- This article is about the history of South Asia prior to the Partition of British India in 1947. The Partition of India was the partition of the British Indian Empire which led to the creation on August 14, 1947 and August 15, For the history of the modern Republic of India, see History of the Republic of India. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country The History of the Republic of India began on August 15, 1947 when India became an independent Dominion within the British Commonwealth For the histories of Pakistan and Bangladesh see History of Pakistan and History of Bangladesh. The history of Pakistan as a modern nation began with independence from British India on 14 August 1947, although History of Bengal Bangladesh became one of the last major nation states following its secession in 1971 from the nation of Pakistan which achieved its independence from the British
The history of India begins with the Indus Valley Civilization, which spread and flourished in the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent, from c. The term South Asia usually refers to the political entities of the Sub- Himalayan region - namely Republic of India, Pakistan, The South Asian Stone Age covers the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic periods in the South Asia. Mehrgarh, ( Urdu: مﮩرگڑھ) one of the most important Neolithic (7000 BC to 3200 BC sites in Archaeology, lies on what The Indus Valley Civilization (Mature period 2600&ndash1900 BCE abbreviated IVC, was an ancient Civilization that flourished in the Indus River basin The Cemetery H culture developed out of the northern part of the Indus Valley Civilization around 1900 BCE in and around the Punjab region which is located on the The Vedic Period (or Vedic Age) is the period in the History of India during which the Vedas, the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism, were being The Iron Age in the Indian subcontinent succeeds the Late Harappan (Cemetery H culture also known as the last phase of the Indus Valley Tradition Mahajanapadas ( Sanskrit: महाजनपद Mahājanapadas) literally "Great Kingdoms" (from Maha, "great" and Janapada Magadha (मगध formed one of the sixteen Mahājanapadas ( Sanskrit, "great countries" or regions in ancient India. The Maurya Empire ( 322 – 185 BCE) ruled by the Mauryan dynasty was a geographically extensive and powerful political and military Middle kingdoms of India refers to the political entities in India from the 2nd century BC since the decline of the Maurya Empire, and the corresponding The Sātavāhanas ( Marathi: सातवाहन Telugu:శాతవాహనులు were a Dynasty which ruled from Junnar ( The Kushan Empire (c 1st &ndash 3rd centuries) was a Bactrian state that at its cultural zenith Circa 105 &ndash 250 The Gupta Empire ( Hindi: गुप्त राजवंश was ruled by members of the Gupta dynasty from around 320 to 550 C The Pala Empire was a dynasty in control of the northern and eastern Indian subcontinent, mainly the Bengal and Bihar regions from the 8th to The Chalukya dynasty ( Kannada: ಚಾಲುಕ್ಯರು ʧaːɭukjə was an Indian royal dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and Central The Rashtrakuta Dynasty ( Sanskrit: राष्ट्रकूट rāṣṭrakūṭa, Kannada: ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರಕೂಟ was a royal The Western Chalukya Empire ( Kannada: ಪಶ್ಚಿಮ ಚಾಲುಕ್ಯ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ) ruled most of the western Deccan, South The Hoysala Empire ( Kannada: ಹೊಯ್ಸಳ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ ( pronunciation: in Kannada was a prominent South Indian Kannadiga The Kakatiya dynasty was a South Indian Dynasty that ruled parts of what is now Andhra Pradesh, India from 1083CE to 1323CE During the late Middle Ages, several Islamic Empires were established in South Asia. The Delhi Sultanate ( Urdu: دلی سلطنت, दिल्ली सलतनत or Sultanat e Hind ( سلطنتِ هند; सलतनत ए The Deccan sultanates were five Muslim -ruled late medieval kingdoms–- Bijapur, Golkonda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, and Berar The Ahom Kingdom (1228–1826 called Kingdom of Assam in medieval times was a medieval kingdom in the Brahmaputra valley in Assam that maintained its The Vijayanagara Empire ( Kannada: ವಿಜಯನಗರ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ Telugu: విజయనగర సామ్రాజ్యము was a South The Mughal Empire ( Persian and self-designation گورکانی; مغلیہ سلطنت) was an Islamic imperial power which ruled most The Maratha Empire ( Marathi: मराठा साम्राज्य Marāṭhā Sāmrājya; also transliterated Mahratta The Sikh Confederacy was a nation that existed from 1716 to 1799 The Sikh Confederacy was a nation that existed from 1716 to 1799 The Honourable East India Company ( HEIC) referred to most commonly as the East India Company, also historically and colloquially as John Company, or For usage see British rule in India British Raj ( rāj, lit "reign" in Hindustani) primarily refers to the British The Partition of India was the partition of the British Indian Empire which led to the creation on August 14, 1947 and August 15, History of Bengal Bangladesh became one of the last major nation states following its secession in 1971 from the nation of Pakistan which achieved its independence from the British Bhutan 's early history is steeped in Mythology and remains obscure The History of the Republic of India began on August 15, 1947 when India became an independent Dominion within the British Commonwealth The Maldives is a nation consisting of 26 natural Atolls, comprising 1192 islands Historical setting Since very ancient times the Maldives were ruled The History of Nepal (नेपालको इतिहास is characterized by its isolated position in the Himalayas and its two dominant neighbors India The history of Pakistan as a modern nation began with independence from British India on 14 August 1947, although Traditionally the recorded History of Sri Lanka boasts of 25 chronicled centuries The history of Assam is the history of a confluence of peoples from the east west and the north the confluence of the Indo-Aryan, Austro-Asiatic and The Baloch people are an Iranian ethnic group that are mainly settled in the Balochistan areas of Iran, Pakistan and Afghanistan. See also History of Bangladesh The history of Bengal (including Bangladesh and West Bengal) dates back four millennia The history of Himachal Pradesh dates back to the time when the Indus valley civilisation flourished Orissa formed in 1926 was known as Kalinga in ancient times Kalinga was a prosperous nation whose merchants traded with the lands of Java and Sumatra The former subdivisions of Pakistan are states provinces and territories which mainly existed between 1947 and 1975 when the current provinces The first known use of the word Punjab is in the book Tarikh-e-Sher Shah Suri (1580 which mentions the construction of a fort by "Sher Khan of Punjab" The history of South India covers a span of over two thousand years during which the region saw the rise and fall of a number of dynasties and empires Tibetan history is characterized by a special dedication to the Buddhist religion both in the eyes of its own people as well as for the Mongol and Manchu Coinage of India, issued by Imperial dynasties and smaller Middle kingdoms of India began during the 1st millennium BCE, and consisted The following list of Indian monarchs is one of several Lists of incumbents. Economic history of India, in the sense of the meaning of the term economic in its current sense is at least 5000 years old Indology refers to the academic study of the languages texts History and Cultures of the Indian subcontinent, and as such a subset of Asian studies Originating over 5000 years ago the linguistic history of India describes the evolution and transformation of early human communications techniques - from pictures pictorial scripts Indian literature is generally acknowledged as one of the oldest in the world Indian maritime history begins during the 3rd millennium BCE when the inhabitants of the Indus Valley initiate trading with Mesopotamia. India has a long military history dating back several millennia This is a timeline of Indian history. It includes the history of South Asia ( Indian subcontinent) especially the history of the regions now known The Indus Valley Civilization (Mature period 2600&ndash1900 BCE abbreviated IVC, was an ancient Civilization that flourished in the Indus River basin This article deals with the geophysical region in Asia For geopolitical treatments see South Asia. 3300 to 1300 BCE. Its Mature Harappan period lasted from 2600-1900 BCE. This Bronze Age civilization collapsed at the beginning of the second millennium BCE and was followed by the Iron Age Vedic period, which extended over much of the Indo-Gangetic plains and which witnessed the rise of major kingdoms known as the Mahajanapadas. The term Indus Valley Tradition is used to refer to the cultures of the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra rivers stretching from the Neolithic Mehrgarh The Iron Age in the Indian subcontinent succeeds the Late Harappan (Cemetery H culture also known as the last phase of the Indus Valley Tradition The Vedic Period (or Vedic Age) is the period in the History of India during which the Vedas, the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism, were being The Indo-Gangetic Plain also known as the Northern plains and the North Indian River Plain is a large and fertile plain encompassing most of northern and eastern India, Mahajanapadas ( Sanskrit: महाजनपद Mahājanapadas) literally "Great Kingdoms" (from Maha, "great" and Janapada In two of these, in the 6th century BCE, Mahavira and Gautama Buddha were born, who propagated their Shramanic philosophies among the masses. The 6th century BC started the first day of 600 BC and ended the last day of 501 BC. Mahavira (महावीर lit Great Hero) (599 – 527 BCE is the name most commonly used to refer to the Indian sage Vardhamana ( Sanskrit: वर्धमान Siddhārtha Gautama ( Sanskrit; Pali: Siddhattha Gotama) was a spiritual Teacher from Ancient India and the founder A Shramana ( Sanskrit sa श्रमण śramaṇa, Pāli pi शमण samaṇa) is a wandering monk in certain Ascetic
Later, successive empires and kingdoms ruled the region and enriched its culture - from the Achaemenid Persian empire[1] around 543 BCE, to Alexander the Great[2] in 326 BCE. The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire ( haχɒmaneʃijɒn (558–330 BC was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of Alexander the Great ( or, Mégas Aléxandros; July 20 356 BC June 10 or June 11 323 BC also known as Alexander III of Macedon (el Ἀλέξανδρος Γ' The Indo-Greek Kingdom, founded by Demetrius of Bactria, included Gandhara and Punjab from 184 BCE; it reached its greatest extent under Menander, establishing the Greco-Buddhist period with advances in trade and culture. The Indo-Greek Kingdom (or sometimes Graeco-Indian Kingdom) covered various parts of the northwest and northern Indian subcontinent during the last two centuries Demetrius I (ΔΗΜΗΤΡΙΟΣ was a Greco-Bactrian king (reigned circa 200-180 BC Gandhāra ( Sanskrit: गन्धार Urdu: گندھارا Gandḥārā; also known as Waihind in Persian is the name of an ancient Punjab ( ਪੰਜਾਬ پنجاب, पंजाब پنجاب also Panjab (پنجاب meaning "Land of the Five Rivers") (c Menander I Soter "The Saviour" (known as Milinda in Indian sources was one of the rulers of the Indo-Greek Kingdom in northern India Greco-Buddhism, sometimes spelt Graeco-Buddhism, refers to the cultural Syncretism between Hellenistic culture and Buddhism, which developed
The subcontinent was united under the Maurya Empire during the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE. The Maurya Empire ( 322 – 185 BCE) ruled by the Mauryan dynasty was a geographically extensive and powerful political and military It subsequently became fragmented, with various parts ruled by numerous Middle kingdoms for the next ten centuries. Middle kingdoms of India refers to the political entities in India from the 2nd century BC since the decline of the Maurya Empire, and the corresponding Its northern regions were united once again in the 4th century CE, and remained so for two centuries thereafter, under the Gupta Empire. The Gupta Empire ( Hindi: गुप्त राजवंश was ruled by members of the Gupta dynasty from around 320 to 550 C This period, of Hindu religious and intellectual resurgence, is known among its admirers as the "Golden Age of India. A Hindu ( Devanagari: हिन्दू is an adherent of the philosophies and scriptures of Hinduism, a set of religious, Philosophical Different periods have been termed as Golden periods in the Indian history based on the achievements Indians made in the fields of Mathematics, Astronomy, Science " During the same time, and for several centuries afterwards, Southern India, under the rule of the Chalukyas, Cholas, Pallavas and Pandyas, experienced its own golden age, during which Hinduism and Buddhism spread to much of south-east Asia. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country The Chalukya dynasty ( Kannada: ಚಾಲುಕ್ಯರು ʧaːɭukjə was an Indian royal dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and Central Origins See also Origin of Pallava The exact origin of the Pallavas is shrouded in mystery Origin The origin of the word “Pandya” has been a subject of much speculation Hinduism is a religious tradition that originated in the Indian subcontinent. Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices
Islam arrived on the subcontinent in 712 CE, when the Arab general Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sindh and Multan in southern Punjab,[3] setting the stage for several successive Islamic invasions between the 10th and 15th centuries CE from Central Asia, leading to the formation of Muslim empires in the Indian subcontinent, including the Ghaznavid, the Ghorid, the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire. Muhammad bin Qasim Al-Thaqafi (محمد بن قاسم (c 31 December, 695 &ndash 18 July, 715) born Muhammad bin Qasim bin Yusuf Sakifi Sindh ( Sindhī: سنڌ Urdu: سندھ is one of the four provinces of Pakistan and historically is home to the Sindhis. ( Urdu:, Punjabi ملتان، ਮੁਲਤਾਨ is a city in the Punjab Province of Pakistan and capital of Multan District The Punjab ( Urdu:) province of This article deals with the geophysical region in Asia For geopolitical treatments see South Asia. The Ghaznavid Empire was a Khorāṣānian Sunni Muslim state founded by a dynasty of Turkic Mamluk. Muhammad Shahab-ud-Din Ghori ( Persian, Pashto, Urdu: محمد شہاب الدین غوری also spelled Mohammad Ghauri, originally named Mu'izzuddin The Delhi Sultanate ( Urdu: دلی سلطنت, दिल्ली सलतनत or Sultanat e Hind ( سلطنتِ هند; सलतनत ए The Mughal Empire ( Persian and self-designation گورکانی; مغلیہ سلطنت) was an Islamic imperial power which ruled most Mughal rule came to cover most of the northern parts of the subcontinent. Mughal rulers introduced middle-eastern art and architecture to India. In addition to the Mughals, several independent Hindu kingdoms, such as the Maratha Empire, the Vijayanagara Empire and various Rajput kingdoms, flourished contemporaneously, in Western and Southern India respectively. A Hindu ( Devanagari: हिन्दू is an adherent of the philosophies and scriptures of Hinduism, a set of religious, Philosophical The Maratha Empire ( Marathi: मराठा साम्राज्य Marāṭhā Sāmrājya; also transliterated Mahratta The Vijayanagara Empire ( Kannada: ವಿಜಯನಗರ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ Telugu: విజయనగర సామ్రాజ్యము was a South Rajput constitute one of the major Hindu Kshatriya groups from India The Mughal Empire suffered a gradual decline in the early eighteenth century, which provided opportunities for the Afghans, Balochis and Sikhs to exercise control over large areas in the northwest of the subcontinent until the British East India Company[4] gained ascendancy over South Asia. The Durrani Empire (also referred to as the Afghan Empire) was a large state based in modern Afghanistan and Pakistan and later included northeastern The Baloch ( بلوچ; alternative transliterations Baluch Balouch Bloach Balooch Balush Balosh Baloosh Baloush) are an Iranian people inhabiting Sikh (English or; ਸਿੱਖ sikkh, IPA) is the title and name given to an adherent of Sikhism. The Honourable East India Company ( HEIC) referred to most commonly as the East India Company, also historically and colloquially as John Company, or
