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Council has recognized the Blue Line as valid for purposes of confirming Israel's withdrawal pursuant to resolution 425 (1978). The Government of Lebanon should heed the Council's repeated calls for the parties to respect the Blue Line in its entirety. " [12]
In Resolution 425, the UN had set a goal of assisting the Lebanese government in a "return of its effective authority in the area", which would require an official Lebanese army presence there. Further, UN Security Council Resolution 1559 requires the dismantling of the Hezbollah militia. United Nations Security Council Resolution 1559 was a resolution adopted by the United Nations Security Council on September 2, 2004. Hezbollah (حزب الله, literally " party of God " is a Shi'a Islamic political and Paramilitary organisation Yet, Hezbollah remains deployed along the Blue Line [13]. The Blue Line is a border demarcation between Lebanon and Israel published by the United Nations on 7 June 2000 for the Both Hezbollah and Israel have violated the Blue Line more than once, according to the UN [14][15]. The most common pattern of violence have been border incursions by the Hezbollah into the Shebaa Farms area, and then Israeli air strikes into southern Lebanon. [16] The UN Secretary-General has urged "all governments that have influence on Hezbollah to deter it from any further actions which could increase the tension in the area" [17]. Staffan de Misura, Personal Representative of the Secretary-General for Southern Lebanon stated that he was "deeply concerned that air violations by Israel across the Blue Line during altercations with Hezbollah are continuing to take place" [18], calling "upon the Israeli authorities to cease such violations and to fully respect the Blue Line" [19]. In 2001 de Misura similarly expressed his concern to Lebanon's prime minister for allowing Hezbollah to violate the Blue Line, saying it was a "clear infringement" of UN Resolution 425, under which the UN certified Israel's withdrawal from south Lebanon as complete [20]. On January 28, 2005, UN Security Council Resolution 1583 called upon the Government of Lebanon to fully extend and exercise its sole and effective authority throughout the south, including through the deployment of sufficient numbers of Lebanese armed and security forces, to ensure a calm environment throughout the area, including along the Blue Line, and to exert control over the use of force on its territory and from it. Events 1077 - Walk to Canossa: The Excommunication of Henry IV Holy Roman Emperor is lifted Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. United Nations Security Council Resolution 1583 calls on Lebanon to assert full control over its border with Israel (See Hezbollah [21] On January 23, 2006 The UN Security Council called on the Government of Lebanon to make more progress in controlling its territory and disbanding militias, while also calling on Syria to cooperate with those efforts. Events 393 - Roman Emperor Theodosius I proclaims his nine year old son Honorius co-emperor Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. In a statement read out by its January President, Augustine Mahiga of Tanzania, the Council also called on Syria to take measures to stop movements of arms and personnel into Lebanon[22]. Dr Augustine Philip Mahiga ( 28 August, 1945 &mdash) is Ambassador of the United Republic of Tanzania to the United Nations.
