The history of Guatemala can be traced back to the arrival of the first human settlers, presumed to have migrated from the north at least 12,000 years ago {5}. History is the study of the past particularly the written record Those who study history as a Profession are called Historians Etymology Guatemala (República de Guatemala) is a country in Central America bordered by Mexico to the north and west the Pacific Ocean to the southwest For much of that time, the civilization that developed there flourished, with little to no contact with cultures from outside of Mesoamerica. Mesoamerica or Meso-America (Mesoamérica is a Region extending approximately from central Mexico to Honduras and Nicaragua, defined The Maya civilization dominated the region for nearly 2000 years before the Spanish arrived in the early 16th century, although most of the Great Classic Maya cities of the Petén region of Guatemala's northern lowlands were abandoned by the year 1000 AD. The Maya civilization is a Mesoamerican Civilization, noted for the only known fully developed written language of the Pre-Columbian Americas The Petén Basin is a geographical subregion of Mesoamerica, located in the northern portion of the modern-day nation of Guatemala, and essentially contained within The states of the central highlands, however, were still flourishing until the arrival of the Spanish Conquistador Pedro de Alvarado, who subjugated the native states, beginning in 1523. This article is about the Spanish explorer soldiers of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuriesfor other uses see Conquistador (disambiguation A Conquistador Pedro de Alvarado y Contreras (born Badajoz, Extremadura, Spain, ca

Guatemala remained a Spanish colony for nearly 300 years, before gaining its independence in 1821. It was then a part of the Mexican Empire until becoming fully independent in the 1840's. The Mexican Empire was the name of Mexico on two non-consecutive occasions in the 19th century when it was ruled by an Emperor. Since then, Guatemala's history has been divided into periods of democratic rule and periods of civil war and military juntas. A military dictatorship is a Form of government wherein the political power resides with the Military; it is similar but not identical to a Stratocracy, Most recently, Guatemala emerged from a 36-year civil war, reestablishing a representative government in 1996.

Contents 1 Pre-Columbian Guatemala 2 The Conquest 3 The 19th century 4 The Early 20th century 5 The "Ten Years of Spring" 6 Operation PBSUCCESS 7 Civil war 7.1 1986 to 1996: from constitution to peace accords 8 1996 Peace Accords to Present 9 See also 10 External links 11 Notes 12 References 13 Further reading

Pre-Columbian Guatemala

The first proof of human settlers in Guatemala goes back to 10,000 BC, although there is some evidence that put this date at 18,000 BC, such as obsidian arrow heads found in various parts of the country {History of Guatemala, 1999}. There is archaeological proof that early Guatemalan settlers were hunters and gatherers, but pollen samples from Petén and the Pacific coast indicate that maize cultivation was developed by 3500 BC {5}. Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica Archaic sites have been documented in Quiché in the Highlands and Sipacate, Escuintla on the central Pacific coast (6500 BC). Sipacate (located at 13°56' North 91°9' West is a resort on the Pacific coast of Guatemala, in Escuintla Department about 22 miles (36 km west of Escuintla (sometimes spelled Esquintla) is a city in south central Guatemala.

By 2500 BC, small settlements were developing in Guatemala’s Pacific lowlands, including such places as Tilapa, La Blanca, Ocós, El Mesak, and Ujuxte, where the oldest ceramic pottery from Guatemala has been found. The 25th century of the Anno Domini ( common) era will span the years 2401–2500 of the Gregorian calendar. La Blanca is a Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican archaeological site with an occupation dating predominately from the Middle Preclassic (900-600 BC period of Mesoamerican The site of Ujuxte (after the Ramón or Breadnut tree -- uh-hush-te is the largest Pre-Classical site to be discovered on Guatemala Pacific coast A heavy concentration of pottery on the Pacific coast has been documented dating from 2000 BC. 2000 ( MM) was a Leap year that started on Saturday of the Common Era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. Recent excavations suggest that the Highlands were a geographic and temporal bridge between Early Preclassic villages of the Pacific coast and later Petén lowlands cities (5).

Recent excavations in the Antigua Guatemala Valley, at Urías and Rucal, have yielded stratified materials from the Early and Middle Preclassic, the first pottery in the Antigua Valley is very well-made and not simply a copy of either coastal or Piedmont types. La Antigua Guatemala (commonly referred to as just Antigua or La Antigua) is a city in the central highlands of Guatemala famous for its well-preserved Their paste analyses, however, indicate that the vessels were made of clays from different environmental zones, suggesting these were people from the Pacific coast who expanded into the Antigua Valley {History of Guatemala}. There are at least 5000 archaeological sites in Guatemala, 3000 of them in Petén alone. An archaeological site is a place (or group of physical sites in which evidence of past activity is preserved (either Prehistoric or historic or contemporary and {5}

In Monte Alto near La Democracia, Escuintla, giant stone heads and Potbellies (or Barrigones) have been found, dating from 1800 BC {5}. La Democracia is a Municipality in the Escuintla department of Guatemala. Escuintla (sometimes spelled Esquintla) is a city in south central Guatemala. The 18th century BC was the Century which lasted from 1800 BC to 1701 BC These are ascribed to the Pre-Olmec Monte Alto Culture, and some scholars suggest the Olmec Culture originated in this area of the Pacific Lowlands {{4 Malmström}. The Olmec were an ancient Pre-Columbian people living in the Tropical lowlands of south-central Mexico, in what are roughly the modern-day states Monte Alto is an Archaeological site on the Pacific Coast in what is now Guatemala. The Olmec were an ancient Pre-Columbian people living in the Tropical lowlands of south-central Mexico, in what are roughly the modern-day states However, it has also been argued the only connection between these statues and the later Olmec heads is their size Template:Coe 1981. Nonetheless, it is likely the Monte Alto Culture was the first complex culture of Mesoamerica, and predecessor of all other cultures of the region. Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate" generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic In Guatemala, there are some sites with unmistakable Olmec style, such as Chocolá in Suchitepéquez, La Corona, in Peten, and Tak'alik A´baj, in Retalhuleu, the last of which is the only ancient city in the Americas with Olmec and Mayan features{6}. La Corona is an ancient Maya city in Guatemala 's Petén department that was discovered in 1996 and later revealed to be the long-sought " Tak'alik A'baj' is an Pre-Columbian archaeological site formerly known as Abaj Takalik. The Olmec were an ancient Pre-Columbian people living in the Tropical lowlands of south-central Mexico, in what are roughly the modern-day states The Maya civilization is a Mesoamerican Civilization, noted for the only known fully developed written language of the Pre-Columbian Americas

