History of Germany
Ancient times
Germanic peoples
Migration Period
Frankish Empire
Medieval times
East Francia
Kingdom of Germany
Holy Roman Empire
East Colonisation
Sectionalism
Building a nation
Confederation of the Rhine
German Confederation
German Revolutions of 1848
German Reichsflotte Navy
North German Confederation
Unification of Germany
The German Reich
German Empire
World War I
Weimar Republic
Nazi Germany
World War II
Post-war Germany since 1945
Occupation + Ostgebiete
Expulsion of Germans
FR Germany + GDR
German reunification
Present day Germany
Federal Republic of Germany
Topical
Military history of Germany
Territorial changes of Germany
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The History of Germany begins with the establishment of the nation from Ancient Roman times to the 8th century, and then continues into the Holy Roman Empire dating all the way from the 9th century until 1806. The Germanic peoples are a historical group of Indo-European -speaking peoples originating in Northern Europe and identified by their use of the Germanic The Migration Period, also called Barbarian Invasions, or sometimes Völkerwanderung ( German for "wandering of peoples" is the English name Francia or Frankia, later also called the Frankish Empire (imperium Francorum Frankish Kingdom (Latin regnum Francorum, "Kingdom of the East ( ern) Francia ( Regnum Francorum orientalium) known variously as Francia Orientalis or the Kingdom of the East Franks, was the The Kingdom of Germany grew out of East Francia in the tenth century The Holy Roman Empire ( HRE; German Heiliges Römisches Reich (HRR, Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium (SRI was a union of territories in This article covers the medieval eastward migrations of Germans de Kleinstaaterei is a German word mainly used for the political situation in Germany and neighbouring regions during the Holy Roman Empire. The Confederation of the Rhine or Rhine Confederation (Rheinbund États confédérés du Rhin officially and Confédération du Rhin in practice) lasted The German Confederation (Deutscher Bund was the association of Central European states created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to serve as the successor to " Germany " at the time of the Revolutions of 1848 had been a collection of 39 States loosely bound together in the German Confederation. The Reichsflotte (Imperial Fleet was the first all- German Navy. The North German Confederation (Norddeutscher Bund came into existence in August 1866 as a military alliance of 22 states of northern Germany with the Kingdom of The unification of Germany took place on January 18, 1871, when Prussian Chief Minister Otto von Bismarck managed to unify a number of independent Deutsches Reich was the name for Germany from 1871 to 1945 in the German language. The German Empire is the name commonly used in English to describe Germany from 1871 to 1918 when it was a semi- Constitutional monarchy: beginning with the Unification During World War I, the German Empire was one of the Central Powers that ultimately lost the war The term Weimar Republic ( ˈvaɪmarɐ repuˈbliːk is used by historians to signify the democratic and Republican period of Germany from 1919 to 1933 Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers The history of Germany during World War II closely parallels that of Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler. As a consequence of Germany 's defeat in World War II and the onset of the Cold War, the country was split between the two global blocs in the East and West The Allied powers who defeated Nazi Germany in World War II divided the country west of the Oder-Neisse line into four occupation zones for administrative The former eastern territories of Germany (ehemalige deutsche Ostgebiete describes collectively those Provinces or Regions east of the current eastern The expulsion of Germans after World War II was the Forced migration and Ethnic cleansing of German nationals ( Reichsdeutsche) and ethnic West Germany ( Inf German: Westdeutschland or West-Deutschland) was the common English name for the Federal Republic of Germany ( The German Democratic Republic ( GDR; Deutsche Demokratische Republik DDR; commonly known in English as East Germany) was a Socialist state German reunification (Deutsche Wiedervereinigung took place twice after 1945 first in 1957 the Saarland was permitted to join the Federal Republic of Germany Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. While German -speaking peoples have a long history Germany as a Nation-state dates only from 1871. Background German settlement in Eastern Europe See also History of German settlement in Eastern Europe Part of the motivation behind the territorial This is a timeline of German history. To read about the background to these events see History of Germany. High German Old High German See also Old High German The earliest testimonies of Old High German are from scattered Elder Futhark The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial The Holy Roman Empire ( HRE; German Heiliges Römisches Reich (HRR, Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium (SRI was a union of territories in At its largest, the territory of this empire included what today is Germany, Austria, Slovenia, the Czech Republic, western Poland, the Low Countries, eastern France, Switzerland and most of northern Italy. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich Slovenia, officially the Republic of Slovenia (Republika Slovenija) is a Country in southern Central Europe bordering Italy to the west The Czech Republic ( ˈt͡ʃɛskaː ˈrɛpuˌblɪka short form in Česko ˈt͡ʃɛskɔ also called Czechia, Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland The Low Countries, the historical region of de Nederlanden, are the countries on low-lying land around the delta of the Rhine, Scheldt This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest After the mid 16th century, when it had lost many former territories, it was known as the "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation". The Holy Roman Empire ( HRE; German Heiliges Römisches Reich (HRR, Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium (SRI was a union of territories in