Beginning in the mid-18th century and over the next century, India was gradually annexed by the British East India Company. The Honourable East India Company ( HEIC) referred to most commonly as the East India Company, also historically and colloquially as John Company, or Dissatisfaction with Company rule led to the First War of Indian Independence, after which India was directly administered by the British Crown and witnessed a period of both rapid development of infrastructure and economic decline. The Indian Rebellion of 1857 began as a mutiny of Sepoys of British East India Company 's army on the 10th of May 1857 in the town of Meerut, For usage see British rule in India British Raj ( rāj, lit "reign" in Hindustani) primarily refers to the British Infrastructure typically refers to the technical structures that support a society such as Roads Water supply, Wastewater, Power grids Economic history of India, in the sense of the meaning of the term economic in its current sense is at least 5000 years old
During the first half of the 20th century, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the Indian National Congress, and later joined by the Muslim League. The term " Indian independence movement " is diffuse incorporating various national and regional campaigns agitations and efforts of both Nonviolent and Militant Indian National Congress-I (also known as the Congress Party and abbreviated INC) is a major Political party in India. The All India Muslim League ( Urdu: آل انڈیا مسلم لیگ Bengali:?????? ??? founded at Dhaka in 1906 was a political party in British The subcontinent gained independence from Great Britain in 1947, after being partitioned into the dominions of India and Pakistan. See also Kingdom of Great Britain Great Britain (Breatainn Mhòr Prydain Fawr Breten Veur Graet Breetain is the larger of the two main islands The Partition of India was the partition of the British Indian Empire which led to the creation on August 14, 1947 and August 15, A dominion, often Dominion, refers to one of a group of autonomous polities under sovereign authority within the British Empire and India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and Pakistan's eastern wing became the nation of Bangladesh in 1971. East Pakistan ( Bengali: পূর্ব পাকিস্তান Purbo Pakistan, Urdu: مشرقی پاکستان Mashriqi Pakistan) was ( Bengali: বাংলাদেশ inc-Latn Bangladesh) officially
Pre-Historic era
Isolated remains of Homo erectus in Hathnora in the Narmada Valley in Central India indicate that India might have been inhabited since at least the Middle Pleistocene era, somewhere between 200,000 to 500,000 years ago. The South Asian Stone Age covers the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic periods in the South Asia. Mehrgarh, ( Urdu: مﮩرگڑھ) one of the most important Neolithic (7000 BC to 3200 BC sites in Archaeology, lies on what The Bhimbetka rock shelters compose an archaeological site and World Heritage Site located in Raisen District in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh Homo erectus ( Latin: "upright man" is an extinct species of the genus Homo, believed to have been the first hominin The Narmada नर्मदा Gujarati નર્મદા or Nerbudda (Narbada is a river in central India and the fifth largest river in the Indian subcontinent The Central India Agency was a political unit of British India, which covered the northern half of present-day Madhya Pradesh state So far the Pleistocene Series is not subdivided into formal units (i [5][6] The Mesolithic period in the Indian subcontinent covered a timespan of around 25,000 years, starting around 30,000 years ago. The Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age was a period in the development of human technology in between the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age and the Neolithic or New Stone Age Modern humans seem to have settled the subcontinent towards the end of the last Ice Age, or approximately 12,000 years ago. An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the Temperature of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere resulting in an expansion of continental Ice sheets The first confirmed permanent settlements appeared 9,000 years ago in the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka in modern Madhya Pradesh. The Bhimbetka rock shelters compose an archaeological site and World Heritage Site located in Raisen District in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh (abbreviated as MP) ( Hindī: मध्य प्रदेश pronounced, Translation: Middle Province) often Early Neolithic culture in South Asia is represented by the Mehrgarh findings (7000 BCE onwards) in present day Balochistan, Pakistan. The Neolithic (from Greek νεολιθικός — neolithikos from νέος neos, "new" + λίθος lithos Mehrgarh, ( Urdu: مﮩرگڑھ) one of the most important Neolithic (7000 BC to 3200 BC sites in Archaeology, lies on what During the 7th millennium BC, Agriculture spreads from Anatolia to the Balkans. Balochistan, or Baluchistan, Pashto, ( Balochi, Hazara, Brahui, Sindhi, Urdu: بلوچستان Traces of a Neolithic culture have been found submerged in the Gulf of Khambat, radiocarbon dated to 7500 BCE. The Neolithic (from Greek νεολιθικός — neolithikos from νέος neos, "new" + λίθος lithos The Gulf of Khambhat ( formerly known as the Gulf of Cambay) is an inlet of the Arabian Sea along the west coast of India, in the state of Radiocarbon dating is a Radiometric dating method that uses the naturally occurring Radioisotope Carbon-14 (14C to determine the age of In the 8th millennium BC, Agriculture becomes widely practiced in the Fertile Crescent and Anatolia. [7] Late Neolithic cultures sprang up in the Indus Valley region between 6000 and 2000 BCE and in southern India between 2800 and 1200 BCE.
The region of the subcontinent that is now the country of Pakistan has been inhabited continuously for at least two million years. [8][9] The ancient history of the region includes some of South Asia's oldest settlements[10] and some of its major civilizations. [11][12]
The earliest archaeological site in Pakistan is the palaeolithic hominid site in the Soan River valley. The term Paleolithic (or Palaeolithic) (from Greek παλαιός palaios, " Old " and λίθος Lithos, "stone" A hominid is any member of the biological family Hominidae (the "great apes" including the extinct and extant Humans Chimpanzees The Soanian is an archaeological culture of the Lower Paleolithic (ca [13] Village life began with the Neolithic site of Mehrgarh,[14] while the first urban civilization of the region was the Indus Valley Civilization,[15] with major sites at Mohenjo Daro and Harappa. The Neolithic (from Greek νεολιθικός — neolithikos from νέος neos, "new" + λίθος lithos Mehrgarh, ( Urdu: مﮩرگڑھ) one of the most important Neolithic (7000 BC to 3200 BC sites in Archaeology, lies on what The Indus Valley Civilization (Mature period 2600&ndash1900 BCE abbreviated IVC, was an ancient Civilization that flourished in the Indus River basin Mohenjo-daro (موئن جودڑو موئن جو دڙو मोहन जोदड़ो Mound of the Dead was one of the largest city-settlements of the Indus Valley Civilization Harappa ( Urdu:, Hindi: हड़प्पा) is a City in Punjab, northeast Pakistan, about 35km (22 miles southwest [16]
The Bronze Age
The Bronze Age on the Indian subcontinent began around 3300 BCE with the beginning of the Indus Valley Civilization. Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley, the Harappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and produced copper, bronze, lead and tin. The Indus River { Sanskrit: सिन्धु Sindhu; Urdu: urd {{Nastaliq سندھ}} Sindh; Sindhi: snd
Indus Valley Civilization
The Indus Valley Civilization which flourished from about 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE, and included urban centers such as Harappa and Mohenjo-daro (in Pakistan), Dholavira and Lothal (in India), marked the beginning of the urban civilization on the subcontinent. The Indus Valley Civilization (Mature period 2600&ndash1900 BCE abbreviated IVC, was an ancient Civilization that flourished in the Indus River basin Harappa ( Urdu:, Hindi: हड़प्पा) is a City in Punjab, northeast Pakistan, about 35km (22 miles southwest Mohenjo-daro (موئن جودڑو موئن جو دڙو मोहन जोदड़ो Mound of the Dead was one of the largest city-settlements of the Indus Valley Civilization Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and Dholavira, an ancient metropolitan city, and locally known as Kotada Timba Prachin Mahanagar Dholavira, is one of the largest and most prominent archaeological sites Lothal ( Gujarātī: લોથલ ˈloːtʰəl Eng Mound of the Dead was one of the most prominent cities of the ancient Indus valley civilization. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country It was centred on the Indus River and its tributaries, and extended into the Ghaggar-Hakra River valley,[11] the Ganges-Yamuna Doab,[17] Gujarat,[18] and northern Afghanistan. The Ghaggar-Hakra River is a believed to be an intermittent river in India and Pakistan that flows only during the Monsoon season A Doab ( Persian, Urdu: dō, "two" + āb, "water" or "river" is a term used in India and Gujarat (ગુજરાત Gujǎrāt, pronounced) is a state in western India. Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, [19]
The civilization is noted for its cities built of brick, road-side drainage system and multi-storied houses. Among the settlements were the major urban centres of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, as well as Dholavira, Ganweriwala, Lothal, Kalibangan and Rakhigarhi. Dholavira, an ancient metropolitan city, and locally known as Kotada Timba Prachin Mahanagar Dholavira, is one of the largest and most prominent archaeological sites The Indus Valley Civilization (Mature period 2600&ndash1900 BCE abbreviated IVC, was an ancient Civilization that flourished in the Indus River basin Lothal ( Gujarātī: લોથલ ˈloːtʰəl Eng Mound of the Dead was one of the most prominent cities of the ancient Indus valley civilization. Kalibangān (काली बंगा is a town located at on the left or southern banks of the Ghaggar ( Ghaggar-Hakra River) identified by some scholars with Rakhigarhi, or Rakhi Garhi, is a village in Hisar District in the northwest Indian state of Haryana, around 150 kilometers from Delhi It is thought by some that geological disturbances and climate change, leading to a gradual deforestation may ultimately have contributed to the civilization's downfall. The decline of the Indus Valley Civilization also included a break down of urban society and of the use of distinctively urban traits such as the use of writing and seals. [20]
Vedic age
The Vedic culture is the Indo-Aryan culture associated with the Hindu sacred texts of Vedas, which were orally composed in Vedic Sanskrit. The Vedic Period (or Vedic Age) is the period in the History of India during which the Vedas, the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism, were being A Hindu ( Devanagari: हिन्दू is an adherent of the philosophies and scriptures of Hinduism, a set of religious, Philosophical "Veda" redirects here For other uses see Veda (disambiguation. Vedic Sanskrit is an ancient Indian language, the language of the Vedas, the oldest Shruti texts of Hinduism. Vedas are some of the oldest extant texts. "Veda" redirects here For other uses see Veda (disambiguation. This period lasted from about 1500 BCE to 500 BCE, and during which time the definitions of much of latter Indian language, culture and most importantly, religion were laid down. However, the timing of this period is disputed by some nationalist Indian historians who posit the earlier date of 3000 BCE. The 30th century BC is a Century which lasted from the year 3000 BC to 2901 BC [21] Properly speaking, the first 500 years (1500 - 1000 BCE) of the Vedic Age correspond to Bronze Age India and the next 500 years (1000 - 500 BCE) to Iron Age India. The term Indus Valley Tradition is used to refer to the cultures of the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra rivers stretching from the Neolithic Mehrgarh The Iron Age in the Indian subcontinent succeeds the Late Harappan (Cemetery H culture also known as the last phase of the Indus Valley Tradition Many scholars today postulate an Indo-Aryan migration into India, proposing that early Indo-Aryan speaking tribes migrated into the north-west regions of the Indian subcontinent in the early 2nd millennium BCE. Models of the Indo-Aryan migration discuss scenarios of Prehistoric migrations of the early Indo-Aryans to their historically attested areas of settlement ( North Many scholars postulate these Indo-Aryan tribes as originating in Central Asia and Afghanistan from where they migrated east into India, and west into Mesopotamia and finally assimilating with them whilst spreading their language and culture. [22] This has been opposed by the proponents of Out of India theory, who claim Aryans were indigenous to the Indian subcontinent. The Out of India theory ( OIT, also called the Indian Urheimat Theory) is the proposition that the Indo-European language family originated in
Early Vedic society consisted of largely pastoral groups, with late Harappan urbanization being abandoned for unknown reasons. [23] After the Rigveda, Aryan society became increasingly agricultural, and was socially organized around the four Varnas. The Rigveda ( Sanskrit sa ऋग्वेद ṛgveda, a compound of ṛc "praise verse" and veda "knowledge" Varna (sa वर्ण varṇa) is a Sanskrit term derived from the root meaning "to enclose" In addition to the principal texts of Hinduism (the Vedas), the epics (the Ramayana and Mahabharata) are said to have their ultimate origins during this period. The Rāmāyaṇa ( Devanāgarī: sa रामायण is an ancient Sanskrit epic attributed to the Hindu sage ( Maharishi) Valmiki [24] Early Indo-Aryan presence probably corresponds, in part, to the presence of Ochre Coloured Pottery in archaeological findings. The Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (OCP is a 2nd millennium BC Bronze Age culture of the Ganga - Yamuna plain [25] The kingdom of the Kurus[26] corresponds to the Black and Red Ware and Painted Gray Ware culture and the beginning of the Iron Age in Northwestern India, around 1000 BC (roughly contemporaneous with the composition of the Atharvaveda, the first Indian text to mention Iron, as śyāma ayas, literally "black metal"). Kuru ( Sanskrit: कुरु was the name of an Indo-Aryan tribe and their kingdom in the Vedic civilization of India, and later a The black and red ware culture (BRW is an early Iron Age Archaeological culture of the northern Indian subcontinent. The Painted Grey Ware culture (PGW is an Iron Age culture of Gangetic plain, lasting from roughly 1100 BC to 350 BC. The Atharvaveda ( Sanskrit: अथर्ववेद atharvaveda, a Tatpurusha compound of {{IAST|atharvan}}, an ancient Rishi The Painted Grey Ware culture spanning much of Northern India were prevalent from about 1100 to 600 BCE. The Painted Grey Ware culture (PGW is an Iron Age culture of Gangetic plain, lasting from roughly 1100 BC to 350 BC. [25] This later period also corresponds with a change in outlook towards the prevalent tribal system of living leading to establishment of kingdoms called Mahajanapadas.