2004 Amendments to the Constitution
On September 3, 2004, the National Assembly voted 96–29 to amend the constitution to allow the pro-Syrian president, Émile Lahoud, three more years in office by extending a statute of limitations to nine years. Events 36 BC - In the Battle of Naulochus, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Admiral of Octavian, defeats Sextus Pompeius "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " The National Assembly is either a Legislature, or the Lower house of a Bicameral legislature in some countries General Émile Jamil Lahoud ( اميل لحود; born 12 January 1936 is a former President of Lebanon. A statute of limitations is a Statute in a Common law Legal system that sets forth the maximum period of time after certain events that legal proceedings Many regarded this as a second time Syria had pressured Lebanon's Parliament to amend the constitution in a way that favored Lahoud (the first allowing for his election in 1998 immediately after he had resigned as commander-in-chief of the LAF. )[2] Three cabinet ministers were absent from the vote and later resigned. The USA charged that Syria exercised pressure against the National Assembly to amend the constitution, and many of the Lebanese rejected it, saying that it was considered as contradictive to the constitution and its principles. [3] Including these is the Maronite Patriarch Mar Nasrallah Boutros Sfeir – the most eminent religious figure for Maronites – and the Druze leader Walid Jumblatt. Patriarch Mar Nasrallah Boutros Cardinal Sfeir ( Arabic: الكاردينال مار نصر الله بطرس صفير) (born May 15, 1920 The Druze ( Arabic: درزي derzī or durzī, plural دروز durūz) are a religious community found primarily in Syria, Lebanon Walid Jumblatt (وليد جنبلاط (born August 7, 1949) is the current leader of the Progressive Socialist Party "PSP" of Lebanon
To the surprise of many, Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri, who had vehemently opposed this amendment, appeared to have finally accepted it, and so did most of his party. This page lists Prime ministers of Lebanon. By an unwritten agreement following independence the holder of this post must be a Sunni Muslim. However, he ended up resigning in protest against the amendment. He was assassinated soon afterwards (see below), triggering the Cedar Revolution. The Cedar Revolution ( Arabic: ثورة الأرز - thawrat al-arz) or Independence Intifada ( intifāḍat al-istiqlāl) was a chain of demonstrations This amendment comes in discordance with the UN Security Council Resolution 1559, which called for a new presidential election in Lebanon. United Nations Security Council Resolution 1559 was a resolution adopted by the United Nations Security Council on September 2, 2004.
On October 1, 2004, one of the main dissenting voices to Émile Lahoud's term extension, the newly resigned Druze ex-minister Marwan Hamadeh was the target of a car bomb attack as his vehicle slowed to enter his Beirut home. Events 331 BC - Alexander the Great defeats Darius III of Persia in the Battle of Gaugamela. "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " General Émile Jamil Lahoud ( اميل لحود; born 12 January 1936 is a former President of Lebanon. The Druze ( Arabic: درزي derzī or durzī, plural دروز durūz) are a religious community found primarily in Syria, Lebanon Marwan Hamadeh (born September 11, 1939) is the former Lebanese Minister of Telecommunications Beirut (بيروت Bayrūt) is the Capital and Largest city of Lebanon with a population of over 2 Mr. Hamadeh and his bodyguard were wounded and his driver killed in the attack. Druze leader Walid Jumblatt appealed for calm, but said the car bomb was a clear message for the opposition. Walid Jumblatt (وليد جنبلاط (born August 7, 1949) is the current leader of the Progressive Socialist Party "PSP" of Lebanon [4] UN Secretary General Kofi Annan expressed his serious concern over the attack [23]. The Secretary-General of the United Nations is the head of the Secretariat, one of the principal organs of the United Nations. Kofi Atta Annan, GCMG (born 8 April 1938 is a Ghanaian Diplomat who served as the seventh Secretary-General of the United Nations
On October 7, 2004, UN Secretary General Kofi Annan reported to the Security Council that Syria had failed to withdraw its forces from Lebanon. Events 3761 BC - The epoch (origin of the modern Hebrew calendar ( Proleptic Julian calendar) "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " Kofi Atta Annan, GCMG (born 8 April 1938 is a Ghanaian Diplomat who served as the seventh Secretary-General of the United Nations Mr. Annan concluded his report saying that "It is time, 14 years after the end of hostilities and four years after the Israeli withdrawal from Lebanon, for all parties concerned to set aside the remaining vestiges of the past. The withdrawal of foreign forces and the disbandment and disarmament of militias would, with finality, end that sad chapter of Lebanese history. " [24].
On October 19, 2004, following the UN Secretary General's report, the UN Security Council voted unanimously (meaning that it received the backing of Algeria, the only Arab member of the Security Council) to put out a statement calling on Syria to pull its troops out of Lebanon, in accordance with Resolution 1559[25]. Events 202 BCE - The Battle of Zama results in the defeat of Carthage and Hannibal. "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " United Nations Security Council Resolution 1559 was a resolution adopted by the United Nations Security Council on September 2, 2004.