Dr. Richard Hansen, the director of the archaeological project of the Mirador Basin, believes the Maya at Mirador Basin developed the first true political state in America, (The Kan Kingdom), around 1500 BC; and further believes the Olmec were not the mother culture in Mesoamerica, as is often thought. Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from Greek grc ἀρχαιολογία archaiologia – grc ἀρχαῖος archaīos The Mirador Basin is a geographically defined elevated Basin found in the remote rain forest of the northern department of Petén, Guatemala. The Maya peoples constitute a diverse range of the Native American peoples of southern Mexico and northern Central America. The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the Continents of North America and South America The Olmec were an ancient Pre-Columbian people living in the Tropical lowlands of south-central Mexico, in what are roughly the modern-day states Mesoamerica or Meso-America (Mesoamérica is a Region extending approximately from central Mexico to Honduras and Nicaragua, defined Template:Hansen, 2005 Due to recent findings at Mirador Basin in Northern Petén, Hansen suggests the Olmec and Maya cultures developed separately, and merged in some places like Tak'alik Abaj on the Pacific lowlands. The Mirador Basin is a geographically defined elevated Basin found in the remote rain forest of the northern department of Petén, Guatemala. The Olmec were an ancient Pre-Columbian people living in the Tropical lowlands of south-central Mexico, in what are roughly the modern-day states There is no evidence yet to link the Preclassic Maya from Petén and those from the Pacific coast, but undoubtedly, they had cultural and economical links.

Northern Guatemala has particularly high densities of Late Pre-classic sites, including Naachtun, Xulnal, El Mirador, Porvenir, Pacaya, La Muralla, Nakbé, Tintal, Wakná (formerly Güiro), Uaxactún, and Tikal. Naachtun is an Archaeological site of the Pre-Columbian Maya civilization, situated at the northeastern perimeter of the Mirador Basin region El Mirador is a large Pre-Columbian Mayan settlement located in the north of the modern department of El Petén, Guatemala. Nakbe is one of the largest early Maya archaeological sites rivaled by El Mirador. Uaxactun (waʃakˈtun is an ancient ruin of the Maya civilization, located in the Petén Basin region of the Maya lowlands in the present-day department Tikal (or Tik’al, according to the more current orthography is the largest of the ancient ruined cities of the Mayan civilization. Of these, El Mirador, Tikal, Nakbé, Tintal, Xulnal and Wakná are the largest in the Maya world, Such size was manifested not only in the extent of the site, but also in the volume or monumentality, especially in the construction of immense platforms to support large temples. El Mirador is a large Pre-Columbian Mayan settlement located in the north of the modern department of El Petén, Guatemala. Tikal (or Tik’al, according to the more current orthography is the largest of the ancient ruined cities of the Mayan civilization. Nakbe is one of the largest early Maya archaeological sites rivaled by El Mirador. Many sites of this era display monumental masks for the first time (Uaxactún, El Mirador, Cival, Tikal and Nakbé ). Uaxactun (waʃakˈtun is an ancient ruin of the Maya civilization, located in the Petén Basin region of the Maya lowlands in the present-day department El Mirador is a large Pre-Columbian Mayan settlement located in the north of the modern department of El Petén, Guatemala. Cival is an Archaeological site in the Petén Basin region of the southern Maya lowlands which was formerly a major city of the Pre-Columbian Maya Tikal (or Tik’al, according to the more current orthography is the largest of the ancient ruined cities of the Mayan civilization. Nakbe is one of the largest early Maya archaeological sites rivaled by El Mirador. These masks often seem to depict powerful natural forces such as Sun and Earth The Archeologist divide the cultural History of Mesoamerica in 3 periods: The Pre-Classic from 2000 BC to 250 AD, (Early: 2000 BC to 800 BC, Middle: 800 to 400 BC, and Late 400 BC to 250 AD), Classic from 250 to 900 AD, (Early 250 to 550 AD, Middle from 550 to 700 AD and Late 700 to 900 AD), and Post Classic from 900 to 1500 AD, (Early 900 to 1200 AD, and Late 1200 to 1500 AD)

Until a few years ago, the Pre Classic, was thought to be a formative period, with small villages of farmers, that lived in huts, and few permanent buildings, but this concept has been proved to be a big mistake, due to recent findings all over Guatemala, such as an altar in La Blanca, San Marcos, some 3 m in diameter from 1000 BC; Ceremonial sites at Miraflores, and El Naranjo from 800 BC, near Kaminal Juyú, in Guatemala City, El Portón in Baja Verapaz, The Mural paintings in San Bartolo, Petén, the Stucco Masks and monuments in Cival and of course The Mirador Basin major cities of Nakbé, Xulnal, Tintal, Wakná and Mirador, the Cradle of the Maya Civilization, where, the cities were not only numerous, but very sophisticated, and developed, with architectonic structures from 1400 BC. Mesoamerica or Meso-America (Mesoamérica is a Region extending approximately from central Mexico to Honduras and Nicaragua, defined La Blanca is a Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican archaeological site with an occupation dating predominately from the Middle Preclassic (900-600 BC period of Mesoamerican Kaminaljuyu is a Pre-Columbian site of the Maya civilization. Guatemala City (in full La Nueva Guatemala de la Asunción; locally known as Guatemala or Guate) is the Capital and largest city of the Stucco or render is a material made of an aggregate, a binder, and water Cival is an Archaeological site in the Petén Basin region of the southern Maya lowlands which was formerly a major city of the Pre-Columbian Maya The Mirador Basin is a geographically defined elevated Basin found in the remote rain forest of the northern department of Petén, Guatemala. Nakbe is one of the largest early Maya archaeological sites rivaled by El Mirador. Indeed the two biggest cities of the Maya Civilization (El Mirador and Tintal) are there, with the same religious beliefs, astronomical, mathematical and writing knowledge of those in the Classic period. El Mirador is a large Pre-Columbian Mayan settlement located in the north of the modern department of El Petén, Guatemala. Mesoamerican chronology divides the history of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica into a number of named successive eras or periods from the earliest evidence of human habitation