Establishment of Mahajanapadas and the age of Mahavira and Buddha
In the later Vedic Age, a number of small kingdoms or city states had covered the subcontinent, many mentioned during Vedic, early Buddhist and Jaina literature as far back as 1000 BCE. Mahajanapadas ( Sanskrit: महाजनपद Mahājanapadas) literally "Great Kingdoms" (from Maha, "great" and Janapada Jainism, traditionally known as Jain Dharma / Shraman Dharma (जैन धर्म is an ancient religion of India. Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices The Indo-Gangetic Plain also known as the Northern plains and the North Indian River Plain is a large and fertile plain encompassing most of northern and eastern India, By 500 BCE, sixteen monarchies and 'republics' known as the Mahajanapadas — Kasi, Kosala, Anga, Magadha, Vajji (or Vriji), Malla, Chedi, Vatsa (or Vamsa), Kuru, Panchala, Machcha (or Matsya), Surasena, Assaka, Avanti, Gandhara, Kamboja — stretched across the Indo-Gangetic plains from modern-day Afghanistan to Bengal and Maharastra. Mahajanapadas ( Sanskrit: महाजनपद Mahājanapadas) literally "Great Kingdoms" (from Maha, "great" and Janapada Varanasi ( Sanskrit: वाराणसी Vārāṇasī, pronunciation) also commonly known as Benares ( or Banaras (बनारस Kosala ( Sanskrit: कोशल was an ancient Indian region corresponding roughly in area with the region of Oudh in the present day Uttar Pradesh The earliest reference to Angas (अंग occurs in the Atharava Veda (V Magadha (मगध formed one of the sixteen Mahājanapadas ( Sanskrit, "great countries" or regions in ancient India. Vajji (or Vrijji) mahajanapada was one of the principal Mahajanapadas of ancient India. Chedi kingdom (चेदि was one among the many kingdoms ruled during early periods by Paurava kings and later by Yadav kings in the central and western India Vatsa (also known as Vamsa, Batsa, or Bansa) was one of the solasa (sixteen Mahajanapadas (great kingdoms of Uttarapatha Kuru ( Sanskrit: कुरु was the name of an Indo-Aryan tribe and their kingdom in the Vedic civilization of India, and later a For the Genus of Gossamer-winged butterflies, see Panchala (butterfly. This article concerns the Hindu avatar For the ancient kingdom see Matsya Rajya. Surasena (or Shourasena was the kingdom around the modern Brajabhumi. Assaka, or Ashmaka, was one of the solasa (sixteen Mahajanapadas of ancient India (700–300 BCE mentioned in the Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya Gandhāra ( Sanskrit: गन्धार Urdu: گندھارا Gandḥārā; also known as Waihind in Persian is the name of an ancient The Indo-Gangetic Plain also known as the Northern plains and the North Indian River Plain is a large and fertile plain encompassing most of northern and eastern India, This period was that of the second major urbanisation in India after the Indus Valley Civilization. Many smaller clans mentioned within early literature seem to have been present across the rest of the subcontinent. Some of these kings were hereditary; other states elected their rulers. The educated speech at that time was Sanskrit, while the dialects of the general population of northern India are referred to as Prakrits. Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical Prakrit (also transliterated as Pracrit) ( Sanskrit: prākṛta प्राकृत (from pra-kṛti प्रकृति according to one Many of the sixteen kingdoms had coalesced to four major ones by 500/400 BCE, that is by the time of Siddhartha Gautama. Siddhārtha Gautama ( Sanskrit; Pali: Siddhattha Gotama) was a spiritual Teacher from Ancient India and the founder These four were Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala and Magadha. [27]
Hindu rituals at that time were complicated and conducted by the priestly class. It is thought that the Upanishads, late Vedic texts dealing mainly with incipient philosophy, were composed in the later Vedic Age and early in this period of the Mahajanapadas (from about 600 - 400 BCE). The Upanishads ( Devanagari: उपनिषद् IAST: upaniṣad also spelled "Upanisad" are Hindu scriptures that constitute the core teachings Upanishads had a substantial effect on Indian philosophy, and were contemporary to the development of Buddhism and Jainism, indicating a golden age of thought in this period. The Upanishads ( Devanagari: उपनिषद् IAST: upaniṣad also spelled "Upanisad" are Hindu scriptures that constitute the core teachings The term Indian philosophy (Sanskrit Darshanas) may refer to any of several traditions of philosophical thought that originated in the Indian subcontinent Jainism, traditionally known as Jain Dharma / Shraman Dharma (जैन धर्म is an ancient religion of India. It is believed that in 537 BCE, that Siddhartha Gautama attained the state of "enlightenment", and became known as the 'Buddha' - the awakened one. Around the same time, Mahavira (the 24th Jain Tirthankara according to Jains) propagated a similar theology, that was to later become Jainism. Mahavira (महावीर lit Great Hero) (599 – 527 BCE is the name most commonly used to refer to the Indian sage Vardhamana ( Sanskrit: वर्धमान In Jainism, a Tirthankar (" Fordmaker " (also Tirthankara or Jina) is a Human being who achieves enlightenment (perfect Jainism, traditionally known as Jain Dharma / Shraman Dharma (जैन धर्म is an ancient religion of India. [28] However, Jain orthodoxy believes it predates all known time. The Vedas are believed to have documented a few Jain Tirthankars, and an ascetic order similar to the sramana movement. "Veda" redirects here For other uses see Veda (disambiguation. [29] The Buddha's teachings and Jainism had doctrines inclined toward asceticism, and were preached in Prakrit, which helped them gain acceptance amongst the masses. Prakrit (also transliterated as Pracrit) ( Sanskrit: prākṛta प्राकृत (from pra-kṛti प्रकृति according to one They have profoundly influenced practices that Hinduism and Indian spiritual orders are associated with namely, vegetarianism, prohibition of animal slaughter and ahimsa (non-violence).
While the geographic impact of Jainism was limited to India, Buddhist nuns and monks eventually spread the teachings of Buddha to Central Asia, East Asia, Tibet, Sri Lanka and South East Asia. Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south Definitions of Tibet See also Definitions of Tibet Name In English The English word Tibet, like the word for Tibet in most European Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka ( Sinhalese:, இலங்கை known as Ceylon before 1972 is an Island
Persian & Greek invasion
- See also: Achaemenid Empire, Greco-Buddhism, and Alexander the Great
Much of the northwestern Indian Subcontinent (present day Eastern Afghanistan and Pakistan) came under the rule of the Persian Achaemenid Empire in c. The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire ( haχɒmaneʃijɒn (558–330 BC was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of 520 BCE during the reign of Darius the Great, and remained so for two centuries thereafter. Darius I the Great (c 549 BC&ndash486 BC 𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁 Dārayavahuš: "Possessing goodness" Having ascended to power amidst controversy and bloodshed [30] In 334 BCE, Alexander the Great conquered Asia Minor and the Achaemenid Empire, reaching the north-west frontiers of the Indian subcontinent. Alexander the Great ( or, Mégas Aléxandros; July 20 356 BC June 10 or June 11 323 BC also known as Alexander III of Macedon (el Ἀλέξανδρος Γ' There, he defeated King Puru in the Battle of the Hydaspes (near modern-day Jhelum, Pakistan) and conquered much of the Punjab;[31] however, Alexander's troops refused to go beyond the Hyphases (Beas) River near modern day Jalandhar, Punjab. Conflict alliance and comradeship with Alexander Unlike his neighbour Ambhi (in Greek Omphis, King Porus chose to fight Alexander the Great in The Battle of the Hydaspes River was a Battle fought by Alexander the Great in 326 BC against the Indian king Porus (Pururava WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Jalandhar (ਜਲੰਧਰ Hindi:) previously known as Jullundur, is an ancient Punjab ( ਪੰਜਾਬ پنجاب, पंजाब پنجاب also Panjab (پنجاب meaning "Land of the Five Rivers") (c Alexander left many Macedonian veterans in the conquered regions; he himself turned back and marched his army southwest.
The Persian and Greek invasions had important repercussions on Indian civilization. The political systems of the Persians was to influence future forms of governance on the subcontinent, including the administration of the Mauryan dynasty. In addition, the region of Gandhara, or present-day eastern Afghanistan and north-west Pakistan, became a melting pot of Indian, Persian, Central Asian and Greek cultures and gave rise to a hybrid culture, Greco-Buddhism, which lasted until the 5th century AD and influenced the artistic development of Mahayana Buddhism. Greco-Buddhism, sometimes spelt Graeco-Buddhism, refers to the cultural Syncretism between Hellenistic culture and Buddhism, which developed Mahayana ( Sanskrit: mahāyāna, Devanagari: महायान 'Great Vehicle' is one of the two main existing schools of Buddhism and a term for
The Magadha Empire
Amongst the sixteen Mahajanapadas, the kingdom of Magadha rose to prominence under a number of dynasties. Magadha (मगध formed one of the sixteen Mahājanapadas ( Sanskrit, "great countries" or regions in ancient India. According to tradition, the Haryanka dynasty founded the Magadha Empire in 684 BC whose capital was Rajagriha, later Pataliputra, near the present day Patna. According to tradition the Haryanka dynasty founded the Magadha Empire in 684 BCE, whose capital was Rajagriha later Pataliputra, near the present day Paṭnā ( Hindi: पटना is the capital of the Indian state of Bihar, and one of the oldest continuously inhabited Paṭnā ( Hindi: पटना is the capital of the Indian state of Bihar, and one of the oldest continuously inhabited This dynasty was succeeded by the Shishunaga dynasty which, in turn, was overthrown by the Nanda dynasty in 424 BCE. According to tradition the Shishunaga dynasty founded the Magadha Empire in 684 BC, whose capital was Rajagriha, later Pataliputra, near the The Nanda dynasty ruled Magadha during the 5th and 4th centuries BC. The Nandas were followed by the Maurya dynasty. The Maurya Empire ( 322 – 185 BCE) ruled by the Mauryan dynasty was a geographically extensive and powerful political and military
Maurya dynasty
- See also: Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka the Great
In 321 BCE, exiled general Chandragupta Maurya, under direct patronage of the genius of Chanakya, founded the Maurya dynasty after overthrowing the reigning king Dhana Nanda. The Maurya Empire ( 322 – 185 BCE) ruled by the Mauryan dynasty was a geographically extensive and powerful political and military Chandragupta Maurya (चन्द्रगुप्त मौर्य sometimes known simply as Chandragupta (born c Ashoka ( Devanāgarī: अशोकः IAST: Aśokaḥ, aɕoːkə(hə Prakrit Imperial title Devanampriya Priyadarsi Chandragupta Maurya (चन्द्रगुप्त मौर्य sometimes known simply as Chandragupta (born c Chanakya Sanskrit: चाणक्य Cāṇakya) (c 350-283 BC was an adviser and a Prime minister to the first Maurya Emperor The Nanda dynasty ruled Magadha during the 5th and 4th centuries BC. Most of the subcontinent was united under a single government for the first time under the Maurya rule. Mauryan empire under Chandragupta would not only conquer most of the Indian subcontinent, but also push its boundaries into Persia and Central Asia, conquering the Gandhara region. Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south Chandragupta Maurya is credited for the spread of Jainism in southern Indian region.
Chandragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara, who expanded the kingdom over most of present day India, barring Kalinga, and the extreme south and east, which may have held tributary status. Bindusara was the second Mauryan emperor (Born c 320 BC ruled 298 - c Kalinga is a landlocked province of the Philippines in the Cordillera Administrative Region in Luzon. Bindusara's kingdom was inherited by his son Ashoka the Great who initially sought to expand his kingdom. Ashoka ( Devanāgarī: अशोकः IAST: Aśokaḥ, aɕoːkə(hə Prakrit Imperial title Devanampriya Priyadarsi In the aftermath of the carnage caused in the invasion of Kalinga, he renounced bloodshed and pursued a policy of non-violence or ahimsa after converting to Buddhism. Kalinga was a Kingdom in central-eastern India, which comprised most of the modern state of Orissa, as well as some northern areas of the bordering state Nonviolence is a philosophy and strategy for social change that rejects the use of physical Violence. The Edicts of Ashoka are the oldest preserved historical documents of India, and from Ashoka's time, approximate dating of dynasties becomes possible. The Edicts of Ashoka are a collection of 33 inscriptions on the Pillars of Ashoka, as well as boulders and cave walls made by the Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan The Mauryan dynasty under Ashoka was responsible for the proliferation of Buddhist ideals across the whole of East Asia and South-East Asia, fundamentally altering the history and development of Asia as a whole. Ashoka ( Devanāgarī: अशोकः IAST: Aśokaḥ, aɕoːkə(hə Prakrit Imperial title Devanampriya Priyadarsi Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices Ashoka's grandson Samprati adopted Jainism and helped spread Jainism. Samrat Samprati was the son of Ashoka 's blind son Kunal He succeeded Dasaratha Maurya as emperor of the Mauryan Empire and ruled almost the entire Jainism, traditionally known as Jain Dharma / Shraman Dharma (जैन धर्म is an ancient religion of India.
Post Mauryan Magadha dynasties
The Sunga Dynasty was established in 185 BCE, about fifty years after Ashoka's death, when the king Brihadratha, the last of the Mauryan rulers, was murdered by the then commander-in-chief of the Mauryan armed forces, Pusyamitra Sunga. For other uses of the term Sunga see Sunga (disambiguation The Sunga Empire (or Shunga Empire) is a Magadha The Kanva dynasty replaced the Sunga dynasty, and ruled in the eastern part of India from 71 BCE to 26 BCE. The Kanva dynasty replaced the Sunga dynasty in Magadha, and ruled in the eastern part of India from 71 BCE to 26 BCE. In 30 BCE, the southern power swept away both the Kanvas and Sungas. Following the collapse of the Kanva dynasty, the Satavahana dynasty of the Andhra kingdom replaced the Magadha kingdom as the most powerful Indian state. The Sātavāhanas ( Marathi: सातवाहन Telugu:శాతవాహనులు were a Dynasty which ruled from Junnar ( The Sātavāhanas ( Marathi: सातवाहन Telugu:శాతవాహనులు were a Dynasty which ruled from Junnar (
Early middle kingdoms — the golden age
- See also: Satavahana, Kuninda Kingdom, Kushan Empire, Western Satraps, Pandyan Kingdom, Early Cholas, Chera dynasty, Kadamba Dynasty, Western Ganga Dynasty, Pallava, and Chalukya dynasty
The middle period was a time of notable cultural development. Middle kingdoms of India refers to the political entities in India from the 2nd century BC since the decline of the Maurya Empire, and the corresponding The Sātavāhanas ( Marathi: सातवाहन Telugu:శాతవాహనులు were a Dynasty which ruled from Junnar ( The Kingdom of Kuninda (or Kulinda in ancient literature was an ancient central Himalayan kingdom from around the 2nd century BCE to the 3rd century The Kushan Empire (c 1st &ndash 3rd centuries) was a Bactrian state that at its cultural zenith Circa 105 &ndash 250 The Western Satraps, or Western Kshatrapas ( 35 - 405) were Saka rulers of the western and central part of India ( Saurashtra Origin The origin of the word “Pandya” has been a subject of much speculation The Early Cholas of the pre and post Sangam period ( 300 BCE – 200 C History In early Tamil literature the great Chera rulers are referred to as Cheral Kuttuvan Irumporai Kollipurai and Athan The Kadamba Dynasty ( Kannada:ಕದಂಬರು (345 - 525 CE was an ancient royal family of Karnataka that ruled from Banavasi in present The Western Ganga Dynasty (350 – 1000 CE ( Kannada:ಪಶ್ಚಿಮ ಗಂಗ ಸಂಸ್ಥಾನ was an important ruling dynasty of ancient Karnataka Origins See also Origin of Pallava The exact origin of the Pallavas is shrouded in mystery The Chalukya dynasty ( Kannada: ಚಾಲುಕ್ಯರು ʧaːɭukjə was an Indian royal dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and Central The Satavahanas, also known as the Andhras, were a dynasty which ruled in Southern and Central India starting from around 230 BCE. The Sātavāhanas ( Marathi: सातवाहन Telugu:శాతవాహనులు were a Dynasty which ruled from Junnar ( Satakarni, the sixth ruler of the Satvahana dynasty, defeated the Sunga dynasty of North India. Satakarni (Sātakarnī I was the third of the Satavahana kings Geography Northern India lies mainly on continental India and a very small part of it lies on the Indian peninsula Gautamiputra Satakarni was another notable ruler of the dynasty. Gautamiputra Satakarni (also known as Shalivahana (c 78-102 AD was the twenty-third ruler of the Satavahana Empire Kuninda Kingdom was a small Himalayan state that survived from around the 2nd century BC to roughly the 3rd century CE. The Kingdom of Kuninda (or Kulinda in ancient literature was an ancient central Himalayan kingdom from around the 2nd century BCE to the 3rd century The Kushanas invaded north-western India about the middle of the 1st century CE, from Central Asia, and founded an empire that eventually stretched from Peshawar to the middle Ganges and, perhaps, as far as the Bay of Bengal. The Kushan Empire (c 1st &ndash 3rd centuries) was a Bactrian state that at its cultural zenith Circa 105 &ndash 250 ( پښور; Urdu: پشاور) is the capital of the North-West Frontier Province and the administrative centre for the Federally Administered The Ganges (ˈgænʤiːz also Ganga, Devanāgarī: hi गंगा in most Indian languages) is the major river in the Indian subcontinent The Bay of Bengal is a bay that forms the northeastern part of the Indian Ocean. It also included ancient Bactria (in the north of modern Afghanistan) and southern Tajikistan. Tajikistan (təˈdʒɪkɨstæn or /təˈdʒiːkɨstæn/ Тоҷикистон tɔʤikɪsˈtɔn or, Persian تاجیکستان taajikestaan officially the Republic of The Western Satraps (35-405 CE) were Saka rulers of the western and central part of India. The Western Satraps, or Western Kshatrapas ( 35 - 405) were Saka rulers of the western and central part of India ( Saurashtra The Sakas ( English form of Old Iranian Sakā, Nominative plural masculine case; Ancient Greek Σάκαι, They were the successors of the Indo-Scythians (see below) and contemporaneous with the Kushans who ruled the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, and the Satavahana (Andhra) who ruled in Central India.
Different empires such as the Pandyan Kingdom, Early Cholas, Chera dynasty, Kadamba Dynasty, Western Ganga Dynasty, Pallavas and Chalukya dynasty dominated the southern part of the Indian peninsula, at different periods of time. Origin The origin of the word “Pandya” has been a subject of much speculation The Early Cholas of the pre and post Sangam period ( 300 BCE – 200 C History In early Tamil literature the great Chera rulers are referred to as Cheral Kuttuvan Irumporai Kollipurai and Athan The Kadamba Dynasty ( Kannada:ಕದಂಬರು (345 - 525 CE was an ancient royal family of Karnataka that ruled from Banavasi in present The Western Ganga Dynasty (350 – 1000 CE ( Kannada:ಪಶ್ಚಿಮ ಗಂಗ ಸಂಸ್ಥಾನ was an important ruling dynasty of ancient Karnataka Origins See also Origin of Pallava The exact origin of the Pallavas is shrouded in mystery The Chalukya dynasty ( Kannada: ಚಾಲುಕ್ಯರು ʧaːɭukjə was an Indian royal dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and Central Several southern kingdoms formed overseas empires that stretched across South East Asia. The kingdoms warred with each other and Deccan states, for domination of the south. Kalabhras, a Buddhist kingdom, briefly interrupted the usual domination of the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas in the South. Identification Kalabhras The identification of the Kalabhras is difficult
Northwestern hybrid cultures
- See also: Indo-Greek kingdom, Indo-Scythians, Indo-Parthian Kingdom, and Indo-Sassanids
The north-western hybrid cultures of the subcontinent included the Indo-Greeks, the Indo-Scythians, the Indo-Parthians, and the Indo-Sassinids. The first of these, the Indo-Greek Kingdom, founded when the Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius invaded the region in 180 BCE, extended over various parts of present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan. The Indo-Greek Kingdom (or sometimes Graeco-Indian Kingdom) covered various parts of the northwest and northern Indian subcontinent during the last two centuries The Gr(aeco-Bactrian Kingdom was the easternmost part of the Hellenistic world covering Bactria and Sogdiana in Central Asia from 250 Demetrius I (ΔΗΜΗΤΡΙΟΣ was a Greco-Bactrian king (reigned circa 200-180 BC Lasting for almost two centuries, it was ruled by a succession of more than 30 Greek kings, who were often in conflict with each other. The Indo-Scythians were a branch of the Indo-European Sakas (Scythians), who migrated from southern Siberia first into Bactria, subsequently into Sogdiana, Kashmir, Arachosia, Gandhara and finally into India; their kingdom lasted from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century BCE. The Indo-Scythians are a branch of the Indo-Iranian Sakas ( Scythians) who migrated from southern Siberia into Bactria, The Sakas ( English form of Old Iranian Sakā, Nominative plural masculine case; Ancient Greek Σάκαι, The Scythians or Scyths (Σκύθες Σκύθοι were an Iranian speaking people of horse-riding Nomadic pastoralists who dominated the Pontic Siberia (Сиби́рь Sibir) is the name given to the vast region constituting almost all of Northern Asia and for the most part currently serving "Bactrian" redirects here For the camel see Bactrian camel. History Hellenistic period The Sogdian Rock or Rock of Ariamazes a fortress in Sogdiana was captured in 327 BC by the forces of Alexander the Great This article is about the geographical region of greater Kashmir Arachosia (ˌærəˈkoʊʒə, Arakhōsia) or Arachotae (əˈrækəˌtiː, Arakhōtai) is the latinized form of Greek name of an Achaemenid Gandhāra ( Sanskrit: गन्धार Urdu: گندھارا Gandḥārā; also known as Waihind in Persian is the name of an ancient Yet another kingdom, the Indo-Parthians (also known as Pahlavas) came to control most of present-day Afghanistan and northern Pakistan, after fighting many local rulers such as the Kushan ruler Kujula Kadphises, in the Gandhara region. The Indo-Parthian Kingdom was established during the 1st century by Gondophares, and at its greatest extent extended into areas that are in present-day Afghanistan The Pahlavas are a people mentioned in ancient Indian texts like the Manu Smriti, various Puranas the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and the Brhatsamhita The Kushan Empire (c 1st &ndash 3rd centuries) was a Bactrian state that at its cultural zenith Circa 105 &ndash 250 Kujula Kadphises, reigned (30-80 CE (Kushan language Κοζουλου Καδφιζου, also Κοζολα Καδαφες, Pali: Kujula Kasasa The Sassanid empire of Persia, who were contemporaries of the Guptas, expanded into the region of present-day Pakistan, where the mingling of Indian and Persian cultures gave birth to the Indo-Sassanid culture. The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire To best understand Iran and its people one must first attempt to acquire an understanding of its ancient culture The Indo-Sassanids, Kushano-Sassanids or Kushanshas (also Indo-Sassanians) were a branch of the Sassanid Persians who established their
Roman trade with India
Roman trade with India started around 1 CE following the reign of Augustus and his conquest of Egypt, theretofore India's biggest trade partner in the West. Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was Ægyptus redirects here See Egypt Province for the province of the Ottoman Empire Ptolemaic Egypt began when Ptolemy I Soter declared himself Pharaoh of Egypt in 305 BC and ended with the death of queen Cleopatra Middle kingdoms of India refers to the political entities in India from the 2nd century BC since the decline of the Maurya Empire, and the corresponding
The trade started by Eudoxus of Cyzicus in 130 BCE kept increasing, and according to Strabo (II. Another article treats of Eudoxus of Cnidus. Eudoxus of Cyzicus ( fl Strabo ( Greek: Στράβων 63/64 BC – ca AD 24 was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher. 5. 12. [32]), by the time of Augustus up to 120 ships were setting sail every year from Myos Hormos to India. Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was Myos Hormos was a Red Sea port constructed by the Ptolemies around the 3rd century BC So much gold was used for this trade, and apparently recycled by the Kushans for their own coinage, that Pliny (NH VI. The Kushan Empire (c 1st &ndash 3rd centuries) was a Bactrian state that at its cultural zenith Circa 105 &ndash 250 Gaius or Caius Plinius Secundus, ( AD 23 – August 25, AD 79 better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient Author 101) complained about the drain of specie to India:
"India, China and the Arabian peninsula take one hundred million sesterces from our empire per annum at a conservative estimate: that is what our luxuries and women cost us. The sestertius, or sesterce, was an ancient Roman Coin. During the Roman Republic it was a small Silver, and rare coin issued For what percentage of these imports is intended for sacrifices to the gods or the spirits of the dead?"