Assassination of Hariri, 2005
See also: Cedar Revolution
On October 20, 2004, Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri resigned; the next day former Prime Minister and loyal supporter of Syria Omar Karami was appointed Prime Minister [26]. The Cedar Revolution ( Arabic: ثورة الأرز - thawrat al-arz) or Independence Intifada ( intifāḍat al-istiqlāl) was a chain of demonstrations Events 1740 - Maria Theresa takes the throne of Austria. France, Prussia, Bavaria and Saxony "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " Omar Abdul Hamid Karami (last name also spelled Karamé) (عمر عبد الحميد كرامي (born September 7 1934) was the Prime Minister of On February 14, 2005, former Prime Minister Hariri was assassinated in a car-bomb attack which killed 16 and wounded 100. Events 842 - Charles the Bald and Louis the German swear the Oaths of Strasbourg in the French and German Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. This was a second car-bomb assassination of a Lebanese Parliament member that opposed Syria in a four month period. On February 21 2005, tens of thousand Lebanese protestors held a rally at the site of the assassination calling for the withdrawal of Syria's peacekeeping forces and blaming Syria and the pro-Syrian president Lahoud for the murder[27]. Events 362 - Athanasius returns to Alexandria. 1245 - Thomas, the first known Bishop of Finland
Hariri's murder triggered increased international pressure on Syria. In a joint statement U. S. President Bush and French president Chirac condemned the killing and called for full implementation of UNSCR 1559. George Walker Bush ( born July 6 1946 is the forty-third and current President of the United States. United Nations Security Council Resolution 1559 was a resolution adopted by the United Nations Security Council on September 2, 2004. UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan announced that he was sending a team led by Ireland's deputy police commissioner, Peter Fitzgerald, to investigate the assassination [28]. Peter Gosselin Fitzgerald (born October 20, 1960) is the former junior United States Senator from Illinois, having served from 1999&ndash And while Arab League head Amr Moussa declared that Syrian president Assad promised him a phased withdrawal over a two year period, the Syrian Information Minister Mahdi Dakhlallah said Mr Moussa had misunderstood the Syrian leader. The Arab League ( الجامعة العربية) officially called the League of Arab States ( جامعة الدول العربية Amr Moussa (عمرو موسى (born 1936 has been the current Secretary-General of the League of Arab States since his election to the position in May 2001 Dr Bashar al-Assad (بشار الأسد) (born 11 September, 1965) is the President of the Syrian Arab Republic, Regional Secretary Mr Dakhlallah said that Syria will merely move its troops to eastern Lebanon.
Local Lebanese pressure mounted as well. As daily protests against the Syrian occupation grew to 25,000, a series of dramatic events occurred. Massive protests such as these have been quite uncommon in the Arab world, and while in the 90s most anti-Syrian demonstrators were predominantly Christian, the new demonstrations were Christian and Sunni[29]. On February 28 the government of pro-Syrian Prime Minister Omar Karami resigned, calling for a new election to take place. Events 202 BC - coronation ceremony of Liu Bang as Emperor Gaozu of Han takes place initiating four centuries of the Han Dynasty 's rule Omar Abdul Hamid Karami (last name also spelled Karamé) (عمر عبد الحميد كرامي (born September 7 1934) was the Prime Minister of Mr Karami said in his announcement: "I am keen the government will not be a hurdle in front of those who want the good for this country. " The tens of thousands gathered at Beirut's Martyrs' Square cheered the announcement, then chanted "Karami has fallen, your turn will come, Lahoud, and yours, Bashar"[30]. Opposition MPs were also not satisfied with Karami's resignation, and kept pressing for full Syrian withdrawal. Former minister and MP Marwan Hamadeh, who survived a similar car bomb attack on October 1, 2004, said "I accuse this government of incitement, negligence and shortcomings at the least, and of covering up its planning at the most. Marwan Hamadeh (born September 11, 1939) is the former Lebanese Minister of Telecommunications . . if not executing". Two days later Syrian leader Bashar Assad announced that his troops will leave Lebanon completely "in the next few months". Dr Bashar al-Assad (بشار الأسد) (born 11 September, 1965) is the President of the Syrian Arab Republic, Regional Secretary Responding to the announcement, opposition leader Walid Jumblatt said that he wanted to hear more specifics from Damascus about any withdrawal: "It's a nice gesture but 'next few months' is quite vague – we need a clear-cut timetable"[31].