The Conquest

Sent out by Hernán Cortés with 120 horsemen, 300 foot soldiers and several hundred Cholula and Tlascala auxiliaries, Pedro de Alvarado was engaged in the conquest of the highlands of Guatemala from 1523 to 1527. Pedro de Alvarado y Contreras (born Badajoz, Extremadura, Spain, ca Guatemala (República de Guatemala) is a country in Central America bordered by Mexico to the north and west the Pacific Ocean to the southwest He left Tenochtitlán, with 120 Cavalry units, 160 crossbowers and riflemen, 4 heavy artillery pieces, 300 infantry men, and 20,000 tlaxcaltec, cholulas, and mexicas. There are some towns in Mexico which are spelled "Tenochtitlán" like San Lorenzo The Cavalry (from French cavalerie) is the second oldest of the Combat Arms, and as Soldiers or Warriors who fought mounted on A crossbow is a Weapon consisting of a bow mounted on a stock that shoots projectiles often called bolts Rifleman is a private Soldier in a rifle unit of Infantry. Origins Although ultimately originating with the 16th century handgunners and the 17th Artillery (from French artillerie) is a military Combat Arm which employs any apparātus machine The Infantry is the oldest and most numerous of the Combat Arms in the Armed forces, and consists The Tlaxcalteca (also Tlaxcalans, Tlaxcallans) were an indigenous group of Nahua ethnicity that inhabited the Kingdom of Tlaxcala located in Aztec is a term used to refer to certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who achieved political He entered Guatemala from Soconusco on the Pacific lowlands, headed for Xetulul Humbatz, Zapotitlan. Soconusco is a region of the Mexican state of Chiapas, located in the extreme south of the state and bounded by the Republic of Guatemala on the southeast The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth 's Oceanic divisions Zapotitlán is a Municipality in the Jutiapa department of Guatemala. Alvarado at first allied himself with the Cakchiquel nation to fight against their traditional rivals the Quiché nation. The Kaqchikel (in modern orthography formerly also spelled Cakchiquel) are one of the indigenous Maya peoples of the midwestern highlands in Guatemala This page is about the Native American people for other uses the dish see Quiché (disambiguation.

Alvarado started his conquest in Xepau Olintepeque, defeating the K'iché's 72,000 men, led by Tecún Umán (now Guatemala's national hero). Olintepeque is a Municipality in the Quetzaltenango department of Guatemala. Tecún Umán ( Tecún Umaán, Tecúm Umán, Tecúm Umam, or Tekun Umam 1500?-1524 was the last ruler and king of the K'iche - Alvarado then went to Gumarcaj, (Utatlan), the K'iché capital, and burned it on March 7, 1524. Gumarcaj, (sometimes rendered as Cumarcaj or Kumarcaaj) is an archeological site in El Quiché department of Guatemala. He proceeded to Iximche, and established near there in Tecpan on July 25, 1524, to launch several campaigns to other cities, as Chuitinamit, the capital of the Tzutuhils,(1524), Mixco Viejo, capital of the Poqomams, and Zaculeu, capital of the Mam, (1525). Iximché is a Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican Archaeological site in the western highlands of Guatemala. Tecpán Guatemala (locally referred to as just Tecpán) is a municipality in the department of Chimaltenango, in Guatemala, on the Inter-American Highway The Tz'utujil ( Tzutujil Tzutuhil Sutujil) are a Native American people one of the 21 Maya ethnic groups that dwell in Guatemala. Mixco Viejo is an archaeological site in the north east of the Chimaltenango district of Guatemala, some 50 km to the north of Guatemala City The Poqomam are a Maya people in Guatemala. Their indigenous language is also called Poqomam and is closely related to Poqomchi'. Zaculeu (traditional spelling or Saqulew (modern Maya spelling is a Pre-Columbian Archeological site in the highlands of southwestern Guatemala The Mam are a Native American people of the highlands of western Guatemala. He was named Captain General in 1527.

Feeling his position secure, Alvarado turned against his allies Cakchiquels, meeting them in several battles until they were subdued in 1530. Battles with other tribes continued up to 1548, when the Kek'chí in Nueva Sevilla, Izabal where defeated, leaving the Spanish in complete control of the region.

It should be noted that not all native tribes were subdued by bloodshed. Fray Bartolome de las Casas, pacified the Keck'chí in Alta Verapaz without violence. Bartolomé de las Casas, OP ( August 24 1484 &ndash July 17 1566) was a 16th century Spanish Dominican

The last cities conquered were Tayasal, capital of the Itzá Maya, and Zacpetén, capital of the Ko'woj Maya, both in 1697, after several attempts, including a failed attempt by Hernan Cortez in 1542. Tayasal is a Pre-Columbian Maya Archaeological site that dates to the Postclassic period The Itza are a Guatemalan ethnic group of Maya affiliation speaking the Itza' language. Zacpeten is a Pre-Columbian Maya Archaeological site in northern Guatemala. The Ko'woj (also recorded as Coguo, Cohuo, Kob'ow, Kob'ox, and Kowo) were a Maya group and Polity, from In order to conquer these last Maya sites, the Spaniards had to attack them on three fronts, one coming from Yucatan, another from Belize, and the third one from Alta Verapaz. Yucatán is one of the 31 states of Mexico, located on the north of the Yucatán Peninsula. Belize (bəˈliːz formerly British Honduras, is a country in Central America.

The 19th century

Guatemala gained independence from Spain on September 15, 1821; it briefly became part of the Mexican Empire and then for a period belonged to a federation called The United Provinces of Central America, until the federation broke up in civil war in 1838–1840 (See: History of Central America). Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Events 668 - Eastern Roman Emperor Constans II is assassinated in his bath at Syracuse Italy. Year 1821 ( MDCCCXXI) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common year The Mexican Empire was the name of Mexico on two non-consecutive occasions in the 19th century when it was ruled by an Emperor. The Federal Republic of Central America, also known as the United Central Provinces of America, was a short-lived American State in Central America This is the History of Central America is the study of the past, particularly the written record, oral histories, and traditions, passed Guatemala's Rafael Carrera was instrumental in leading the revolt against the federal government and breaking apart the Union. José Rafael Carrera Turcios ( 24 October 1814 &ndash 14 April 1865) was the ruler of Guatemala from about 1839 until his death Carrera dominated Guatemalan politics until 1865, backed by conservatives, large land owners and the church.