This was followed by the German Confederation of 1815–1866, the German Empire of 1871–1918, and the Weimar Republic of 1919–1933. The German Confederation (Deutscher Bund was the association of Central European states created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to serve as the successor to Year 1815 ( MDCCCXV) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Year 1866 ( MDCCCLXVI) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The German Empire is the name commonly used in English to describe Germany from 1871 to 1918 when it was a semi- Constitutional monarchy: beginning with the Unification Year 1871 ( MDCCCLXXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The term Weimar Republic ( ˈvaɪmarɐ repuˈbliːk is used by historians to signify the democratic and Republican period of Germany from 1919 to 1933 Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Year 1933 ( MCMXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Then came Adolf Hitler's German Reich also known as Nazi Germany or Third Reich of 1933–1945 and the devastations of World War II. Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently vandalized and vandalism is reverted immediately Deutsches Reich was the name for Germany from 1871 to 1945 in the German language. Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers Year 1933 ( MCMXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Year 1945 ( MCMXLV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including The article concludes with the history of the post-war Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) and the history of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) from 1945 to 1990. The effects of World War II had far-reaching implications for the international community Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. West Germany ( Inf German: Westdeutschland or West-Deutschland) was the common English name for the Federal Republic of Germany ( The German Democratic Republic ( GDR; Deutsche Demokratische Republik DDR; commonly known in English as East Germany) was a Socialist state Year 1990 ( MCMXC) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1990 Gregorian calendar)

Contents 1 Germanic tribes (100 BC to 300 AD) 2 The Franks 2.1 Frankish Empire 3 Middle Ages 4 Early modern Germany 4.1 Reformation and Thirty Years War 4.2 End of the Holy Roman Empire 5 German Confederation 5.1 Restoration and Revolution 6 North German Federation 7 German Empire 7.1 Age of Bismarck 7.2 Wilhelminian Era 8 Weimar Republic 9 German Reich 9.1 Nazi revolution or 'Seizure of Power' 9.2 Expansion and defeat 10 Germany since 1945 10.1 Reunification 10.2 Role in the European Union 11 Historiography 12 See also 13 References 14 External links

Germanic tribes (100 BC to 300 AD)

Main articles: Germanic peoples and Germania

The ethnogenesis of the Germanic tribes is assumed to have occurred during the Nordic Bronze Age, or at the latest, during the Pre-Roman Iron Age. The Germanic peoples are a historical group of Indo-European -speaking peoples originating in Northern Europe and identified by their use of the Germanic Germania was the Latin Exonym for Ethnogenesis (From Greek: ethnos ( group of people nation and genesis ( a coming into being is the process by which a group of human beings comes The Germanic peoples are a historical group of Indo-European -speaking peoples originating in Northern Europe and identified by their use of the Germanic The Nordic Bronze Age (also Northern Bronze Age) is the name given by Oscar Montelius to a period and a Bronze Age culture in Scandinavian The Pre-Roman Iron Age of Northern Europe ( 5th / 4th century BC - 1st century BC) designates the earliest part of the Iron Age in Scandinavia From southern Scandinavia and northern Germany, the tribes began expanding south, east and west in the 1st century BC, coming into contact with the Celtic tribes of Gaul as well as Iranian, Baltic, and Slavic tribes in Eastern Europe. Terminology and usage As a cultural term "Scandinavia" has no official definition and is subject to usage by those who identify with the culture in question as well Celts (ˈkɛlts or /ˈsɛlts/, see Names of the Celts Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western The Iranian people are a collection of Ethnic groups defined along linguistic lines as speaking Iranian languages. The Balts or Baltic peoples (People who live by the Baltic Sea) defined as speakers of one of the Baltic languages, a branch of the Indo-European Eastern Europe is a general term that refers to the Geopolitical region encompassing the easternmost part of the European continent. Little is known about early Germanic history, except through their recorded interactions with the Roman Empire, etymological research, and archaeological finds. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial ^[1]