On March 3 Russia, Syria's Cold War ally, and Germany had joined those calling for Syria to comply with UNSCR 1559. Events 1284 - Statute of Rhuddlan incorporated the Principality of Wales into England 1575 - Indian Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder said: "Lebanon should be given an opportunity for sovereignty and development and this can only be achieved by complying with Security Council resolutions that stipulate immediate Syrian withdrawal from Lebanon. ˌɡeɐ̯haɐ̯t fʁɪʦ kʊɐ̯t ˈʃʁøːdɐ (born 7 April 1944 German politician, was Chancellor of Germany from 1998 to 2005 "[32]. The Russian Foreign Minister, Sergei Lavrov, stated that "Syria should withdraw from Lebanon, but we all have to make sure that this withdrawal does not violate the very fragile balance which we still have in Lebanon, which is a very difficult country ethnically"[33]. Sergey Viktorovich Lavrov (Серге́й Ви́кторович Лавро́в born March 21, 1950, in Moscow) is the Foreign Minister
Arab states have also joined in with the withdrawal demands. As Al-Assad arrived in Saudi Arabia for emergency consultation with Crown Prince Abdullah bin Abdel-Aziz, Assad was told in no uncertain terms that Syria must comply with UN Security Council demands immediately. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, KSA ( المملكة العربية السعودية, al-Mamlaka al-ʻArabiyya as-Suʻūdiyya) or Suudi Khaled bin Abdullah Mutaib bin Abdullah Abdul Aziz bin Abdullah Faisal bin Abdullah It was reported that Assad offered to remove most of the 15,000 troops Syria has stationed in Lebanon during the talks, but insisted on leaving a force of 3,000 in the country[34]. The Saudis also rejected a Syrian plea that an Arab summit, due to take place on March 23 in Algeria, should officially ask Syria to withdraw, giving the pullback an Arab endorsement as envisaged in the 1989 Taif Agreement, rather than making it conditional on UNSCR 1559. Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's Algerian Foreign Minister Abdel-Aziz Belkhadem discussed the consensus ahead of the summit, stating that "we all agreed to demand the implementation of the Taif Accord with respect to international legitimacy. "
On March 5 Syrian leader Assad declared in a televised speech that Syria would withdraw its forces to the Bekaa valley in eastern Lebanon, and then to the border between Syria and Lebanon. Beqaa ( Arabic: البقاع "valley" also transliterated as Bekaa, Biqâ‘ or Becaa) is a fertile Valley in Assad did not provide a timetable for a complete withdrawal of Syrian forces from Lebanon – 14,000 soldiers and intelligence agents[35]. Meanwhile, Hezbollah leader Nasrallah called for a "massive popular gathering" on Tuesday against UN Resolution 1559 saying "The resistance will not give up its arms . . . because Lebanon needs the resistance to defend it", and added "all the articles of UN resolution give free services to the Israeli enemy who should have been made accountable for his crimes and now finds that he is being rewarded for his crimes and achieves all its demands"[36]. In opposition to Nasrallah's call, Monday, March 7 saw at least 70,000 people – with some estimates putting the number at twice as high – gathered at central Martyrs' Square to demand that Syria leave completely[37].