Guatemala's "Liberal Revolution" came in 1871 under the leadership of Justo Rufino Barrios, who worked to modernize the country, improve trade, and introduce new crops and manufacturing. Alcalde () or Alcalde ordinario, is the traditional Spanish municipal magistrate who had both Judicial and administrative functions Justo Rufino Barrios ( July 19, 1835 &ndash April 2, 1885) was a President of Guatemala known for his liberal reforms and During this era coffee became an important crop for Guatemala. CoFFEE is an Open source Software for computer supported collaborative learning (CSCL in a digital classroom Barrios had ambitions of reuniting Central America and took the country to war in an unsuccessful attempt to attain this, losing his life on the battlefield in 1885 against forces in El Salvador.

The Early 20th century

The U. S. -based multinational United Fruit Company (UFC) started becoming a major force in Guatemala in 1901, during the long presidencies of Manuel José Estrada Cabrera and General Jorge Ubico. The United Fruit Company was a major United States Corporation that traded tropical Fruit (primarily Bananas and Pineapples grown Manuel José Estrada Cabrera ( 21 November 1857 – 24 September 1923) was President of Guatemala from 8 February Jorge Ubico y Castañeda ( 10 November 1878 – 14 June 1946) was President of Guatemala from 14 February, 1931 During the latter's dictatorship in the 1930s, Guatemala was further opened up to foreign investment, with special favours being made from Ubico to the United Fruit Company in particular. The UFC responded by pouring investment capital into the country, buying controlling shares of the railroad, electric utility, and telegraph, while also winning control of over 40% of the country's best land and de facto control over its only port facility. As a result, Government was often subservient to the interests of the UFC. While the company helped with building some schools, it also opposed building highways because this would compete with its railroad monopoly.

The "Ten Years of Spring"

In 1944, General Jorge Ubico's dictatorship was overthrown by the "October Revolutionaries", a group of dissident military officers, students, and liberal professionals who were empowered by the wave of revolutions that swept up old, unpopular dictatorships in Venezuela, Cuba, and El Salvador around the same time. Year 1944 ( MCMXLIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Jorge Ubico y Castañeda ( 10 November 1878 – 14 June 1946) was President of Guatemala from 14 February, 1931 Venezuela (ˌvɛnəˈzweɪlə) officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (Spanish República Bolivariana de Venezuela) is a country on the The Republic of Cuba (ˈkjuːbə or) consists of the island of Cuba (the largest and second-most populous island of the Greater Antilles) Isla de la El Salvador ( República de El Salvador,) is a country in Central America. The social unrest preceding the coup culminated in the killing of a schoolteacher by an Army soldier, which sparked a broad general strike that paralyzed the country and forced Ubico to surrender power to his generals. A general strike is a Strike action by a critical mass of the labour force in a city region or country Further unrest prompted two young officers at the time, Jacobo Arbenz and Francisco Javier Arana, to lead a final coup and unseat the dictatorship. Colonel Jacobo Árbenz Guzmán ( September 14, 1913 &ndash January 27, 1971) was the President of Guatemala from 1951 to 1954 when Francisco Javier Arana (1905 &ndash 1949 was one of the three leaders of the military junta that ruled Guatemala from 20 October 1944 to

In a highly popular move, the pair of officers then stepped aside and made way for a general election. This started what is called The Ten Years of Spring, a period of free speech and political activity, proposed land reform, and a perception that great progress could be made in Guatemala. Land reforms (also Agrarian reform, though that can have a broader meaning is an often- controversial alteration in the societal arrangements whereby government A civilian president, Juan José Arévalo, was elected in 1945 and held the presidency until 1951. Juan José Arévalo Bermejo ( 10 September 1904 – 8 October 1990) was the first of the reformist presidents of Guatemala A former professor, he brought about social reforms, allowing new political parties and unions (with some restrictions), which placated the public. A trade union or labour union is an organization of workers who have banded together to achieve common goals in key areas such as wages hours and working conditions forming

Arana and Arbenz, still both highly regarded at the time, anticipated to soon succeed Arévalo. Arana tried to prematurely hasten the process of Arévalo's descent in a failed coup which brought about Arana's death in a controversial arrest-gone-wrong. This cleared the way for Arbenz to secure power; as he did in a landslide general election in 1951. Arbenz together with Arévalo further promoted the progressive social change that characterized the latter's presidency, clearing much of the old restrictions on political parties and labour unions, while also purging the army brass of its remaining pro-Arana officers -- one of whom was Colonel Carlos Castillo Armas; a man who would play a major role in Guatemalan politics in the coming years. Carlos Castillo Armas ( November 4, 1914 &ndash July 26, 1957) was president of Guatemala from July 8, Arbenz also permitted the Communist Guatemalan Party of Labour to achieve legal status in 1952. The Guatemalan Party of Labour ( Partido Guatemalteco del Trabajo) was a Communist party in Guatemala. The party subsequently gained a noticeable role in the government decision-making process that it had not had before.

Operation PBSUCCESS

Main article Operation PBSUCCESS

Arbenz proceeded to nationalize and redistribute un-utilized land owned by the United Fruit Company, which had a practical monopoly on Guatemalan fruit production and some industry. The 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état was a Covert operation organized by the United States Central Intelligence Agency to overthrow Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán The United Fruit Company was a major United States Corporation that traded tropical Fruit (primarily Bananas and Pineapples grown In response, United Fruit lobbied the Eisenhower administration to remove Arbenz. Dwight David "Ike" Eisenhower (October 14 1890 – March 28 1969 was President of the United States from 1953 until 1961 and a five-star general Of still greater importance, though, was the widespread American concern about the possibility of a so-called "Soviet beachhead"^[1] opening up in the Western Hemisphere. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Arbenz's sudden legalization of the Communist party and importing of arms from then Soviet-satellite state of Czechoslovakia,^[2] among other events, convinced major policy makers in the White House and CIA to try for Arbenz's forced removal, although his term was to end naturally in two years. Satellite state is a political term that refers to a country which is formally independent but under heavy influence or control by another country Czechoslovakia may also refer to what is now the Czech Republic and Slovakia. See also Executive Office of the President of the United States The White House, formerly known as the Executive Mansion, is the Official residence near as long as it used to be several months ago It has been actively summarized and split into sub-articles and there is a dynamic talk page discussion of all This led to a CIA-orchestrated coup in 1954, known as Operation PBSUCCESS, which saw Arbenz toppled and forced into exile by Colonel Carlos Castillo Armas. The 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état was a Covert operation organized by the United States Central Intelligence Agency to overthrow Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán Carlos Castillo Armas ( November 4, 1914 &ndash July 26, 1957) was president of Guatemala from July 8, Despite most Guatemalans' attachment to the original ideals of the 1944 uprising, some private sector leaders and the military began to believe that Arbenz represented a Communist threat and supported his overthrow, hoping that a successor government would continue the more moderate reforms started by Arevalo. After the CIA coup, hundreds of Guatemalans were rounded up and killed.