Under Augustus, the Roman General Publius Quinctilius Varus began to invade Germania (a term used by the Romans running roughly from the Rhine to the Urals), and it was in this period that the Germanic tribes became familiar with Roman tactics of warfare while maintaining their tribal identity. Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was The Rhine (Rhein Rijn Rhin Reno Rain Rhenus is one of the longest and most important Rivers in Europe at 1320 kilometres (820 mi with an average discharge In AD 9, three Roman legions led by Varus were defeated by the Cheruscan leader Arminius in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. For other uses see Legion The Roman Legion (from Latin legio "military levy Conscription," The Cherusci (Cherusker were a Germanic tribe that inhabited parts of the northern Rhine valley and the plains and forests of northwestern Germany, in Arminius, also known as Armin or Hermann (18 BC/17 BC - AD 21) was a chieftain of the Cherusci who defeated a Roman army in the The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest took place in the year 9 A Modern Germany, as far as the Rhine and the Danube, thus remained outside the Roman Empire. The Rhine (Rhein Rijn Rhin Reno Rain Rhenus is one of the longest and most important Rivers in Europe at 1320 kilometres (820 mi with an average discharge The Danube (In Donau from earlier Danuvius, Celtic *dānu, meaning "to flow run" Slovak and Polish Dunaj By AD 100, the time of Tacitus' Germania, Germanic tribes settled along the Rhine and the Danube (the Limes Germanicus), occupying most of the area of modern Germany. Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus (ca 56 &ndash ca 117 was a senator and a Historian of the Roman Empire. The Germania ( Latin title De Origine et situ Germanorum, English for the Origin and Situation of the Germans) written by Gaius The Limes Germanicus ( Latin for Germanic frontier) was a remarkable line of frontier ( Limes) forts that bounded the ancient Roman The 3rd century saw the emergence of a number of large West Germanic tribes: Alamanni, Franks, Chatti, Saxons, Frisians, Sicambri, and Thuringii. The Alamanni, Allemanni, or Alemanni were originally an alliance of Germanic tribes located around the upper Main river ( Germany The Franks or Frankish people (Franci or gens Francorum) were West Germanic tribes first identified in the 3rd century as an Ethnic group The Chatti (also Chatthi or Catti) were an ancient Germanic tribe whose homeland was near the upper Weser. The Saxons or Saxon people were a Confederation of Old Germanic tribes. The Frisians are an ethnic group of Germanic people living in coastal parts of The Netherlands and Germany. The Sicambri (var Sicambers Sicambres Sigambrer Sugumbrer or Sugambri) were a Germanic people living in what is now called the Netherlands The Thuringii or Toringi were a Germanic tribe which appeared late during the Völkerwanderung in the Harz Mountains of central Around 260, the Germanic peoples broke through the Limes and the Danube frontier into Roman-controlled lands. ^[2]

See also: List of meanings of countries' names

The Franks

The Merovingian kings of the Germanic Franks conquered northern Gaul in 486 CE. This list covers English language country names with their etymologies. For the processor see Intel 80486. Events By Place Europe Roman rule in Gaul ends with the defeat at Soissons In the fifth and sixth century the Merovingian kings conquered several other Germanic tribes and kingdoms and placed them under the control of autonomous dukes of mixed Frankish and native blood. Frankish Colonists were encouraged to move to the newly conquered territories. While the local Germanic tribes were allowed to preserve their laws, they were pressured into changing their religion.