The following day a pro-Syrian demonstration set a new record when Hezbollah amassed 400–500 thousand protestors at Riad Solh square in Beirut, most of them bussed in from the heavily Shi'ite south Lebanon and eastern Beka'a valley. The show of power demonstrated Hezbollah's influence, wealth and organization as the sole Lebanese party allowed to hold a militia by Syria. In his speech Nasrallah blasted UN Security-Council Resolution 1559, which calls for Hezbollah's militia to be disbanded, as foreign intervention. Nasrallah also reiterated his earlier calls for the destruction of Israel saying "To this enemy we say again: There is no place for you here and there is no life for you among us. Death to Israel!". Though Hezbollah organized a very successful rally, opposition leaders were quick to point out that Hezbollah had active support from Lebanon's government and Syria. While the pro-democracy rallies had to deal with road blocks forcing protestors to either turn back or march long distances to Martyr's Square, Hezbollah was able to bus people directly to Riad Solh square. Dory Chamoun, an opposition leader, pointed out that "the difference is that in our demonstrations, people arrive voluntarily and on foot, not in buses". Another opposition member said the pro-Syrian government pressured people to turn out and some reports said Syria had bused in people from across the border. But on a mountain road leading to Beirut, only one bus with a Syrian license plate was spotted in a convoy of pro-Syrian supporters heading to the capital and Hezbollah officials denied the charges[38]. Opposition MP Akram Chehayeb said "That is where the difference between us and them lies: They asked these people to come and they brought them here, whereas the opposition's supporters come here on their own. Our protests are spontaneous. We have a cause. What is theirs?"[39].
After weeks of international and local pressure it appeared that a UN showdown was on its way. A meeting between UN special envoy Terje Roed-Larsen and Syrian leader Assad was scheduled for March 12. Events 538 - Witiges, king of the Ostrogoths ends his siege of Rome and retreats to Ravenna, leaving Roed-Larsen preceded the meeting by consulting with Egypt, Jordan, Arab League chief Amr Mousa, and Lebanon. Roed-Larsen was expected to deliver an ultimatum to Assad over compliance with UNSCR 1559. This included compliance with honoring Lebanon's sovereignty; not undermining its upcoming legislative elections; providing a complete timeline for a full pullout of troops. A phased withdrawal, or "sequencing" would be accepted, but must be expeditious; providing a timeline for the withdrawal of some 5,000 Syrian intelligence agents in Lebanon; Finally, disarming and dismantling foreign and domestic Syrian-supported militias in Lebanon[40]. Supporting Roed-Larsen's mission, Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov, speaking after talks with Lebanese opposition leader Walid Jumblatt, said Russia was keeping a close eye on Syrian troop movements and that Syria's intelligence services should also pull out[41].
One month after Hariri's murder, an enormous anti-Syrian rally gathered at Martyr's Square in Beirut. Multiple news agencies estimated the crowd at between 800,000 and 1 million – a show of force for the Sunni, Christian and Druze communities. The rally was double the size of the mostly Shi'ite pro-Syrian one organized by Hezbollah the previous week[42]. When Hariri's sister took a pro-Syrian line saying that Lebanon should "stand by Syria until its land is liberated and it regains its sovereignty on the [Israeli-] occupied Golan Heights" the crowd jeered her[43]. This sentiment was prevalent among the rally participants who opposed Hezbollah's refusal to disarm based on the claim that Lebanese and Syrian interests are linked[44].
Withdrawal of Syrian troops
See also: 2005 Lebanon bombings
Maj. Gen. Jamil Sayyed, the top Syrian ally in the Lebanese security forces, resigned on Monday, April 25, just a day before the final Syrian troops pulled out of Lebanon.
On April 26, 2005, the last 250 Syrian troops left Lebanon. During the departure ceremonies, Gen. Ali Habib, Syria's chief of staff, said that Syria's president had decided to recall his troops after the Lebanese army had been "rebuilt on sound national foundations and became capable of protecting the state. "
UN forces led by Senegalese Brig. Gen. Mouhamadou Kandji were sent to Lebanon to verify the military withdrawal which was mandated by Security Council resolution 1559.
Following the Syrian withdrawal a series of assassinations of Lebanese politicians and journalists with the anti-Syrian camp had begun. Over nine bombings have occurred to date and have triggered condemnations from the UN Security Council and UN Secretary General[45].
Amnesty for Samir Geagea
Parliament voted for the release of the former Lebanese Forces warlord in the first session since election were held in the spring of 2005. Geagea was the only leader during the civil war to be charged with crimes related to that conflict. With the return of Michel Aoun, the climate was right to try to heal wounds to help unite the country after former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri was assassinated on February 14, 2005. Geagea was released on July 26, 2005 and left immediately for an undisclosed European nation to undergo medical examinations and convalesce.