Civil war

Main article Guatemalan Civil War

The Guatemalan Civil War (1960-96) involved the government, right-wing paramilitary organizations, and left-wing insurgents. The Guatemalan Civil War, the longest civil war in Latin American history ran from 1960 to 1996, and had a profound impact on Guatemala. The Guatemalan Civil War, the longest civil war in Latin American history ran from 1960 to 1996, and had a profound impact on Guatemala. A variety of factors contributed: social and economic injustice and racism against the indigenous population, the 1954 coup which reversed reforms, weak civilian control of the military, Marxist ideology advocating violent revolution instead of democratic participation and reform, the United States support of the government, and Cuban support of the insurgents. The Historical Clarification Commission (commonly known as the "Truth Commission") after the war estimated that more than 200,000 people were killed — the vast majority of whom were civilian indigenous people. The Historical Clarification Commission ( Spanish: Comisión para el Esclarecimiento Histórico or CEH was Guatemala 's Truth and reconciliation commission 93% of the human rights abuses reported to the Commission were attributed to the military or other government-supported actors. [2] It also determined that in several instances the government was responsible for acts of genocide. Genocide is the deliberate and systematic destruction in whole or in part of an ethnic racial religious or national group ^[3]

In response to the increasingly autocratic rule of Gen. Ydígoras Fuentes, who took power in 1958 following the murder of Col. José Miguel Ramón Ydígoras Fuentes (1895 &ndash 1982 was President of Guatemala from 2 March 1958 to 31 March 1963. Castillo Armas, a group of junior military officers revolted in 1960. When they failed, several went into hiding and established close ties with Cuba. The Republic of Cuba (ˈkjuːbə or) consists of the island of Cuba (the largest and second-most populous island of the Greater Antilles) Isla de la This group became the nucleus of the forces that were in armed insurrection against the government for the next 36 years.

Four principal left-wing guerrilla groups — the Guerrilla Army of the Poor (EGP), the Revolutionary Organization of Armed People (ORPA), the Rebel Armed Forces (FAR), and the Guatemalan Party of Labour (PGT) — conducted economic sabotage and targeted government installations and members of government security forces in armed attacks. Guerrilla warfare is the unconventional warfare and combat with which a small group of combatants use mobile tactics (ambushes raids etc The Guerrilla Army Of The Poor (EGP - Ejército Guerrillero de los Pobres) was Guatemalan Guerrilla movement one of the four organizations comprising Revolutionary Organization of the People in Arms (Organización Revolucionario del Pueblo en Armas was one of the four groups of armed resistance during the Guatemalan Civil War The Rebel Armed Forces ( Spanish: Fuerzas Armadas Rebeldes, FAR) was a 1960s Guatemalan guerilla organization The Guatemalan Party of Labour ( Partido Guatemalteco del Trabajo) was a Communist party in Guatemala. These organizations combined to form the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity (URNG) in 1982. The Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity (in Spanish: Unidad Revolucionaria Nacional Guatemalteca, URNG-MAIZ or most commonly URNG At the same time, extreme right-wing groups of self-appointed vigilantes, including the Secret Anti-Communist Army (ESA) and the White Hand (La Mano Blanca), tortured and murdered students, professionals, and peasants suspected of involvement in leftist activities.

Shortly after President Julio César Méndez Montenegro took office in 1966, the army launched a major counterinsurgency campaign that largely broke up the guerrilla movement in the countryside. Julio César Méndez Montenegro ( November 23, 1915 – April 30, 1996) was the Revolutionary Party President of Guatemala The guerrillas then concentrated their attacks in Guatemala City, where they assassinated many leading figures, including U. S. Ambassador John Gordon Mein in 1968. Ambassador John Gordon Mein ( September 10, 1913 - August 28, 1968) was the first United States ambassador to be assassinated Méndez Montenegro was the only civilian to head Guatemala until the inauguration of Vinicio Cerezo in 1986. Marco Vinicio Cerezo Arévalo (born 26 December 1942) is a Guatemalan politician Year 1986 ( MCMLXXXVI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link displays 1986 Gregorian calendar)

On March 23, 1982, army troops commanded by junior officers staged a coup d'état to prevent the assumption of power by General Ángel Aníbal Guevara, the hand-picked candidate of outgoing President and General Romeo Lucas García. Events 1174 - Jocelin, Abbot of Melrose, is elected Bishop of Glasgow. Year 1982 ( MCMLXXXII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link displays the 1982 Gregorian calendar) Ángel Aníbal Guevara Rodríguez is a Guatemalan soldier and politician Fernando Romeo Lucas García (b San Juan Chamelco, Alta Verapaz, 4 July 1924 &ndash d They denounced Guevara's electoral victory as fraudulent. The coup leaders asked retired Gen. Efraín Ríos Montt to negotiate the departure of Lucas Guevara. José Efraín Ríos Montt (born June 16, 1926) is a former De facto President of Guatemala, army general Ríos Montt had been the candidate of the Christian Democracy Party in the 1974 presidential election and was widely regarded as having been denied his own victory through fraud. The Guatemalan Christian Democracy ( Democracia Cristiana Guatemalteca) founded 24 August 1955, is a Political party in Guatemala. A general election was held in Guatemala on 3 March 1974. Voters went to the polls to elect a new President of the Republic and a new Congress

Ríos Montt was by this time a lay pastor in the evangelical Protestant Church of the Word. The Church of the Word (Iglesia el Verbo is an evangelical pentecostal Christian church In his inaugural address, he stated that his presidency resulted from the will of God. God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. He was widely perceived as having strong backing from the Reagan administration in the United States. He formed a three-member military junta that annulled the 1965 constitution, dissolved Congress, suspended political parties and canceled the electoral law. A military dictatorship is a Form of government wherein the political power resides with the Military; it is similar but not identical to a Stratocracy, The Congress of the Republic (Congreso de la República is the unicameral Legislature of the Republic of Guatemala. After a few months, Ríos Montt dismissed his junta colleagues and assumed the de facto title of "President of the Republic".