Frankish Empire

Main article: Frankish Empire

After the fall of the Western Roman empire the Franks created an empire under the Merovingian kings and subjugated the other Germanic tribes. Francia or Frankia, later also called the Frankish Empire (imperium Francorum Frankish Kingdom (Latin regnum Francorum, "Kingdom of the The Merovingians (also Merovings) were a Salian Frankish dynasty that came to rule the Franks in a region (known as Francia in Latin Swabia became a duchy under the Frankish Empire in 496, following the Battle of Tolbiac. Swabia, Suabia, or Svebia ( German: Schwaben, Schwabenland or Ländle) is both a historic and linguistic Francia or Frankia, later also called the Frankish Empire (imperium Francorum Frankish Kingdom (Latin regnum Francorum, "Kingdom of the Events By Place Europe Battle of Tolbiac: Clovis I defeats the Alamanni, and is baptized into the Catholic The Battle of Tolbiac was fought between the Franks under Clovis I and the Alamanni, traditionally set in 496. Already king Chlothar I ruled the greater part of what is now Germany and made expeditions into Saxony while the Southeast of modern Germany was still under influence of the Ostrogoths. Chlothar I (or Chlothachar, Chlotar, Clothar, Clotaire, Chlotochar, or Hlothar, giving rise to Lothair; 497 The mediæval Duchy of Saxony was a late Early Middle Ages "Carolingian Stem duchy " covering the greater part of Northern Germany. The Ostrogoths (Ostrogothi or Austrogothi were a branch of the Goths, an East Germanic tribe that played a major role in the political events of the late In 531 Saxons and Franks destroyed the Kingdom of Thuringia. Events By Place Byzantine Empire April 19 — Belisarius is defeated at the Battle of Callinicum; Mundus The Free State of Thuringia (Freistaat Thüringen is located in central Germany. Saxons inhabit the area down to the Unstrut river. The Unstrut is a River in Germany, left tributary of the Saale. During the partition of the Frankish empire their German territories were a part of Austrasia. Austrasia (rarely Austria, both meaning "eastern land" formed the north-eastern portion of the Kingdom of the Merovingian Franks, comprising In 718 the Franconian Mayor of the Palace Charles Martel marked war against Saxony, because of its help for the Neustrians. For the area code see Area code 718 Events By Place Europe Tervel 's reign as monarch of Mayor of the Palace was an early medieval Title and Office, also called Majordomo, from the Latin title Maior domus ("superior Charles "The Hammer" Martel (Carolus Martellus Charles "the Hammer" (ca The territory of Neustria or Neustrasia, meaning "new land" originated in 511 made up of the regions from Aquitaine to the English Channel, The Franconian Carloman started in 743 a new war against Saxony, because the Saxons gave aid to Duke Odilo of Bavaria. Carloman (between 706 and 716 &ndash 17 August 754 was the eldest son of Charles Martel, Major domo or Mayor of the palace and duke Events By Place Europe After an Interregnum of seven years Childeric III re-succeeds to the throne of the Frankish Empire Odilo (d 18 January 748) a son of Gotfrid of the house of Agilolfing, ruled Bavaria from 736 until his death in 748 succeeding Duke In 751 Pippin III, mayor of the palace under the Merovingian king, himself assumed the title of king and was anointed by the Church. Pepin or Pippin (714 &ndash 24 September 768) called the Short, and often known as Pepin the Younger or Pepin III, was Mayor of the Palace was an early medieval Title and Office, also called Majordomo, from the Latin title Maior domus ("superior The Frankish kings now set up as protectors of the Pope, Charlemagne launched a decades-long military campaign against their heathen rivals, the Saxons and the Avars. History See also History of the Papacy Catholics recognize the Pope as a successor to Saint Peter, who Jesus named as the "shepherd" and Charlemagne (ˈʃɑrlɨmeɪn Carolus Magnus or Karolus Magnus meaning Charles the Great) (747 – 28 January 814 was King of the Franks from 768 to his Paganism (from Latin paganus, meaning "country dweller rustic" is a word used to refer to various religions and religious beliefs from across the world The Saxons or Saxon people were a Confederation of Old Germanic tribes. The Caucasian Avars are a modern people of Caucasus, mainly of Dagestan. The Saxons (by the Saxon Wars (772-804)) and Avars were eventually overwhelmed and forcibly converted, and their lands were annexed by the Carolingian Empire. The Saxon Wars were the campaigns and insurrections of the more than thirty years from 772, when Charlemagne first entered Saxony with the intent to conquer Events By Place Europe Charlemagne starts fighting the Saxons and the Frisians; Saxony is subdued and converted This article is about the year AD 804 For other uses of the term see 804 (disambiguation. Carolingian Empire is a historiographical term sometimes used to refer to the realm of the Franks under the Carolingian dynasty.