Hariri Assassination Investigations
Eight months after Syria withdrew from Lebanon under intense domestic and international outrage over the assassination of Lebanese prime minister Rafiq Hariri the UN investigation has yet to be completed. While UN investigator Detlev Mehlis has pointed the finger at Syria's intelligence apparatus in Lebanon he has yet to be allowed full access to Syrian officials who are suspected by the UN International Independent Investigation Commission (UNIIIC) as being behind the assassination[46]. Detlev Mehlis (born 1949 is currently the Senior Public Prosecutor in the Office of the Attorney General in Berlin. The United Nations International Independent Investigation Commission was established in April 2005 by Security Council Resolution 1595 to investigate the assassination of Rafik Hariri In its latest report UNIIIC said it had "credible information" that Syrian officials had arrested and threatened close relatives of a witness who recanted testimony he had previously given the Commission, and that two Syrian suspects it questioned indicated that all Syrian intelligence documents on Lebanon had been burned[47]. A campaign of bomb attacks against politicians, journalists and even civilian neighborhoods associated with the anti-Syrian camp has provoked much negative attention for Syria in the UN[48] and elsewhere. On December 15, 2005 the UN Security Council extended the mandate of the UNIIIC. Events 533 - Byzantine general Belisarius defeats the Vandals, commanded by King Gelimer, at the Battle of
On December 28, 2005 Lebanese newspaper An-Nahar said it had received a statement signed by "The Strugglers for the Unity and Freedom in al-Sham," the group that claimed responsibility for the death of its former editor Gibran Tueni with a car bomb on December 12. Events 1065 - Westminster Abbey is Consecrated. 1308 - The reign of Emperor Hanazono, Emperor of Gebran Ghassan Tueni ( جبران تويني) ( September 15, 1957 &ndash December 12, 2005) was a Lebanese politician Events 627 - Battle of Nineveh: A Byzantine army under Emperor Heraclius defeats Emperor Khosrau II 's Persian The statement said outgoing UNIIIC chairman Mehlis was lucky to escape death and threatened any new chairman with assassination if he too implicated Syria[49].
On December 30, 2005 Syria's former Vice-President, Abdul Halim Khaddam, said that "Hariri received many threats" from Syria's President Bashar Al-Assad[50]. Events 1460 - Wars of the Roses: Battle of Wakefield. 1816 - The Treaty of St Abdul Halim Khaddam (عبد الحليم خدام born 15 September, 1932 in Baniyas) is a Syrian politician and former Vice President of Syria Prior to Syria's withdrawal from Lebanon Mr Khaddam was in charge of Syria's Lebanon policy and mainly responsible for Syria's abuse of Lebanon's resources. Many believe that Khaddam seized the opportunity to clear his history of corruption and blackmail.