Guerrilla forces and their leftist allies denounced Ríos Montt who sought to defeat the guerrillas with military actions and economic reforms; in his words, "rifles and beans". In May 1982, the Conference of Catholic Bishops accused Ríos Montt of responsibility for growing militarization of the country and for continuing military massacres of civilians. An army officer was quoted in the New York Times of 18 July 1982 as telling an audience of indigenous Guatemalans in Cunén that: "If you are with us, we'll feed you; if not, we'll kill you. Events 390 BC - Roman - Gaulish Wars Battle of the Allia - a Roman army is defeated by raiding Gauls, Year 1982 ( MCMLXXXII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link displays the 1982 Gregorian calendar) For indigenous peoples in the United States other than Hawaii and Alaska see also Native Americans in the United States. Cunén is a municipality in the El Quiché department of Guatemala. "^[4] The Plan de Sánchez massacre occurred on the same day. Plan de Sánchez is a village in the municipality of Rabinal, Baja Verapaz department Guatemala.

The government began to form local civilian defense patrols (PACs). Participation was in theory voluntary, but in practice, many rural Guatemalan men (including young boys and the elderly), especially in the northwest, had no choice but to join either the PACs or be tarred as guerrillas. At their peak, the PACs are estimated to have included 1 million conscripts. Ríos Montt's conscript army and PACs recaptured essentially all guerrilla territory — guerrilla activity lessened and was largely limited to hit-and-run operations. However, Ríos Montt won this partial victory at an enormous cost in civilian deaths.

Ríos Montt's brief presidency was probably the most violent period of the 36-year internal conflict, which resulted in thousands of deaths of mostly unarmed indigenous civilians. Although leftist guerrillas and right-wing death squads also engaged in summary executions, forced disappearances, and torture of noncombatants, the vast majority of human rights violations were carried out by the Guatemalan military and the PACs they controlled. The internal conflict is described in great detail in the reports of the Historical Clarification Commission (CEH) and the Archbishop's Office for Human Rights (ODHAG). The Historical Clarification Commission ( Spanish: Comisión para el Esclarecimiento Histórico or CEH was Guatemala 's Truth and reconciliation commission The CEH estimates that government forces were responsible for 93% of the violations; ODHAG earlier estimated that government forces were responsible for 80%.

On August 8, 1983, Ríos Montt was deposed by his own Minister of Defense, General Óscar Humberto Mejía Victores, who succeeded him as de facto president of Guatemala. Events 1220 - Sweden is defeated by Estonian tribes in the Battle of Lihula. Year 1983 ( MCMLXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays the 1983 Gregorian calendar) Óscar Humberto Mejía Victores (born 1930 was President of Guatemala from 8 August 1983 to 14 January 1986. Mejía justified his coup, saying that "religious fanatics" were abusing their positions in the government and also because of "official corruption". Seven people were killed in the coup, although Ríos Montt survived to found a political party (the Guatemalan Republic Front) and to be elected President of Congress in 1995 and again in 2000. The Guatemalan Republican Front ( Frente Republicano Guatemalteco) is a Political party in Guatemala. Awareness in the United States of the conflict in Guatemala, and its ethnic dimension, increased with the 1983 publication of the "testimonial" account I, Rigoberta Menchú; Rigoberta Menchú was later awarded the 1992 Nobel Peace Prize for her work in favor of broader social justice. Rigoberta Menchú Tum (b 9 January 1959, Chimel Quiché, Guatemala) is an indigenous Guatemalan of the Quiché - The Nobel Peace Prize ( Swedish, Danish and Nobels fredspris is one of five Nobel Prizes Bequeathed by the Swedish industrialist and inventor In 1998 a book by U. S. anthropologist David Stoll challenged some of the details in Menchú's book, creating an international controversy. David Stoll (born 28 February 1952) is an American anthropologist After the publication of Stoll's book, the Nobel Committee reiterated that it had awarded the Peace Prize based on Menchú's uncontested work promoting human rights and the peace process.

General Mejía allowed a managed return to democracy in Guatemala, starting with a July 1, 1984 election for a Constituent Assembly to draft a democratic constitution. "July 1st" redirects here For the Ayumi Hamasaki song see H (song. Year 1984 ( MCMLXXXIV) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link displays the 1984 Gregorian calendar) A constituent assembly is a body elected with the purpose of drafting and in some cases adopting a Constitution. On May 30, 1985, after nine months of debate, the Constituent Assembly finished drafting a new constitution, which took effect immediately. Events 1416 - The Council of Constance, called by the Emperor Sigismund a supporter of Antipope John XXIII burns Jerome of Prague following Year 1985 ( MCMLXXXV) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link displays 1985 Gregorian calendar) Vinicio Cerezo, a civilian politician and the presidential candidate of the Christian Democracy Party, won the first election held under the new constitution with almost 70% of the vote, and took office on January 14, 1986. Marco Vinicio Cerezo Arévalo (born 26 December 1942) is a Guatemalan politician The Guatemalan Christian Democracy ( Democracia Cristiana Guatemalteca) founded 24 August 1955, is a Political party in Guatemala. Events 1129 - Formal approval of the Order of the Templar at the Council of Troyes. Year 1986 ( MCMLXXXVI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link displays 1986 Gregorian calendar)

1986 to 1996: from constitution to peace accords

Upon its inauguration in January 1986, President Cerezo's civilian government announced that its top priorities would be to end the political violence and establish the rule of law. Reforms included new laws of habeas corpus and amparo (court-ordered protection), the creation of a legislative human rights committee, and the establishment in 1987 of the Office of Human Rights Ombudsman. Habeas corpus (ˈheɪbiəs ˈkɔɹpəs ( Latin: command that you have the body is the name of a legal action or Writ, through which a person can seek relief In certain legal systems (predominantly those of the Spanish-speaking world)an amparo remedy or action is a constitutional proceeding intended to protect a citizen's constitutional The Supreme Court also embarked on a series of reforms to fight corruption and improve legal system efficiency.