Middle Ages

Main article: Holy Roman Empire

From 772 to 814 king Charlemagne extended the Carolingian empire into northern Italy and the territories of all west Germanic peoples, including the Saxons and the Bajuwari (Bavarians). Mainz (ˈmaɪ̯nʦ (Mayence is a City in Germany and the capital of the German federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate. Trier (Trèves Luxembourgish: Tréier; Augusta Treverorum is a City in Germany on the banks of the Moselle River. The Free State of Saxony (Freistaat Sachsen ˈzaksən Swobodny Stat Sakska is the easternmost federal state of Germany. Brandenburg ( Lower Sorbian: Bramborska; Upper Sorbian: Braniborska) is one of the sixteen states of Germany. Bohemia (Čechy; Bohemia Czechy is a historical region in central Europe, occupying the western two-thirds of the traditional Czech Lands, currently the Charlemagne (ˈʃɑrlɨmeɪn Carolus Magnus or Karolus Magnus meaning Charles the Great) (747 – 28 January 814 was King of the Franks from 768 to his In 800 Charlemagne's authority in Western Europe was confirmed by his coronation as emperor in Rome. Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 The Frankish empire was divided into counties, and its frontiers were protected by border Marches. Imperial strongholds (Kaiserpfalzen) became economic and cultural centres (Aachen being the most famous). ( Ripuarian: Oche, Dutch: Aken, Spanish: Aquisgrán, Italian: Aquisgrana, French,

Between 843 and 880, after fighting between Charlemagne's grandchildren, the Carolingian empire was partitioned into several parts in the Treaty of Verdun, the Treaty of Meerssen and the Treaty of Ribemont. In the Treaty of Verdun of 843 the three surviving sons of Louis the Pious, Charlemagne 's grandsons divided his territories the Carolingian The Treaty of Meerssen or Mersen in 870 was an agreement of the division of the Carolingian Empire by the surviving sons of Louis I, Charles The German empire developed out of the East Frankish kingdom, East Francia. The German Empire is the name commonly used in English to describe Germany from 1871 to 1918 when it was a semi- Constitutional monarchy: beginning with the Unification East ( ern) Francia ( Regnum Francorum orientalium) known variously as Francia Orientalis or the Kingdom of the East Franks, was the From 919 to 936 the Germanic peoples (Franks, Saxons, Swabians and Bavarians) were united under Duke Henry of Saxony, who took the title of king. The Franks or Frankish people (Franci or gens Francorum) were West Germanic tribes first identified in the 3rd century as an Ethnic group The Saxons or Saxon people were a Confederation of Old Germanic tribes. Swabia, Suabia, or Svebia ( German: Schwaben, Schwabenland or Ländle) is both a historic and linguistic The Bavarians are a German people from Bavaria, Germany. They are the inheritors of the Bavarii, which occupied modern-day Bavaria and its surroundings For the first time, the term Kingdom (Empire) of the Germans ("Regnum Teutonicorum") was applied to a Frankish kingdom, even though Teutonicorum at its founding originally meant something closer to "Realm of the Germanic peoples" or "Germanic Realm" than realm of the Germans. East ( ern) Francia ( Regnum Francorum orientalium) known variously as Francia Orientalis or the Kingdom of the East Franks, was the

In 936 Otto I the Great was crowned at Aachen. Otto I the Great ( 23 November 912 &ndash 7 May 973) son of Henry I the Fowler and Matilda of Ringelheim, was Duke ( Ripuarian: Oche, Dutch: Aken, Spanish: Aquisgrán, Italian: Aquisgrana, French, He strengthened the royal authority by appointing bishops and abbots as princes of the Empire (Reichsfürsten), thereby establishing a national church. The word abbot, meaning Father, is a title given to the head of a Monastery in various traditions including Christianity. The Holy Roman Empire comprised a number of political entities which were deemed to be sovereign after the Treaty of Westphalia ( 1648) In 951 Otto the Great married the widowed Queen Adelheid, thereby winning the Lombard crown. Saint Adelaide of Italy, also called Adelaide of Burgundy (931/932 &ndash 16 December 999) was perhaps the most prominent European woman of the 10th The Lombards ( Latin Langobardi, whence the alternative names Langobards and Longobards) were a Germanic people originally from Outside threats to the kingdom were contained with the decisive defeat of the Magyars of Hungary near Augsburg at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955 and the subjugation of Slavs between the Elbe and the Oder rivers. Hungarians (or Magyars, magyarok are an Ethnic group primarily associated with Hungary. Hungary (Magyarország 'mɔɟɔrorsaːg) officially in English the Republic of Hungary ( Magyar Köztársaság, literally Magyar (Hungarian Republic Augsburg is an independent City in the south-west of Bavaria. The Battle of Lechfeld ( 10 August 955) perhaps the defining event for holding off the incursions of the Magyars into Central Europe, was a decisive The Elbe ( die Elbe Low German: de Ilv) is one of the major Rivers of Central Europe. The Oder (known in Czech and Polish as Odra) is a River in Central Europe. In 962 Otto I was crowned emperor in Rome, taking the succession of Charlemagne and establishing a strong Frankish influence over the Papacy.