Border Tension
During the Cedar Revolution Hezbollah organized a series of pro-Syrian rallies. Hezbollah (حزب الله, literally " party of God " is a Shi'a Islamic political and Paramilitary organisation Hezbollah became a part of the Lebanese government following the 2005 elections but is at a crossroads regarding UNSCR 1559's call for its militia to be dismantled. United Nations Security Council Resolution 1559 was a resolution adopted by the United Nations Security Council on September 2, 2004. On November 21, 2005 Hezbollah launched an attack along the entire border with Israel, the heaviest in the five and a half years since Israel's withdrawal. Events 164 BC - Judas Maccabaeus, son of Mattathias of the Hasmonean family restores the Temple in Jerusalem. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The barrage was supposed to provide tactical cover for an attempt by a squad of Hezbollah special forces to abduct Israeli troops in the Israeli side of the village of Al-Ghajar[51]. For the village in Azerbaijan see Qacar. Ghajar (or al-Ghajar is an Alawite village on the Hasbani River and on the border The attack failed when an ambush by the IDF Paratroopers killed 4 Hezbollah members and scattered the rest[52]. Paratroopers are Soldiers trained in Parachuting and generally operate as part of an airborne force. The UN Security Council accused Hezbollah of initiating the hostilities[53]. On December 27, 2005 Katyusha rockets fired from Hezbollah territory smashed into houses in the Israeli village of Kiryat Shmona wounding three people[54]. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Kiryat Shmona (קִרְיַת שְׁמוֹנָה lit City of the Eight is a City located in the North District of Israel on the western slopes UN Secretary General Kofi Annan called on the Lebanese Government "to extend its control over all its territory, to exert its monopoly on the use of force, and to put an end to all such attacks"[55]. Lebanese Prime Minister Fuad Saniora denounced the attack as "aimed at destabilizing security and diverting attention from efforts exerted to solve the internal issues prevailing in the country"[56]. Fouad Siniora (alternative spellings Fouad Sanyoura Fuad Siniora Fouad Saniora Fouad Seniora ( فؤاد السنيورة, Fu'ād As-Sanyūrah is the Prime On December 30, 2005 the Lebanese army dismantled two other Katyusha rockets found in the border town of Naqoura, an action suggesting increased vigilance following PM Saniora's angry remarks. Events 1460 - Wars of the Roses: Battle of Wakefield. 1816 - The Treaty of St Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Naqoura (الناقورة Enn Nâqoura Naqoura An Nāqūrah) is a small city in Southern Lebanon. In a new statement Saniora also rejected claims by Al-Qaeda that it was responsible for the attack and insisted again that it was a domestic action challenging his government's authority. [57].
2006 Lebanon War
Events after the 2006 Lebanon War
An explosion was heard in one of Beirut's Muslim sections on 21 May 2007. Background See also Israel-Lebanon conflict The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO had engaged in cross-border attacks from Southern Lebanon Beirut (بيروت Bayrūt) is the Capital and Largest city of Lebanon with a population of over 2 A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion Events 878 - Syracuse Italy is captured by the Muslim sultan of Sicily. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. [58]
In May 2007, militants in the Nahr al Bared Palestinian refugee camp outside of Tripoli, allied with Al Qaeda began a struggle against government forces located outside of the camp. Nahr al-Bared ( literally Cold River is a Palestinian Refugee camp in northern Lebanon, 16 km from the city Palestinian people or Palestinians ( الشعب الفلسطيني, ash-sha`b al-filasTīni; الفلسطينيون, al-filasTīnīyyūn According to the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, a refugee is a person who owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race Tripolis ( Arabic: طرابلس Ṭarābulus - also طرابلس الغرب Ṭarā-bu-lus al-Gharb Libyan vernacular: Al-Qaeda, alternatively spelled al-Qaida, al-Qa`ida or al-Qa`idah, ( Arabic:; ar-Latn ''al-qāʿidah'' Translation: The The 2007 Lebanon conflict began when fighting broke out between Fatah al-Islam, an Islamist militant organization, and the Lebanese Armed Forces The violence shook the country and a wave of car bombings, including one in Verdun in Beirut, followed. The 2007 Lebanon conflict began when fighting broke out between Fatah al-Islam, an Islamist militant organization, and the Lebanese Armed Forces Verdun (medieval Wirten official name before 1970 Verdun-sur-Meuse) is a city and commune Beirut (بيروت Bayrūt) is the Capital and Largest city of Lebanon with a population of over 2 The violence ended early in September 2007, with the fall of the camp to the Army. There had been no ripple effect across the country, but despite this containment the violence had been the worst to shake Lebanon since the Lebanese Civil War. The Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990 was a multifaceted Civil war whose antecedents can be traced back to the conflicts and political compromises reached after the end