—Pliny, Historia Naturae 12. 41. 84. [33]
These trade routes and harbour are described in detail in the 1st century AD Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea ( Periplus Maris Erythraei) is a Greek Periplus, describing navigation and trading opportunities
Gupta dynasty
In the 4th and 5th centuries, the Gupta Dynasty unified northern India. The Gupta Empire ( Hindi: गुप्त राजवंश was ruled by members of the Gupta dynasty from around 320 to 550 C The Gupta Empire ( Hindi: गुप्त राजवंश was ruled by members of the Gupta dynasty from around 320 to 550 C During this period, known as India's Golden Age of Hindu renaissance, Hindu culture, science and political administration reached new heights. Different periods have been termed as Golden periods in the Indian history based on the achievements Indians made in the fields of Mathematics, Astronomy, Science The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II were the most notable rulers of the Gupta dynasty. While his two ancestors were given the title of Maharaja, Chandra Gupta I is described in his inscriptions as Maharajadhiraj. Samudragupta, ruler of the Gupta Empire (cAD 335 &ndash 380 and successor to Chandragupta I, is considered to be one of the greatest military geniuses in Chandragupta II (very often referred to as Vikramaditya or Chandragupta Vikramaditya) was one of the most powerful emperors of the Gupta empire The Vedic Puranas are also thought to have been written around this period. For other meanings see Purana (disambiguation. The Puranas ( Sanskrit: sa पुराण purāṇa, "of ancient times" The empire came to an end with the attack of the Huns from central Asia. The Huns were an early confederation of Central Asian equestrian nomads or semi-nomads with a Turkic core of aristocracy After the collapse of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century, India was again ruled by numerous regional kingdoms. A minor line of the Gupta clan continued to rule Magadha after the disintegration of the empire. These Guptas were ultimately ousted by the Vardhana king Harsha, who established an empire in the first half of the seventh century. Harsha or Harshavardhana (हर्षवर्धन or "Harsha vardhan" ( 590 &ndash 647) was an Indian emperor who ruled Northern India
The White Huns, who seem to have been part of the Hephthalite group, established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the fifth century, with their capital at Bamiyan. The Huns were an early confederation of Central Asian equestrian nomads or semi-nomads with a Turkic core of aristocracy The Hephthalites or White Huns were a Central Asian Nomadic confederation whose precise origins and composition remain obscure For the province see Bamyan Province. Bamyan ( is the capital of Bamyan Province and the largest town in Hazarajat, central They were responsible for the downfall of the Gupta dynasty, and thus brought an end to what historians consider a golden age in northern India. Nevertheless, much of the Deccan and southern India were largely unaffected by this state of flux in the north.
Late middle kingdoms — the classical age
- See also: Harsha, Western Chalukya Empire, Pallavas, Pratihara, Pala Empire, Rashtrakuta, Rajputs, Hoysala Empire, Kalachuri, Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri, Kakatiya dynasty, Shahi, and Vijayanagara Empire
The classical age in India began with the resurgence of the north during Harsha's conquests around the 7th century, and ended with the fall of the Vijayanagar Empire in the South, due to pressure from the invaders to the north in the 13th century. Middle kingdoms of India refers to the political entities in India from the 2nd century BC since the decline of the Maurya Empire, and the corresponding Harsha or Harshavardhana (हर्षवर्धन or "Harsha vardhan" ( 590 &ndash 647) was an Indian emperor who ruled Northern India The Western Chalukya Empire ( Kannada: ಪಶ್ಚಿಮ ಚಾಲುಕ್ಯ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ) ruled most of the western Deccan, South Origins See also Origin of Pallava The exact origin of the Pallavas is shrouded in mystery Origin The Gurjar Pratiharas were one of the Agnikula clans of Rajputs according to a legend given in later manuscripts of Prithviraj Raso The Pala Empire was a dynasty in control of the northern and eastern Indian subcontinent, mainly the Bengal and Bihar regions from the 8th to The Rashtrakuta Dynasty ( Sanskrit: राष्ट्रकूट rāṣṭrakūṭa, Kannada: ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರಕೂಟ was a royal Rajput constitute one of the major Hindu Kshatriya groups from India The Hoysala Empire ( Kannada: ಹೊಯ್ಸಳ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ ( pronunciation: in Kannada was a prominent South Indian Kannadiga Origin of Kalachuris Natives of Central India Historians such as Dr Name of the dynasty The Seuna dynasty claimed descent from the Yadavas and are often referred to as the "Yadavas of Devagiri" The Kakatiya dynasty was a South Indian Dynasty that ruled parts of what is now Andhra Pradesh, India from 1083CE to 1323CE For a town in Bareilly District India see Shahi Uttar Pradesh. The Vijayanagara Empire ( Kannada: ವಿಜಯನಗರ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ Telugu: విజయనగర సామ్రాజ్యము was a South Thanjavur ( Tamil: தஞ்சாவூர் also known by its Anglicised name Tanjore, and it is the Eleventh largest city in Tamil Nadu (after The Hoysala Empire ( Kannada: ಹೊಯ್ಸಳ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ ( pronunciation: in Kannada was a prominent South Indian Kannadiga WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Belur ( Kannada:ಬೇಲೂರು is a Panchayat town in Hassan district in the Harsha or Harshavardhana (हर्षवर्धन or "Harsha vardhan" ( 590 &ndash 647) was an Indian emperor who ruled Northern India The Vijayanagara Empire ( Kannada: ವಿಜಯನಗರ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ Telugu: విజయనగర సామ్రాజ్యము was a South This period produced some of India's finest art, considered the epitome of classical development, and the development of the main spiritual and philosophical systems which continued to be in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.
King Harsha of Kannauj succeeded in reuniting northern India during his reign in the 7th century, after the collapse of the Gupta dynasty. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Kannauj ( Hindi कन्नौज Urdu: کنوج) also spelt Kanauj, His kingdom collapsed after his death. From the 7th to the 9th century, three dynasties contested for control of northern India: the Pratiharas of Malwa and later Kannauj; the Palas of Bengal, and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan. Origin The Gurjar Pratiharas were one of the Agnikula clans of Rajputs according to a legend given in later manuscripts of Prithviraj Raso The Pala Empire was a dynasty in control of the northern and eastern Indian subcontinent, mainly the Bengal and Bihar regions from the 8th to Etymology and ethnology The exact origin of the word Bangla or Bengal is unknown though it is believed to be derived from the Dravidian-speaking tribe Bang The Rashtrakuta Dynasty ( Sanskrit: राष्ट्रकूट rāṣṭrakūṭa, Kannada: ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರಕೂಟ was a royal The Sena dynasty would later assume control of the Pala kingdom, and the Pratiharas fragmented into various states. The Sena dynasty ( Bengali সেন Shen) ruled Bengal through the 11th and 12th centuries. These were the first of the Rajputs, a series of kingdoms which managed to survive in some form for almost a millennium until Indian independence from the British. Rajput constitute one of the major Hindu Kshatriya groups from India The first recorded Rajput kingdoms emerged in Rajasthan in the 6th century, and small Rajput dynasties later ruled much of northern India. Rājasthān ( Devanāgarī: राजस्थान raːdʒəst̪ʰaːn is the largest state of the Republic of India in terms of area One Rajput of the Chauhan dynasty, Prithviraj Chauhan, was known for bloody conflicts against the encroaching Islamic Sultanates. Origins According to the Rajput bards Chauhan is one of the four Agnikula or 'fire sprung' clans who were created by the Gods in the anali kund or 'fountain For the Indian TV serial with the protagonist of the same name see Dharti Ka Veer Yodha Prithviraj Chauhan. The Shahi dynasty ruled portions of eastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and Kashmir from the mid-seventh century to the early eleventh century. For a town in Bareilly District India see Shahi Uttar Pradesh. Whilst the northern concept of a pan-Indian empire had collapsed at the end of Harsha's empire, the ideal instead shifted to the south.
The Chalukya Empire ruled parts of southern and central India from 550 to 750 from Badami, Karnataka and again from 970 to 1190 from Kalyani, Karnataka. The Chalukya dynasty ( Kannada: ಚಾಲುಕ್ಯರು ʧaːɭukjə was an Indian royal dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and Central WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Badami (ಬದಾಮಿ formerly known as Vatapi, is a Taluk in the Bagalkot District Karnataka (ಕರ್ನಾಟಕ pronounced) is a state in the southern part of India WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Basavakalyan is a Town in Bidar District of the state of Karnataka, India The Pallavas of Kanchi were their contemporaries further to the south. Origins See also Origin of Pallava The exact origin of the Pallavas is shrouded in mystery With the decline of the Chalukya empire, their feudatories, Hoysalas of Halebidu, Kakatiya of Warangal, Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri and a southern branch of the Kalachuri divided the vast Chalukya empire amongst themselves around the middle of 12th century. The Hoysala Empire ( Kannada: ಹೊಯ್ಸಳ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ ( pronunciation: in Kannada was a prominent South Indian Kannadiga WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Halebidu ( Kannada ಹಳೆಬೀಡು is located in Hassan District, Karnataka The Kakatiya dynasty was a South Indian Dynasty that ruled parts of what is now Andhra Pradesh, India from 1083CE to 1323CE Name of the dynasty The Seuna dynasty claimed descent from the Yadavas and are often referred to as the "Yadavas of Devagiri" Origin of Kalachuris Natives of Central India Historians such as Dr Later during the middle period, the Chola kingdom emerged in northern Tamil Nadu, and the Chera kingdom in Kerala. Tamil Nadu ( Tamil:, Country of the Tamils, t̪ɐmɨɻ n̪aːɽɯ is one of the 28 states of India. History In early Tamil literature the great Chera rulers are referred to as Cheral Kuttuvan Irumporai Kollipurai and Athan Kerala ( Malayalam: {{Kerala in Malayalam}}; By 1343 A. D. , all these kingdoms had ceased to exist giving rise to the Vijayanagar empire. The Vijayanagara Empire ( Kannada: ವಿಜಯನಗರ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ Telugu: విజయనగర సామ్రాజ్యము was a South Southern Indian kingdoms of the time expanded their influence as far as Indonesia, controlling vast overseas empires in Southeast Asia. The Republic of Indonesia ( (Republik Indonesia is a Country in Southeast Asia. The ports of southern India were involved in the Indian Ocean trade, chiefly involving spices, with the Roman Empire to the west and Southeast Asia to the east. The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's Oceanic divisions covering about 20% of the water on the Earth 's surface The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial [34][35] Literature in local vernaculars and spectacular architecture flourished till about the beginning of the 14th century when southern expeditions of the sultan of Delhi took their toll on these kingdoms. The Hindu Vijayanagar dynasty[Karnata Rajya] came into conflict with Islamic rule (the Bahmani Kingdom) and the clashing of the two systems, caused a mingling of the indigenous and foreign culture that left lasting cultural influences on each other. The Bahmani Sultanate (Also called the Bahmanid Empire was a Muslim state of the Deccan in southern India and one of the great medieval Indian kingdoms The Vijaynagar Empire eventually declined due to pressure from the first Delhi Sultanates who had managed to establish themselves in the north, centered around the city of Delhi by that time.