In 1033 the Kingdom of Burgundy was incorporated into the Holy Roman Empire during the reign of Conrad II, the first emperor of the Salian dynasty. Burgundy (Bourgogne Burgund is a region historically situated in modern-day France and Switzerland, inhabited in turn by Celts ( Gauls) The Holy Roman Empire ( HRE; German Heiliges Römisches Reich (HRR, Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium (SRI was a union of territories in Conrad II (c 990&ndash June 4, 1039) was the son of a mid-level nobleman in Franconia, Count Henry of Speyer and Adelaide of Alsace who inherited See also Salian Franks, Salic law The Salian dynasty was a Dynasty in the High Middle Ages of four German Kings (1024-1125

During the reign of his son Henry III the Holy Roman Empire supported the Cluniac reform of the Church - the Peace of God, the prohibition of simony (the purchase of clerical offices) and the celibacy of priests. Henry III ( 29 October 1017 &ndash 5 October 1056) called the Black or the Pious, was a member of the Salian Dynasty The Cluniac (Clunian Reform was a series of changes within medieval monasticism, focused on restoring the traditional Monastic life encouraging art and caring for The Peace and Truce of God was a Medieval European movement of the Catholic Church that applied spiritual sanctions in order to limit the violence of Private war Simony is the Ecclesiastical crime of paying for Holy offices or positions in the hierarchy of a church named after Simon Magus, who appears in the Imperial authority over the Pope reached its peak. An imperial stronghold (Pfalz) was built at Goslar, as the Empire continued its expansion to the East. A county palatine is an area ruled by a Count palatine (or Earl palatine who may hold the higher title of Duke) with special authority and autonomy Goslar is a historic Town in Lower Saxony, Germany. It is the administrative centre of the district of Goslar and located on the northwestern

In the Investiture Dispute which began between Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII over appointments to ecclesiastical offices, the emperor was compelled to submit to the Pope at Canossa in 1077, after having been excommunicated. The Investiture Controversy or Investiture Contest was an 11th century dispute between Henry IV Holy Roman Emperor and Pope Gregory VII over Henry IV ( November 11, 1050 &ndash August 7, 1106) was King of Germany from 1056 and Holy Roman Emperor from 1084 until Pope Canossa ( Province of Reggio Emilia) is a Comune and castle town in Emilia-Romagna, famous as the site where Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV did penance In 1122 a temporary reconciliation was reached between Henry V and the Pope with the Concordat of Worms. Henry V ( 8 November 1086 &ndash 23 May 1125) was King of Germany (from 1098-1125) and Holy Roman Emperor The Concordat of Worms, sometimes called the Pactum Calixtinum by papal historians was an agreement between Pope Calixtus II and Holy Roman Emperor Henry V The consequences of the investiture dispute were a weakening of the Ottonian National Church Reichskirche, and a strengthening of the Imperial secular princes. Otto I the Great ( 23 November 912 &ndash 7 May 973) son of Henry I the Fowler and Matilda of Ringelheim, was Duke

The time between 1096 and 1291 was the age of the crusades. The Teutonic Order is a German Roman Catholic religious order. Malbork (Marienburg in Westpreußen Civitas Beatae Virginis is a Town in northern Poland in the Żuławy region with 41000 inhabitants (2001 The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents Knightly religious orders were established, including the Templars, the Knights of St John and the Teutonic Order. The Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon (Pauperes commilitones Christi Templique Solomonici commonly known as the Knights Templar or the Order The Knights Hospitaller (also known as the Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of St The Teutonic Order is a German Roman Catholic religious order.