In May 2008, fighting broke out in Beirut after the government attempted to disable Hezbollah's private communications network. Beirut (بيروت Bayrūt) is the Capital and Largest city of Lebanon with a population of over 2 Hezbollah (حزب الله, literally " party of God " is a Shi'a Islamic political and Paramilitary organisation [59]
External links
- The Center for Democracy in Lebanon
- Lebanon, the Cedars' Land The historic and touristic cities of Lebanon
- Lebanese army sappers defuse rockets intended for Israel AP, December 30, 2005
- Al-Ghajar Village Flashpoint Defense Update, December 5, 2005
- Who's who in Lebanon BBC, March 14, 2005
- A Look at Mass Rallies Held in Lebanon AP, March 14, 2005
- Lebanon finds unity in street rallies BBC, March 3, 2005
- Lebanese groups stand up to Syria BBC, March 2, 2005
- Q&A: Syria's involvement in Lebanon BBC, March 1, 2005
- Opposition accuses Syria of assassination Daily Star, February 15, 2005
- Timeline: Lebanon A chronology of key events-BBC News February 14, 2005
- Explosion kills former Lebanon PM BBC, February 14, 2005
- UN rebukes Lebanon over Har Dov Reuters, January 29, 2005
- UN urges Syria to leave Lebanon BBC, October 19, 2004
- Lebanon 'split' over Assad tirade BBC, October 11, 2004
- Syria has not withdrawn troops from Lebanon, Annan reports UN News Centre, October 7, 2004
- Syria 'refusing to leave Lebanon' BBC, October 2, 2004
- Ex-minister hurt in Beirut blast BBC, October 1, 2004
- Hizballah and Syria's "Lebanese Card" Nicholas Blanford, Middle East Online Report, September 14, 2004
- In rare move, Gulf ministers urge Syria to withdraw troops from Lebanon CNews, September 13, 2004
- Syria feels squeeze over Lebanon Kim Ghattas, BBC, September 5, 2004
- UN Press Release SC/8181 UN, September 2, 2004
- Lebanon: Close Security Council vote backs free elections, urges foreign troop pullout UN, September 2, 2004
- Maronite archbishops slam corruption, Syrian role Daily Star, September 2, 2004
- US draft resolution at UN demands respect for Lebanon's sovereignty, AFP, September 2, 2004
- UN vote due on Syria resolution BBC, September 2, 2004
- US and France press for UN resolution on Lebanese sovereignty Financial Times, September 1, 2004
- Move to bolster Lebanon president BBC, August 28, 2004
- Thirteen-Year Itch - The Demise of Lebanon's Taif Agreement? Middle East Report, August 13, 2002
- Syria: The power in Lebanon BBC, 16 April, 2001
- Center for Lebanese Study-Oxford University
- Country Profile: Lebanon-BBC News
- War is Peace Noam Chomsky, excerpts from "The Fateful Triangle" on The Israeli invasion of Lebanon, 1983
- Israel, Lebanon, and the "Peace Process" Noam Chomsky, April 23, 1996
- "Limited War" in Lebanon Noam Chomsky September, 1993
Notes
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Text used in this cited section originally came from: Lebanon Country Study (1987) from the Library of Congress Country Studies project. The Country Studies are works published by the Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress ( USA) freely available for use by researchers
- ^ Lebanon’s New Political MomentPDF (117 KiB) a study from Carnegie Endowment
- ^ The limits of loyalty from Al-Aharam weekly. A kibibyte (a contraction of ki lo bi nary byte) is a unit of Information or Computer storage, established by the International The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace is a formally private nonprofit organization in practice closely associated with the United States Department of State, com, retrieved at April 2, 2007.
- ^ The quote is: "The police state . . . has proven its efficiency in targeting one of the symbols of the nation. . . ", see Lebanon at the crossroads, Al-Aharam Weekly, retrieved at April 2, 2007
References
- This article contains material from the Library of Congress Country Studies, which are United States government publications in the public domain. The Country Studies are works published by the Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress ( USA) freely available for use by researchers The federal government of the United States is the central United States Governmental body established by the United States Constitution. The public domain is a range of abstract materials &ndash commonly referred to as Intellectual property &ndash which are not owned or controlled by anyone
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See also
The Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990 was a multifaceted Civil war whose antecedents can be traced back to the conflicts and political compromises reached after the end
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