The Islamic sultanates
After the Arab-Turkic invasion of India's ancient western neighbour Persia, expanding forces in that area were keen to invade India, which was the richest classical civilization, with a flourishing international trade and the only known diamond mines in the world. During the late Middle Ages, several Islamic Empires were established in South Asia. The Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent mainly took place from the 11th to the 17th centuries though earlier Muslim conquests made limited inroads into the region beginning The Bahmani Sultanate (Also called the Bahmanid Empire was a Muslim state of the Deccan in southern India and one of the great medieval Indian kingdoms The Deccan sultanates were five Muslim -ruled late medieval kingdoms–- Bijapur, Golkonda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, and Berar The Islamic conquest of Persia (633–656 led to the end of the Sassanid Empire and the eventual extirpation of the Zoroastrian religion in Persia For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. After resistance for a few centuries by various north Indian kingdoms, short lived Islamic empires (Sultanates) got established and spread across the northern subcontinent over a period of a few centuries. Sultan (سلطان is an Islamic title with several historical meanings But, prior to Turkic invasions, Muslim trading communities had flourished throughout coastal South India, particularly in Kerala, where they arrived in small numbers, mainly from the Arabian peninsula, through trade links via the Indian Ocean. An invasion is a military offensive consisting of all or large parts of the Armed forces of one geopolitical entity aggressively entering territory However, this had marked the introduction of an Abrahamic Middle Eastern religion in Southern India's pre-existing dharmic Hindu culture, often in puritanical form. Abraham ( Ashkenazi Avrohom or Avruhom; ابراهيم, {{Unicode|Ibrāhīm}}; Ge'ez: The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. The Sanskrit term ( Devanāgarī: धर्म Pali transliteration dhamma) is an Indian spiritual and religious Later, the Bahmani Sultanate and Deccan sultanates flourished in the south. The Bahmani Sultanate (Also called the Bahmanid Empire was a Muslim state of the Deccan in southern India and one of the great medieval Indian kingdoms The Deccan sultanates were five Muslim -ruled late medieval kingdoms–- Bijapur, Golkonda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, and Berar
Delhi sultanate
In the 12th and 13th centuries, Arabs,[36] Turks and Afghans invaded parts of northern India and established the Delhi Sultanate at the beginning of the 13th century, in the former Rajput holdings. The Delhi Sultanate ( Urdu: دلی سلطنت, दिल्ली सलतनत or Sultanat e Hind ( سلطنتِ هند; सलतनत ए The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding The Turkic peoples are Eurasian peoples residing in northern central and western Eurasia who speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family The Demographics of Afghanistan are ethnically and linguistically mixed The Delhi Sultanate ( Urdu: دلی سلطنت, दिल्ली सलतनत or Sultanat e Hind ( سلطنتِ هند; सलतनत ए [37] The subsequent Slave dynasty of Delhi managed to conquer large areas of northern India, approximate to the ancient extent of the Guptas, while the Khilji Empire was also able to conquer most of central India, but were ultimately unsuccessful in conquering and uniting most of the subcontinent. The Mamluk Dynasty or Ghulam Dynasty ( Urdu: غلام خاندان Hindi: ग़ुलाम ख़ानदान served as the first Sultans of Geography Northern India lies mainly on continental India and a very small part of it lies on the Indian peninsula Khilji or Khalji ( Pashto: خلجی خاندان, Hindi: ख़िलजी ख़ानदान was an Indian ruling dynasty that was The Central India Agency was a political unit of British India, which covered the northern half of present-day Madhya Pradesh state The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music, literature, and religion. It is surmised that the language of Urdu (literally meaning "horde" or "camp" in various Turkic dialects) was born during the Delhi Sultanate period as a result of the inter-mingling of the local speakers of Sanskritic prakrits with the Persian, Turkish and Arabic speaking immigrants under the Muslim rulers. Urdu ( ur '''{{Nastaliq اردو}}''' trans Urdū, historically spelled Ordu) is a Central Indo-Aryan language Urdu is a standardised The Delhi Sultanate is the only Indo-Islamic empire to stake a claim to enthroning one of the few female rulers in India, Razia Sultan (1236-1240). Razia al-Din (1205-1240 ( Persian / Urdu: رضیہ سلطانہ) throne name Jalâlat ud-Dîn Raziyâ (Persian / Urdu جلالۃ
Informed about civil war in India, a Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur began a trek starting in 1398 to invade the reigning Sultan Nasir-u Din Mehmud of the Tughlaq Dynasty in the north Indian city of Delhi. A civil war is a War between a State and domestic political actors that are in control of some part of the territory claimed by the state India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Altaic peoples are peoples who speak the Altaic languages. Their looks differ from east to west Timur also written Emir Timur or Amir Temur ( Chagatai: تیمور - Tēmōr " Iron " (1336 – 19 February 1405 among Sultan (سلطان is an Islamic title with several historical meanings The Tughlaq Dynasty ( Urdu: تغلق) of north India started in 1321 in Delhi when Ghazi Tughlaq assumed the throne under the Delhi (दिल्ली ਦਿੱਲੀ دلی d̪ɪlːiː sometimes referred to as Dilli) is the second largest metropolis of India, with a population [38] The Sultan's army was defeated on December 17, 1398. Events 546 - Gothic War (535–554: The Ostrogoths of King Totila Timur entered Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins. [39]
The Mughal era
In 1526, Babur, a Timurid (Turco-Persian) descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan, swept across the Khyber Pass and established the Mughal Empire, which lasted for over 200 years. The Taj Mahal (tɑdʒ The Mughal era is the historic period of the Mughal Empire in India it ran from the early sixteenth century to a point in the early eighteenth century when the Mughal The Mughal Empire ( Persian and self-designation گورکانی; مغلیہ سلطنت) was an Islamic imperial power which ruled most Babur ( February 14 1483 - December 26 1530) was a Muslim conqueror from Central Asia who following a series of setbacks Background Babur's decision to divide the territories of his empire between two of his sons was unusual in India but it had been a common Central Asian practice since the time of Akbar redirects here For other uses see Akbar (disambiguation Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar ( Jalāl ud-Dīn Muhammad Akbar Nuruddin Salim Jahangir (full title Al-Sultan al-'Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram Khushru-i-Giti Panah Abu'l-Fath Nur ud-din Muhammad Jahangir Padshah Ghazi ''( September 20 Shihab-ud-din Muhammad Shah Jahan I (full title Al-Sultan al-'Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram Abu'l-Muzaffar Shihab ud-din Muhammad Sahib-i-Qiran-i-Sani Shah Jahan I Padshah Ghazi Aurangzeb ( (full title Al-Sultan al-Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram Abul Muzaffar Muhiuddin Muhammad Aurangzeb Bahadur Alamgir I Padshah Ghazi) ( November 4, Babur ( February 14 1483 - December 26 1530) was a Muslim conqueror from Central Asia who following a series of setbacks The Timurids, self-designated Gurkānī ( were a Persianate Central Asian Sunni Muslim dynasty The Turco-Persians were a heterogeneous confederation of certain Turkic, Iranic and Mongol peoples that eventually conquered much of Central Asia Timur also written Emir Timur or Amir Temur ( Chagatai: تیمور - Tēmōr " Iron " (1336 – 19 February 1405 among Descent from Genghis Khan ( Mongolian: Алтан ураг meaning 'Golden lineage' is traceable primarily in Central Asia. The Khyber Pass, (also spelled Khaiber or Khaybar (درہ خیبر (altitude m ft is the Mountain pass that links Pakistan and The Mughal Empire ( Persian and self-designation گورکانی; مغلیہ سلطنت) was an Islamic imperial power which ruled most [40] The Mughal Dynasty ruled most of the Indian subcontinent by 1600; it went into a slow decline after 1707 and was finally defeated during the 1857 war of independence also called the Indian rebellion of 1857. The Mughal Empire was the dominant power in the Indian subcontinent between the mid-16th century and the end of the 17th century The Indian Rebellion of 1857 began as a mutiny of Sepoys of British East India Company 's army on the 10th of May 1857 in the town of Meerut, This period marked vast social change in the subcontinent as the Hindu majority were ruled over by the Mughal emperors, some of whom showed religious tolerance, liberally patronising Hindu culture, and some of whom destroyed historical temples and imposed taxes on non-Muslims. During the decline of the Mughal Empire, which at its peak occupied an area slightly larger than the ancient Maurya Empire, several smaller empires rose to fill the power vacuum or themselves were contributing factors to the decline. The Mughal Empire ( Persian and self-designation گورکانی; مغلیہ سلطنت) was an Islamic imperial power which ruled most The Maurya Empire ( 322 – 185 BCE) ruled by the Mauryan dynasty was a geographically extensive and powerful political and military The Mughals were perhaps the richest single dynasty to have ever existed. In 1739, Nader Shah defeated the Mughal army at the huge Battle of Karnal. Nāder Shāh Afshār ( also known as Nāder Qoli Beg - نادر قلی بیگ or Tahmāsp Qoli Khān - تهماسپ قلی خان) (November The Battle of Karnal ( February 24, 1739) was a decisive victory for Nader Shah the emperor of Persia during his invasion of India After this victory, Nader captured and sacked Delhi, carrying away many treasures, including the Peacock Throne. The Peacock Throne, called Takht-e-Tâvus (تخت طاووس in Persian, is the name originally of a Mughal Throne of India later used to describe [41]
During the Mughal era, the dominant political forces consisted of the Mughal Empire and its tributaries and, later on, the rising successor states - including the Maratha confederacy - who fought an increasingly weak and disfavoured Mughal dynasty. The Mughals, while often employing brutal tactics to subjugate their empire, had a policy of integration with Indian culture, which is what made them successful where the short-lived Sultanates of Delhi had failed. Akbar the Great was particularly famed for this. Akbar redirects here For other uses see Akbar (disambiguation Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar ( Jalāl ud-Dīn Muhammad Akbar Akbar declared "Amari" or non-killing of animals in the holy days of Jainism. He rolled back the Jazia Tax for non-Muslims. The Mughal Emperors married local royalty, allied themselves with local Maharajas, and attempted to fuse their Turko-Persian culture with ancient Indian styles, creating unique Indo-Saracenic architecture. Indo-Saracenic (from Saracen, an archaic name for Muslims used by the British also known as Indo-Gothic, was a style of Architecture used by British It was the erosion of this tradition coupled with increased brutality and centralisation that played a large part in their downfall after Aurangzeb, who unlike previous emperors, imposed relatively non-pluralistic policies on the general population, that often inflamed the majority Hindu population. Aurangzeb ( (full title Al-Sultan al-Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram Abul Muzaffar Muhiuddin Muhammad Aurangzeb Bahadur Alamgir I Padshah Ghazi) ( November 4,
Post-Mughal regional kingdoms
- See also: Maratha Empire, Kingdom of Mysore, Hyderabad State, Sikh Empire, and Durrani Empire
The post-Mughal era was dominated by the rise of the Maratha suzerianity as other small regional states (mostly post-Mughal tributary states) emerged, and also by the increasing activities of European powers (see colonial era below). The Maratha Kingdom was founded and consolidated by Shivaji. Shivaji Bhosle, also known as Chhatrapati Shivaji Raje Bhosle ( Marathi: छत्रपती शिवाजीराजे भोसले (Born February By the 18th century, it had transformed itself into the Maratha Empire under the rule of the Peshwas. The Peshwa ( Marathi:पेशवा plural Peshwe, Marathi:पेशवे were Brahmin Prime Ministers to the Maratha By 1760, the Empire had stretched across practically the entire subcontinent. This expansion was brought to an end by the defeat of the Marathas by an Afghan army led by Ahmad Shah Abdali at the Third Battle of Panipat (1761). Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, Ahmad Shāh Durrānī (c1723-1773 ( also known as Ahmad Shāh Abdālī ( احمد شاه ابدالي) and born as Ahmad Khān Abdālī, The Third Battle of Panipat took place on January 14, 1761 at Panipat (Haryana State India) situated at about 80 miles (130 km north The last Peshwa, Baji Rao II, was defeated by the British in the Third Anglo-Maratha War. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The Third Anglo-Maratha War ( 1817 - 1818) was a final and decisive conflict between the British East India Company and the Maratha Empire in
Mysore was a kingdom of southern India, which was founded around 1400 AD by the Wodeyar dynasty. The rule of the Wodeyars was interrupted by Hyder Ali and his son Tippu Sultan. Hyder Ali or Haidar 'Ali (c 1722 - 1782 was the de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore in southern India. Under their rule Mysore fought a series of wars sometimes against the combined forces of the British and Marathas, but mostly against the British with some aid or promise of aid from the French. The Anglo-Mysore Wars were a series of wars fought in India over the last three decades of the eighteenth-century between the Kingdom of Mysore and the British This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Hyderabad was founded by the Qutb Shahi dynasty of Golconda in 1591. The Qutb Shahi dynasty ( Urdu: سلطنت قطب شاهی) (whose members were also called the Qutub Shahis) was the ruling family of the kingdom Following a brief Mughal rule, Asif Jah, a Mughal official, seized control of Hyderabad declaring himself Nizam-al-Mulk of Hyderabad in 1724. Nizam ( Urdu: نظام) a shortened version of Nizam-ul-Mulk ( Urdu: نظامالملک) meaning Administrator of the Realm, was It was ruled by a hereditary Nizam from 1724 until 1948. Nizam ( Urdu: نظام) a shortened version of Nizam-ul-Mulk ( Urdu: نظامالملک) meaning Administrator of the Realm, was Both Mysore and Hyderabad became princely states in British India.
The Punjabi kingdom, ruled by members of the Sikh religion, was a political entity that governed the region of modern day Punjab. Sikh (English or; ਸਿੱਖ sikkh, IPA) is the title and name given to an adherent of Sikhism. This was among the last areas of the subcontinent to be conquered by the British. The Anglo-Sikh wars marked the downfall of the Sikh Empire. Around the 18th century modern Nepal was formed by Gorkha rulers, and the Shahs and the Ranas very strictly maintained their national identity and integrity.