From 1100, new towns were founded around imperial strongholds, castles, bishops' palaces and monasteries. The towns began to establish municipal rights and liberties (see German town law), while the rural population remained in a state of serfdom. German town law (Deutsches Stadtrecht or German municipal concerns ( Deutsches Städtewesen) concerns Town privileges used by many cities towns and villages In particular, several cities became Imperial Free Cities, which did not depend on princes or bishops, but were immediately subject to the Emperor. In the Holy Roman Empire, a free imperial city (in German: freie Reichsstadt) was a City formally ruled by the Emperor only &mdash The towns were ruled by patricians (merchants carrying on long-distance trade). The craftsmen formed guilds, governed by strict rules, which sought to obtain control of the towns. Trade with the East and North intensified, as the major trading towns came together in the Hanseatic League, under the leadership of Lübeck. The Hanseatic League (also known as the Hansa) was an alliance of trading cities and their Guilds that established and maintained trade Lübeck ( is the second largest City in Schleswig-Holstein, in Northern Germany, and one of the major

The German colonization and the chartering of new towns and villages began into largely Slav-inhabited territories east of the Elbe, such as Bohemia, Silesia, Pomerania, and Livonia (see also Ostsiedlung). The Elbe ( die Elbe Low German: de Ilv) is one of the major Rivers of Central Europe. Bohemia (Čechy; Bohemia Czechy is a historical region in central Europe, occupying the western two-thirds of the traditional Czech Lands, currently the Etymology One theory claims that the name Silesia is derived from the Silingi, who were most likely a Vandalic (East Germanic people Livonia (Līvõmō Latvian and Livonija Estonian: Liivimaa; Finnish: Liivinmaa; German and Swedish: Livland This article covers the medieval eastward migrations of Germans

Between 1152 and 1190, during the reign of Frederick I (Barbarossa), of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, an accommodation was reached with the rival Guelph party by the grant of the duchy of Bavaria to Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony. Frederick I Barbarossa (1122 &ndash 10 June 1190) was elected King of Germany at Frankfurt on 4 March 1152 and crowned See also Elder House of Welf The House of Welf (or House of Guelph) is a European Dynasty that has included many German and British Bavaria ( German:, with an area of 70553 Km² (27241 square miles and almost 12 Henry the Lion ( German: Heinrich der Löwe; 1129 &ndash 6 August 1195) was a member of the Guelph dynasty and Duke of Saxony Lower Saxony ( German: Niedersachsen ch is pronounced before an s --> lies in north-western Germany and is second Austria became a separate duchy by virtue of the Privilegium Minus in 1156. Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich The Privilegium Minus (as opposed to the later Privilegium Maius, which was a forgery is a document issued by Emperor Frederick I on September 17, Barbarossa tried to reassert his control over Italy. In 1177 a final reconciliation was reached between the emperor and the Pope in Venice. Venice ( Italian: Venezia, Venetian: Venesia or Venexia) is a city in Northern Italy, the capital of the

In 1180 Henry the Lion was outlawed and Bavaria was given to Otto of Wittelsbach (founder of the Wittelsbach dynasty which was to rule Bavaria until 1918), while Saxony was divided. Not to be confused with Duke Otto I 976-982 Duke of Bavaria (as Otto I The Wittelsbach family is a European Royal family and a German dynasty from Bavaria.

From 1184 to 1186 the Hohenstaufen empire under Barbarossa reached its peak in the Reichsfest (imperial celebrations) held at Mainz and the marriage of his son Henry in Milan to the Norman princess Constance of Sicily. Mainz (ˈmaɪ̯nʦ (Mayence is a City in Germany and the capital of the German federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate. Henry VI (November 1165 – 28 September 1197) was King of Germany from 1190 to 1197 Holy Roman Emperor from 1191 to 1197 and King Milan (Milano Milan (listen) is one of the largest cities in Italy, located in the plains of Lombardy. Constance of Sicily (1154 &ndash November 27, 1198) was the heiress of the Norman kings of Sicily and the wife of Henry VI Holy Roman Emperor The power of the feudal lords was undermined by the appointment of "ministerials" (unfree servants of the Emperor) as officials. Chivalry and the court life flowered, leading to a development of German culture and literature (see Wolfram von Eschenbach).

Between 1212 and 1250 Frederick II established a modern, professionally administered state in Sicily. Frederick II ( December 26, 1194 &ndash December 13, 1250) of the Hohenstaufen dynasty was a Pretender to the title Sicily ( Italian and Sicilian: Sicilia) is an autonomous region of Italy. He resumed the conquest of Italy, leading to further conflict with the Papacy. In the Empire, extensive sovereign powers were granted to ecclesiastical and secular princes, leading to the rise of independent territorial states. The struggle with the Pope sapped the Empire's strength, as Frederick II was excommunicated three times. After his death, the Hohenstaufen dynasty fell, followed by an interregnum during which there was no Emperor.