With Cerezo's election, the military moved away from governing and returned to the more traditional role of providing internal security, specifically by fighting armed insurgents. The first two years of Cerezo's administration were characterized by a stable economy and a marked decrease in political violence. Dissatisfied military personnel made two coup attempts in May 1988 and May 1989, but military leadership supported the constitutional order. The government was heavily criticized for its unwillingness to investigate or prosecute cases of human rights violations.

The final two years of Cerezo's government also were marked by a failing economy, strikes, protest marches, and allegations of widespread corruption. The government's inability to deal with many of the nation's problems — such as infant mortality, illiteracy, deficient health and social services, and rising levels of violence — contributed to popular discontent.

Presidential and congressional elections were held on November 11, 1990. Events 308 - The Congress of Carnuntum: Attempting to keep peace within the Roman Empire, the leaders of the Tetrarchy declare Year 1990 ( MCMXC) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1990 Gregorian calendar) After a runoff ballot, Jorge Antonio Serrano Elías was inaugurated on January 14, 1991, thus completing the first transition from one democratically elected civilian government to another. Jorge Antonio Serrano Elías was President of Guatemala from 14 January 1991 to 31 May 1993. Events 1129 - Formal approval of the Order of the Templar at the Council of Troyes. Year 1991 ( MCMXCI) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar. Because his Movement of Solidarity Action (MAS) Party gained only 18 of 116 seats in Congress, Serrano entered into a tenuous alliance with the Christian Democrats and the National Union of the Center (UCN). The Congress of the Republic (Congreso de la República is the unicameral Legislature of the Republic of Guatemala.

The Serrano administration's record was mixed. It had some success in consolidating civilian control over the army, replacing a number of senior officers and persuading the military to participate in peace talks with the URNG. Civilian control of the military is a doctrine in military and Political science that places ultimate responsibility for a country's He took the politically unpopular step of recognizing the sovereignty of Belize, which until then had been officially, though fruitlessly, claimed by Guatemala as a province. Belize (bəˈliːz formerly British Honduras, is a country in Central America. The Serrano government reversed the economic slide it inherited, reducing inflation and boosting real growth.

On May 25, 1993, Serrano illegally dissolved Congress and the Supreme Court and tried to restrict civil freedoms, allegedly to fight corruption. Events 1085 - Alfonso VI of Castile takes Toledo Spain back from the Moors. Year 1993 ( MCMXCIII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1993 Gregorian calendar) The autogolpe (or autocoup) failed due to unified, strong protests by most elements of Guatemalan society, international pressure, and the army's enforcement of the decisions of the Court of Constitutionality, which ruled against the attempted takeover. A self-coup or autocoup is a form of Coup d'état that occurs when a country's leader dissolves or renders powerless the national Legislature and assumes extraordinary In the face of this pressure, Serrano fled the country.

On June 5, 1993, Congress, pursuant to the 1985 constitution, elected the Human Rights Ombudsman, Ramiro de León Carpio, to complete Serrano's presidential term. Events 70 - Titus and his Roman Legions breach the middle wall of Jerusalem in the Siege of Jerusalem Year 1993 ( MCMXCIII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1993 Gregorian calendar) Ramiro de León Carpio ( January 12, 1942 &ndash April 16, 2002) was the President of Guatemala from June 6 De León was not a member of any political party; lacking a political base but with strong popular support, he launched an ambitious anticorruption campaign to "purify" Congress and the Supreme Court, demanding the resignations of all members of the two bodies.

Despite considerable congressional resistance, presidential and popular pressure led to a November 1993 agreement brokered by the Catholic Church between the administration and Congress. This package of constitutional reforms was approved by popular referendum on January 30, 1994. Events 1648 - Eighty Years' War: The Treaty of Münster is signed ending the conflict between the Netherlands and Spain Year 1994 ( MCMXCIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1994 Gregorian calendar) In August 1994, a new Congress was elected to complete the unexpired term. Controlled by the anti-corruption parties — the populist Guatemalan Republican Front (FRG) headed by Ríos Montt, and the center-right National Advancement Party (PAN) — the new Congress began to move away from the corruption that characterized its predecessors. The Guatemalan Republican Front ( Frente Republicano Guatemalteco) is a Political party in Guatemala. The National Advancement Party (Partido de Avanzada Nacional is a Political party in Guatemala.

Under de León, the peace process, now brokered by the United Nations, took on new life. The government and the URNG signed agreements on human rights (March 1994), resettlement of displaced persons (June 1994), historical clarification (June 1994), and indigenous rights (March 1995). They also made significant progress on a socioeconomic and agrarian agreement.

National elections for president, Congress, and municipal offices were held in November 1995. With almost 20 parties competing in the first round, the presidential election came down to a January 7, 1996 runoff in which PAN candidate Álvaro Arzú Irigoyen defeated Alfonso Portillo Cabrera of the FRG by just over 2% of the vote. Events 1325 - Alfonso IV becomes King of Portugal. 1558 - France takes Calais, the last continental Year 1996 ( MCMXCVI) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display full 1996 Gregorian calendar) Álvaro Enrique Arzú Yrigoyen (Irigoyen? (born March 14 1946, in Guatemala City) was President of Guatemala from January 14 Alfonso Antonio Portillo Cabrera (born September 24 1951 in Zacapa) is a Guatemalan politician Arzú won because of his strength in Guatemala City, where he had previously served as mayor, and in the surrounding urban area. Portillo won all of the rural departments except Petén. Under the Arzú administration, peace negotiations were concluded, and the government signed peace accords ending the 36-year internal conflict in December 1996. (See section on peace process)

1996 Peace Accords to Present

The human rights situation remained difficult during Arzú's tenure, although some initial steps were taken to reduce the influence of the military in national affairs. The most notable human rights abuses of this period were the brutal slaying of Bishop Juan José Gerardi two days after he had publicly presented a major Catholic Church sponsored human rights report known as REMHI, and the disappearance of Efraín Bámaca Velásquez, also known as Comandante Everardo, who, it was later revealed, was tortured and assassinated in 1993 without trial by Guatemalan Army officers on the payroll of the CIA. Msgr. Juan José Gerardi Conedera ( 27 December 1922 – 26 April 1998) was a Guatemalan Roman Catholic