Colonial era
Vasco da Gama's discovery of a new sea route to India in 1498 paved the way for European commerce with India. The colonial era in India began in 1502 when the Portuguese established the first European trading center at Kollam Dom Vasco da Gama, 1st Count of Vidigueira ('vaʃku dɐ 'gɐmɐ ( Sines or Vidigueira, Alentejo, Portugal, ca [42] The Portuguese soon set up trading-posts in Goa, Daman, Diu and Bombay. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. Goa ( Konkani: गोंय /ɡɔ̃j/ is India 's smallest state in terms of area and the fourth smallest in terms of population. Daman District is an Enclave on the western coast of India surrounded by Valsad District of Gujarat on the north east and south and the Arabian Sea to WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Diu is a city in Diu district in the union territory of Daman and Diu, India. Mumbai ( Marathi:,, IPA: formerly Bombay, is the capital of the Indian state of Maharashtra and the financial The next to arrive were the Dutch, the British—who set up a trading-post in the west-coast port of Surat[43] in 1619—and the French. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands The British Empire was the largest empire in history and for over a century was the foremost global power. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Although the continental European powers were to control various regions of southern and western India during the ensuing century, they would eventually lose all their Indian dominions to the British, with the exception of the French outposts of Pondicherry and Chandernagore, the Dutch port of Travancore, and the Portuguese colonies of Goa, Daman, and Diu. Puducherry (formerly; புதுச்சேரி or பாண்டிச்சேரி పాండిచెర్రి പുതുശ്ശേരി Pondichéry is a Chandannagar, formerly known as Chandernagore or Chandernagar (Chandernagor (চন্দননগর Chôndonnôgor) is a small city and former French Travancore or Thiruvithaamkoor ( Malayalam: തിരുവിതാങ്കൂര് "Thiru" (respectful prefix which suggests either royal or Goa ( Konkani: गोंय /ɡɔ̃j/ is India 's smallest state in terms of area and the fourth smallest in terms of population. WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Diu is a city in Diu district in the union territory of Daman and Diu, India.
The British Raj
The British East India Company had been given permission by the Mughal emperor Jahangir in 1617 to trade in India. For usage see British rule in India British Raj ( rāj, lit "reign" in Hindustani) primarily refers to the British The British Empire was the largest empire in history and for over a century was the foremost global power. The Honourable East India Company ( HEIC) referred to most commonly as the East India Company, also historically and colloquially as John Company, or [44] Gradually their increasing influence led the de-jure Mughal emperor Farrukh Siyar to grant them dastaks or permits for duty free trade in Bengal in 1717. Abu'l Muzaffar Muin ud-din Muhammad Shah Farrukh-siyar Alim Akbar Sani Wala Shan Padshah-i-bahr-u-bar ' (or Farrukhsiyar', August 20 1685 - April 19 1719 was the Etymology and ethnology The exact origin of the word Bangla or Bengal is unknown though it is believed to be derived from the Dravidian-speaking tribe Bang [45] The Nawab of Bengal Siraj Ud Daulah, the de facto ruler of the Bengal province, opposed British attempts to use these permits. The Nawabs of Bengal were the hereditary nazim s or Subadars (provincial governors of the Subah (province of Bengal during Mîrzâ Mohammad Sirâjud Dawla, more popularly known as Siraj ud-Daulah (1733 &ndash July 2, 1757) was the last independent Nawab of This led to the Battle of Plassey in 1757, in which the 'army' of East India Company, led by Robert Clive, defeated the Nawab's forces. The Battle of Plassey (পলাশীর যুদ্ধ Pôlashir Juddho) was a decisive British East India Company victory over the Nawab of Bengal Clive of India redirects here For the film see Clive of India (film. This was the first political foothold that the British acquired in India. Clive became the Company's first Governor of Bengal in 1757. [46] After the Battle of Buxar in 1764, the Company acquired the civil rights of administration in Bengal from the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II; it marked the beginning of its formal rule, which was to engulf most of India and extinguish the Moghul rule itself in a century. The Battle of Buxar was fought in October 1764 between the forces under the command Shah Alam II (1728&ndash1806 also known as Ali Gauhar was a Mughal emperor of India. [47] The East India Company monopolized the trade of Bengal. They introduced a land taxation system called the Permanent Settlement which introduced a feudal like structure (See Zamindar) in Bengal. The Permanent Settlement — also known as the Cornwallis Code or Permanent Settlement of Bengal ( Bangla: চিরস্থায়ী বন্দোবস্ত Zamindar ( Devanagari: ज़मींदार zamīndār, Urdu: زمیندار zamīndār, Eastern Nagari: জমিদার By the 1850s, the East India Company controlled most of the Indian sub-continent, which included present-day Pakistan and Bangladesh. Their policy was sometimes summed up as Divide and Rule, taking advantage of the enmity festering between various princely states and social and religious groups. In Politics and Sociology, divide and rule (derived from Latin divide et impera) (also known as divide and conquer) is a combination
The first major movement against the British Company's high handed rule resulted in the Indian Rebellion of 1857, also known as the "Indian Mutiny" or "Sepoy Mutiny" or the "First War of Independence". The Indian Rebellion of 1857 began as a mutiny of Sepoys of British East India Company 's army on the 10th of May 1857 in the town of Meerut, After a year of turmoil, and reinforcement of the East India Company's troops with British soldiers, the British overcame the rebellion. The nominal leader of the uprising, the last Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar, was exiled to Burma, his children were beheaded and the Moghul line abolished. Abu Zafar Sirajuddin Muhammad Bahadur Shah Zafar, also known as Bahadur Shah or Bahadur Shah II; 24 October 1775 7 November 1862 was the last of the Mughal In the aftermath all power was transferred from the East India Company to the British Crown, which began to administer most of India as a colony; the Company's lands were controlled directly and the rest through the rulers of what it called the Princely states. TalkCommonewalth realm.--> The monarchy For other uses see Principality, Other princely states A Princely State (also called Native State or Indian State) was a
The Indian Independence movement
The first step toward Indian independence and western-style democracy was taken with the appointment of Indian councillors to advise the British viceroy,[48] and with the establishment of provincial Councils with Indian members the councillors' participation was subsequently widened in legislative councils. The term " Indian independence movement " is diffuse incorporating various national and regional campaigns agitations and efforts of both Nonviolent and Militant Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi ( Gujarati: મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી moɦən̪d̪äs kəɾəmʧən̪d̪ gän̪d̪ʱi (2 October 1869 – 30 January Jawaharlal Nehru (जवाहरलाल नेहरू ʤəʋäɦəɾläl nɛɦɾu (14 November 1889 27 May 1964 was a major political leader of the Congress Party A viceroy is a royal official who governs a country or province in the name of and as representative of the Monarch. [49] From 1920 leaders such as Mohandas Gandhi began mass movements to campaign against the British Raj. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi ( Gujarati: મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી moɦən̪d̪äs kəɾəmʧən̪d̪ gän̪d̪ʱi (2 October 1869 – 30 January Revolutionary activities against the British rule also took place throughout the Indian sub-continent, these movements succeeded in bringing Independence to the Indian sub-continent in 1947. The Revolutionary movement for Indian independence is often a less-highlighted aspect of the Indian independence movement -- the underground revolutionary factions
Independence and Partition
| Part of a series on the History of the Republic of India |
|
Pre-Independence  |
|
| British Raj (1858–1947) | |
| Indian independence movement (1857 - 1947) | |
| Partition of India (1947) | |
Post-Independence  |
|
| Political integration of India (1947-49) | |
| Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 | |
| States Reorganisation Act (1956) | |
| Non-Aligned Movement (1956- ) | |
| Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 | |
| Green Revolution (1970s) | |
| Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 | |
| Emergency (1975-77) | |
| Siachen conflict (1984) | |
| 1987 Sino-Indian skirmish | |
| 1990s in India | |
| Kargil War (1999) | |
| See also | |
| History of India | |
| History of South Asia | |
Along with the desire for independence, tensions between Hindus and Muslims had also been developing over the years. The Partition of India was the partition of the British Indian Empire which led to the creation on August 14, 1947 and August 15, The History of the Republic of India began on August 15, 1947 when India became an independent Dominion within the British Commonwealth The History of the Republic of India began on August 15, 1947 when India became an independent Dominion within the British Commonwealth For usage see British rule in India British Raj ( rāj, lit "reign" in Hindustani) primarily refers to the British The term " Indian independence movement " is diffuse incorporating various national and regional campaigns agitations and efforts of both Nonviolent and Militant The Partition of India was the partition of the British Indian Empire which led to the creation on August 14, 1947 and August 15, At the time of Indian independence, "British India " was divided into two sets of territories the first being the territories under the direct control of The Indo-Pakistani War of 1947, sometimes known as the First Kashmir War, was fought between India and Pakistan over the region of Kashmir from The States Reorganization Act of 1956 was a major reform of the boundaries and governance of India 's states and territories. India played an important role in the multilateral movements of colonies and newly independent countries that developed into the Non-Aligned Movement. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 was a culmination of Skirmishes that took place between April 1965 and September 1965 between India and Pakistan. The introduction of high-yielding varieties of seeds after 1965 and the increased use of Fertilizers and Irrigation are known collectively as the Green Revolution The Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 was a major military conflict between India and Pakistan. See also State of Emergency in India The Indian Emergency of June 1975–21st March 1977 was a 21-month period when President see also Siachen Glacier The Siachen Conflict, sometimes referred to as The Siachen War was a military conflict between India and Pakistan The 1987 Sino-Indian skirmish occurred at Sumdorong Chu Valley The 1990s was a historic Decade in India. Economic growth rates increased as policies were liberalised though not as quickly as in China The Kargil War, also known as the Kargil conflict, was an armed conflict between India and Pakistan that took place between May and July The term South Asia usually refers to the political entities of the Sub- Himalayan region - namely Republic of India, Pakistan, The Muslims had always been a minority, and the prospect of an exclusively Hindu government made them wary of independence; they were as inclined to mistrust Hindu rule as they were to resist the Raj. In 1915, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi came onto the scene, calling for unity between the two groups in an astonishing display of leadership that would eventually lead the country to independence. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi ( Gujarati: મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી moɦən̪d̪äs kəɾəmʧən̪d̪ gän̪d̪ʱi (2 October 1869 – 30 January The profound impact Gandhi had on India and his ability to gain independence through a totally non-violent mass movement made him one of the most remarkable leaders the world has ever known. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi ( Gujarati: મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી moɦən̪d̪äs kəɾəmʧən̪d̪ gän̪d̪ʱi (2 October 1869 – 30 January He led by example, wearing homespun clothes to weaken the British textile industry and orchestrating a march to the sea, where demonstrators proceeded to make their own salt in protest against the British monopoly. Indians gave him the name Mahatma, or Great Soul, first suggested by the Bengali poet Rabindranath Tagore. The British promised that they would leave India by 1947.
India gained independence in 1947, after being partitioned into the Union of India and Dominion of Pakistan. The Partition of India was the partition of the British Indian Empire which led to the creation on August 14, 1947 and August 15, The Dominion of Pakistan was a federal entity that was established in 1947 as a result of the Partition of India into two sovereign dominions the Union Following the division of pre-partition Punjab and Bengal provinces, rioting broke out between Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims in several parts of India, including Punjab, Bengal and Delhi, leaving some 500,000 dead. Etymology and ethnology The exact origin of the word Bangla or Bengal is unknown though it is believed to be derived from the Dravidian-speaking tribe Bang [50] Also, this period saw one of the largest mass migrations ever recorded in modern history, with a total of 12 million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims moving between the newly created nations of India and Pakistan. [50]
References
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- ^ Mudur, G. S. "Still a mystery", KnowHow, The Telegraph, March 21, 2005. Events 630 - Byzantine emperor Heraclius restores the True Cross to Jerusalem. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Retrieved on 2007-05-07. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 558 - In Constantinople, the dome of the Hagia Sophia collapses
- ^ The Hathnora Skull Fossil from Madhya Pradesh, India. Multi Disciplinary Geoscientific Studies. Geological Survey of India (20 September 2005). Geological Survey of India (GSI established in 1851 is a government organization in India for conducting geological surveys and studies Events 451 - The Battle of Chalons takes place in North Eastern France. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Retrieved on 2007-05-07. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 558 - In Constantinople, the dome of the Hagia Sophia collapses
- ^ Gaur, A. S. ; K. H. Vora (July 10, 1999). Events 48 BC - Battle of Dyrrhachium, Julius Caesar barely avoids a catastrophic defeat to Pompey in Macedonia. Year 1999 ( MCMXCIX) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1999 Gregorian calendar) "Ancient shorelines of Gujarat, India, during the Indus civilization (Late Mid-Holocene): A study based on archaeological evidences". Current Science 77 (1): 180–185. Current Science is a Scientific journal founded in 1932 published by the Current Science Association in collaboration with the Indian Academy ISSN 0011-3891. An International Standard Serial Number ( ISSN) is a unique eight-digit number used to identify a print or electronic Periodical publication.
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- ^ a b Possehl, G. L. (October 1990). Gregory Possehl is a Professor Emeritus of Anthropology at the University of Pennsylvania and curator of the Asian Collections at the University of Pennsylvania "Revolution in the Urban Revolution: The Emergence of Indus Urbanization". Annual Review of Anthropology 19: 261–282. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. ISSN 0084-6570. An International Standard Serial Number ( ISSN) is a unique eight-digit number used to identify a print or electronic Periodical publication.
- ^ Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark; Kimberley Heuston (May 2005). The Ancient South Asian World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195174224.
- ^ Rendell, H. R. ; Dennell, R. W. and Halim, M. (1989). Pleistocene and Palaeolithic Investigations in the Soan Valley, Northern Pakistan, British Archaeological Reports International Series. Cambridge University Press, 364. Cambridge University Press (known colloquially as CUP is a Publisher given a Royal Charter by Henry VIII in 1534
- ^ Jarrige, C. ; J. -F. Jarrige, R. H. Meadow and G. Quivron (1995). Mehrgarh Field Reports 1975 to 1985 - From the Neolithic to the Indus Civilization. Dept. of Culture and Tourism, Govt. of Sindh, and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, France.
- ^ Feuerstein, Georg; Subhash Kak; David Frawley (1995). In search of the cradle of civilization: new light on ancient India. Wheaton, Illinois: Quest Books, pp. 147. ISBN 0835607208.
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- ^ Indian Archaeology, A Review. 1958-1959. Excavations at Alamgirpur. Delhi: Archaeol. Surv. India, pp. 51–52.
- ^ Leshnik, Lawrence S. (October 1968). "The Harappan "Port" at Lothal: Another View". American Anthropologist, New Series, 70 (5): 911–922. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. ISSN 1548-1433. An International Standard Serial Number ( ISSN) is a unique eight-digit number used to identify a print or electronic Periodical publication.
- ^ Kenoyer, Jonathan (15 September 1998). Dr Jonathan Mark Kenoyer (born May 28, 1952, in Shillong, India) is an American Archaeologist and Professor of Anthropology Events 668 - Eastern Roman Emperor Constans II is assassinated in his bath at Syracuse Italy. Year 1998 ( MCMXCVIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1998 Gregorian calendar) Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. USA: Oxford University Press, p96. ISBN 0195779401.
- ^ The Post-Urban Period in northwestern India. Retrieved on May 12, 2007. Events 1191 - Richard I of England marries Berengaria of Navarre. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
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- ^ Mallory, J.P. (1989). James Patrick Mallory is an Irish-American archaeologist and Indo-Europeanist. In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archeology and Myth, Reprint edition (April 1991), London: Thames & Hudson, p 43. Thames & Hudson (also Thames and Hudson and sometimes T&H for brevity are a Publisher, especially of Art and Illustrated Books ISBN 0500276161. “The great majority of scholars insist that the Indo-Aryans were intrusive into northwest India”
- ^ India: Reemergence of Urbanization. Retrieved on May 12, 2007. Events 1191 - Richard I of England marries Berengaria of Navarre. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
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- ^ Mary Pat Fisher (1997) In: Living Religions: An Encyclopedia of the World's Faiths I. B. Tauris : London ISBN 1860641482 - “The extreme antiquity of Jainism as a non-vedic, indigenous Indian religion is well documented. Ancient Hindu and Buddhist scriptures refer to Jainism as an existing tradition which began long before Mahavira. ” Page 115
- ^ Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art (October 2004). The Achaemenid Persian Empire (550–330 B.C.E). Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved on 2007-05-19. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1535 - French explorer Jacques Cartier sets sail on his second voyage to North America with three ships 110 men and
- ^ Fuller, J.F.C. (February 3, 2004). Major-General John Frederick Charles Fuller, CB, CBE, DSO, commonly J Events 1112 - Ramon Berenguer III of Barcelona and Douce I of Provence marry uniting the fortunes of those two states "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " "Alexander's Great Battles", The Generalship of Alexander the Great, Reprint, New York: Da Capo Press, 188–199. ISBN 0306813300.
- ^ "At any rate, when Gallus was prefect of Egypt, I accompanied him and ascended the Nile as far as Syene and the frontiers of Ethiopia, and I learned that as many as one hundred and twenty vessels were sailing from Myos Hormos to India, whereas formerly, under the Ptolemies, only a very few ventured to undertake the voyage and to carry on traffic in Indian merchandise. Gaius Cornelius Gallus (ca 70 BC&ndash26 BC Roman Poet, Orator and Politician, was born of humble parents at Forum Julii ( Fréjus The Nile (النيل, Ancient Egyptian iteru or Ḥ'pī, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing River Aswan (formerly spelled Assuan (in standard أسوان Aswān) Egyptian: Swenet ( trade) Coptic: Swān; Greek The Aksumite Empire or Axumite Empire (sometimes called the Kingdom of Aksum or Axum ( Ge'ez: አክሱም was an important trading Myos Hormos was a Red Sea port constructed by the Ptolemies around the 3rd century BC Ptolemaic Egypt began when Ptolemy I Soter declared himself Pharaoh of Egypt in 305 BC and ended with the death of queen Cleopatra " Strabo II. 5. 12. Source
- ^ "minimaque computatione miliens centena milia sestertium annis omnibus India et Seres et paeninsula illa imperio nostro adimunt: tanti nobis deliciae et feminae constant. quota enim portio ex illis ad deos, quaeso, iam vel ad inferos pertinet?" Pliny, Historia Naturae 12. 41. 84.
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- ^ Vasco da Gama: Round Africa to India, 1497-1498 CE. Internet Modern History Sourcebook. Paul Halsall (June 1998). Retrieved on 2007-05-07. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 558 - In Constantinople, the dome of the Hagia Sophia collapses From: Oliver J. Thatcher, ed. , The Library of Original Sources (Milwaukee: University Research Extension Co. , 1907), Vol. V: 9th to 16th Centuries, pp. 26-40.
- ^ Indian History - Important events: History of India. An overview. History of India. Indianchild. com. Retrieved on 2007-05-07. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 558 - In Constantinople, the dome of the Hagia Sophia collapses
- ^ The Great Moghul Jahangir: Letter to James I, King of England, 1617 A.D.. Indian History Sourcebook: England, India, and The East Indies, 1617 CE. Internet Indian History Sourcebook, Paul Halsall (June 1998). Retrieved on 2007-05-07. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 558 - In Constantinople, the dome of the Hagia Sophia collapses From: James Harvey Robinson, ed. James Harvey Robinson ( June 29, 1863 &ndash February 16, 1936) was an American historian , Readings in European History, 2 Vols. (Boston: Ginn and Co. , 1904-1906), Vol. II: From the opening of the Protestant Revolt to the Present Day, pp. 333–335.
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- ^ Rickard, J. (1 November 2000). Events 996 - Emperor Otto III issues a deed to Gottschalk Bishop of Freising which is the oldest known document using the name Ostarrîchi 2000 ( MM) was a Leap year that started on Saturday of the Common Era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. Robert Clive, Baron Clive, 'Clive of India', 1725-1774. Military History Encyclopedia on the Web. historyofwar. org. Retrieved on 2007-05-07. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 558 - In Constantinople, the dome of the Hagia Sophia collapses
- ^ Prakash, Om. The Transformation from a Pre-Colonial to a Colonial Order: The Case of India (PDF). Global Economic History Network 3–40. Economic History Department, London School of Economics. The London School of Economics and Political Science, more commonly referred to as The London School of Economics or LSE, is a specialist college of the Retrieved on 2007-05-07. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 558 - In Constantinople, the dome of the Hagia Sophia collapses
- ^ Mohsin, K. M. . Canning, (Lord). Banglapedia. Banglapedia, or the National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh, is the first Bangladeshi encyclopedia Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. Retrieved on 2007-05-07. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 558 - In Constantinople, the dome of the Hagia Sophia collapses “Indian Council Act of 1861 by which non-official Indian members were nominated to the Viceroy's Legislative Council. ”
- ^ Minto-Morley Reforms. storyofpakistan. com. Jin Technologies (June 1 2003). Events 193 - Roman Emperor Didius Julianus is Assassinated 987 - Hugh Capet is elected Retrieved on 2007-05-07. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 558 - In Constantinople, the dome of the Hagia Sophia collapses
- ^ a b Symonds, Richard (1950). The Making of Pakistan. London: Faber and Faber, p 74. Faber and Faber, often abbreviated to Faber, is an independent publishing house in the UK, notable in particular for publishing ASIN B0000CHMB1. OCLC 1462689. The OCLC Online Computer Library Center is according to its website a "nonprofit membership computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purpose “at the lowest estimate, half a million people perished and twelve million became homeless”
Further reading
- Allan, J. T. Wolseley Haig, and H. H. Dodwell, The Cambridge Shorter History of India (1934)
- Chandavarkar, Raj. The Origins of Industrial Capitalism in India: Business Strategies and the Working Class in Bombay 1900-1940 (1994)
- Cohen, Stephen P. Rajnarayan Chandavarkar ( 1953 - April 23, 2006) was a Reader in the History and Politics of South Asia and Fellow at Trinity College Cambridge India: Emerging Power (2002)
- Daniélou, Alain. A Brief History of India (2003)
- Das, Gurcharan. India Unbound: The Social and Economic Revolution from Independence to the Global Information Age (2002)
- Elliot, Sir H. M. , Edited by Dowson, John. The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; published by London Trubner Company 1867–1877. The History of India as Told by Its Own Historians The Muhammadan Period is a book with eight volumes written by H (Online Copy: The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company 1867–1877 - This online Copy has been posted by: The Packard Humanities Institute; Persian Texts in Translation; Also find other historical books: Author List and Title List)
- Keay, John. India: A History (2001)
- Kishore, Prem and Anuradha Kishore Ganpati. India: An Illustrated History (2003)
- Kulke, Hermann and Dietmar Rothermund. A History of India. 3rd ed. (1998)
- Mahajan, Sucheta. Independence and partition: the erosion of colonial power in India, New Delhi [u. a. ] : Sage 2000, ISBN 0-7619-9367-3
- Majumdar, R. C., H. Ramesh Chandra Majumdar (December 4 1888- February 12 1980 was an Indian Historian and Vice-Chancellor of Dacca University. C. Raychaudhuri, and Kaukinkar Datta. An Advanced History of India London: Macmillan. An Advanced History of India is a book by RC Majumdar, HC Raychaudhuri and Kalikinkar Datta 1960. ISBN 0-333-90298-X
- Majumdar, R. C. The History and Culture of the Indian People New York: The Macmillan Co. Ramesh Chandra Majumdar (December 4 1888- February 12 1980 was an Indian Historian and Vice-Chancellor of Dacca University. The History and Culture of the Indian People is a series of eleven volumes on the history of India, from prehistoric times to the establishment of the modern state in 1947 , 1951.
- Mcleod, John. The History of India (2002)
- Rothermund, Dietmar. An Economic History of India: From Pre-Colonial Times to 1991 (1993)
- Smith, Vincent. The Oxford History of India (1981)
- Spear, Percival. The History of India Vol. 2 (1990)
- Thapar, Romila. Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 (2004)
- von Tunzelmann, Alex. Indian Summer (2007). Henry Holt and Company, New York. ISBN 0-8050-8073-2
- Wolpert, Stanley. A New History of India 6th ed. (1999)
See also
- History of South Asia
- History of Pakistan
- History of Bangladesh
- Contributions of Indian Civilization
- Economic history of India
- History of Buddhism
- History of Hinduism
- Indian maritime history
- Kingdoms of Ancient India
- Military history of India
- Timeline of Indian history
- Harappan mathematics
- Negationism in India - Concealing the Record of Islam
- Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent
External links
The term South Asia usually refers to the political entities of the Sub- Himalayan region - namely Republic of India, Pakistan, The history of Pakistan as a modern nation began with independence from British India on 14 August 1947, although History of Bengal Bangladesh became one of the last major nation states following its secession in 1971 from the nation of Pakistan which achieved its independence from the British Economic history of India, in the sense of the meaning of the term economic in its current sense is at least 5000 years old The History of Buddhism spans the 6th century BCE to the present starting with the birth of the Buddha Siddhartha Gautama. Hinduism is an umbrella term for a wide variety of related religious traditions native to India. Indian maritime history begins during the 3rd millennium BCE when the inhabitants of the Indus Valley initiate trading with Mesopotamia. This article is about the kingdoms as reflected in Sanskrit literature India has a long military history dating back several millennia This is a timeline of Indian history. It includes the history of South Asia ( Indian subcontinent) especially the history of the regions now known Indian mathematics &mdashwhich here is the mathematics that emerged in South Asia zero, Negative numbers, Arithmetic, and Algebra. Negationism in India - Concealing the Record of Islam is a book by Koenraad Elst published in 1992. The Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent mainly took place from the 11th to the 17th centuries though earlier Muslim conquests made limited inroads into the region beginning The Open Directory Project ( ODP) also known as dmoz (from directoryDapyx Software network: MP3 Explorer | Ebook Manager | Zenithic