Guatemala held presidential, legislative, and municipal elections on November 7, 1999, and a runoff presidential election on December 26. Events 1492 - The Ensisheim Meteorite the oldest Meteorite with a known date of impact strikes the Earth around noon in a Wheat Year 1999 ( MCMXCIX) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1999 Gregorian calendar) Events 1481 - Battle of Westbrook - Holland defeats troops of Utrecht. In the first round the Guatemalan Republican Front (FRG) won 63 of 113 legislative seats, while the National Advancement Party (PAN) won 37. The Guatemalan Republican Front ( Frente Republicano Guatemalteco) is a Political party in Guatemala. The National Advancement Party (Partido de Avanzada Nacional is a Political party in Guatemala. The New Nation Alliance (ANN) won 9 legislative seats, and three minority parties won the remaining four. In the runoff on December 26, Alfonso Portillo (FRG) won 68% of the vote to 32% for Óscar Berger (PAN). Alfonso Antonio Portillo Cabrera (born September 24 1951 in Zacapa) is a Guatemalan politician Óscar José Rafael Berger Perdomo, born on 11 August 1946 in Guatemala City, is a former President of Guatemala. Portillo carried all 22 departments and Guatemala City, which was considered the PAN's stronghold.

Portillo was criticized during the campaign for his relationship with the FRG's chairman, former president Ríos Montt. Many charge that some of the worst human rights violations of the internal conflict were committed under Ríos Montt's rule. Nevertheless, Portillo's impressive electoral triumph, with two-thirds of the vote in the second round, gave him a claim to a mandate from the people to carry out his reform program.

President Portillo pledged to maintain strong ties to the United States, further enhance Guatemala's growing cooperation with Mexico, and participate actively in the integration process in Central America and the Western Hemisphere. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. Domestically, he vowed to support continued liberalization of the economy, increase investment in human capital and infrastructure, establish an independent central bank, and increase revenue by stricter enforcement of tax collections rather than increasing taxation. Portillo also promised to continue the peace process, appoint a civilian defense minister, reform the armed forces, replace the military presidential security service with a civilian one, and strengthen protection of human rights. He appointed a pluralist cabinet, including indigenous members and others not affiliated with the FRG ruling party.

Progress in carrying out Portillo's reform agenda during his first year in office was slow. As a result, public support for the government sank to nearly record lows by early 2001. Although the administration made progress on such issues as taking state responsibility for past human rights cases and supporting human rights in international fora, it failed to show significant advances on combating impunity in past human rights cases, military reforms, a fiscal pact to help finance peace implementation, and legislation to increase political participation.

Faced with a high crime rate, a public corruption problem, often violent harassment and intimidation by unknown assailants of human rights activists, judicial workers, journalists, and witnesses in human rights trials, the government began serious attempts in 2001 to open a national dialogue to discuss the considerable challenges facing the country.

In July 2003, the Jueves Negro demonstrations rocked the capital, forcing the closing of the US embassy and the UN mission, as supporters of Ríos Montt called for his return to power. Jueves negro ( English: "Black Thursday" refers to a violent series of political demonstrations that created havoc in Guatemala City on 24 His supporters demanded that the nation's courts overturn a ban against former coup leaders so that he could run as a presidential candidate in the 2003 elections. The supporters were given meals by FRG in return for protesting.

On November 9, 2003, Óscar Berger, a former mayor of Guatemala city, won the presidential election with 38. Events 694 - Egica, a king of the Visigoths of Hispania, accuses Jews of aiding Muslims sentencing all Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. Óscar José Rafael Berger Perdomo, born on 11 August 1946 in Guatemala City, is a former President of Guatemala. 8% of the vote. However, because he failed to achieve a fifty percent majority, he won a runoff election on December 28, defeating the center-left candidate Álvaro Colom. Events 1065 - Westminster Abbey is Consecrated. 1308 - The reign of Emperor Hanazono, Emperor of Ríos Montt trailed a distant third with just 11%.

In early October 2005, Guatemala was devastated by Hurricane Stan, a relatively weak storm that triggered a flooding disaster that left at least 1,500 people dead. Hurricane Stan was the eighteenth named

The 2007 presidential election was won by the centre-left Álvaro Colóm.

See also

• History of the west coast of North America

External links

• Guatemala: Memory of Silence - English summary report of the Historical Clarification Commission report
• Background Note: Guatemala - Information from the US State Department

Notes

References

• Cullather, Nick (1999). Secret History: The CIA's classified account of its operations in Guatemala, 1952-1954. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-3311-2.  , pg 106
• Eric Morier-Genoud, "Sant’ Egidio et la paix. Interviews de Don Matteo Zuppi & Ricardo Cannelli", LFM. Social sciences & missions, no. 13, Oct. 2003, pp. 119-145
• Matt Samson, "The Martyrdom of Manuel Saquic. Constructing Maya Protestantism in the face of war in contemporary Guatemala", LFM. Social sciences & missions, no. 13, Oct. 2003, pp. 41-74
• Malmström, Vincent H. The Origins of Civilization in Mesoamerica: A Geographic Perspective, Department of Geography, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755
• Historia General de Guatemala, 1999, several authors ISBN 84-88522-07-4.
• GREEN, DEE F. , AND GARETH W. LOWE (EDS. ) 1989 Olmec Diffusion: A Sculptural View from Pacific Guatemala. In Regional Perspectives on the Olmec (Robert J. Sharer and David C. Grove, eds. ): 227–246. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, Eng.

Further reading

• Paul J. Dosal, Doing Business with the Dictators: A Political History of United Fruit in Guatemala 1899-1944, Wilmington, De. , Scholarly Resources 1993
• Greg Grandin, The Last Colonial Massacre: Latin America in the Cold War, Chicago 2004
• Immerman, R. H. , The CIA in Guatemala: The Foreign Policy of Intervention, University of Texas Press: Austin, 1982.
• Walter LaFeber, Inevitable Revolutions: The United States in Central America. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1993.
• Piero Gleijeses, Shattered Hope: The Guatemalan Revolution and the United States, 1944-1954. Princeton University Press, 1991
• Victoria Sanford, Buried secrets : truth and human rights in Guatemala, New York [u. a. ] : Palgrave Macmillan, 2003
• Stephen Schlesinger, Stephen Kinzer, Bitter Fruit: The Untold Story of the American Coup in Guatemala, Garden City, NY : Doubleday, 1982
• Cullather, Nick (1999). Secret History: The CIA's classified account of its operations in Guatemala, 1952-1954. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-3311-2.  

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