Beginning in 1226 under the auspices of Emperor Frederick II, the Teutonic Knights began their conquest of Prussia after being invited to Chełmno Land by the Polish Duke Konrad I of Masovia. The Teutonic Order is a German Roman Catholic religious order. Prussia ( Latin: Borussia, Prutenia; Prūsija Prūsija Prusy Old Prussian: Prūsa) was most recently a historic state Attempted conquests of Prussia Konrad unsuccessfully attempted to conquer pagan Prussia in a 1209 crusade and several times after, 1219 1222 Pg 45 Masovia or Mazovia (Mazowsze is a geographic and historic region situated in eastern Poland 's Masovian Plain. The native Baltic Prussians were conquered and Christianized by the Knights with much warfare, and numerous German towns were established along the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea. "Prussians" redirects here "Prussians" may also refer to citizens of the former German state of Prussia. The Baltic Sea is a Brackish inland sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N Latitude and from 20°E to 26°E Longitude. From 1300, however, the Empire started to lose territory on all its frontiers.

The failure of negotiations between Emperor Louis IV with the papacy led in 1338 to the declaration at Rhense by six electors to the effect that election by all or the majority of the electors automatically conferred the royal title and rule over the empire, without papal confirmation. Louis IV ( 1 April[[ 282]] &ndash 11 October 1347) called the Bavarian, of the house of Wittelsbach, was the Duke of Bavaria The Declaration of Rhense (or the Treaty of Rhense) was a decree issued on July 16, 1338 and initiated by the Archbishop of Trier, Baldwin The Prince-Electors (or simply Electors) of the Holy Roman Empire ( German: Kurfürst ( pl

Between 1346 and 1378 Emperor Charles IV of Luxembourg, king of Bohemia, sought to restore the imperial authority. Charles IV ( Czech: Karel IV, German: Karl IV, Hungarian: IV Károly; 14 May 1316 &ndash Luxembourg (Groussherzogtum Lëtzebuerg Grand-Duché de Luxembourg Großherzogtum Luxemburg is a small Landlocked country in Western Europe, bordered by Bohemia (Čechy; Bohemia Czechy is a historical region in central Europe, occupying the western two-thirds of the traditional Czech Lands, currently the

Around 1350 Germany and almost the whole of Europe were ravaged by the Black Death. Hans Holbein is the name of two German Renaissance painters Hans Holbein the Elder ( 1460 - 1524) father The Black Death, or the Black Plague, was one of the deadliest Pandemics in human history widely thought to have been caused by a bacterium named Yersinia Jews were persecuted on religious and economic grounds; many fled to Poland. PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland

The Golden Bull of 1356 stipulated that in future the emperor was to be chosen by four secular electors (the King of Bohemia, the Count Palatine of the Rhine, the Duke of Saxony, and the Margrave of Brandenburg) and three spiritual electors (the Archbishops of Mainz, Trier, and Cologne). The Golden Bull of 1356 was a decree issued by a Reichstag in Nuremberg headed by Emperor Charles IV Holy Roman Emperor (see Diet Bohemia (Čechy; Bohemia Czechy is a historical region in central Europe, occupying the western two-thirds of the traditional Czech Lands, currently the This article gives details on the history of the Count Palatine in Mediaeval European Palatinate regions and social structure The Free State of Saxony (Freistaat Sachsen ˈzaksən Swobodny Stat Sakska is the easternmost federal state of Germany. Brandenburg ( Lower Sorbian: Bramborska; Upper Sorbian: Braniborska) is one of the sixteen states of Germany. Mainz (ˈmaɪ̯nʦ (Mayence is a City in Germany and the capital of the German federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate. Trier (Trèves Luxembourgish: Tréier; Augusta Treverorum is a City in Germany on the banks of the Moselle River.

After the disasters of the 14th century, early-modern European society gradually came into being as a result of economic, religious and political changes. A money economy arose which provoked social discontent among knights and peasants. Gradually, a proto-capitalistic system evolved out of feudalism. The Fugger family gained prominence through commercial and financial activities and became financiers to both ecclesiastical and secular rulers. The Fugger (ˈfʊgɐ family was a historically prominent group of European Bankers members of the fifteenth and Sixteenth-century mercantile

The knightly classes found their monopoly on arms and military skill undermined by the introduction of mercenary armies and foot soldiers. Predatory activity by "robber knights" became common. From 1438 the Habsburgs, who controlled most of the southeast of the Empire (more or less modern-day Austria and Slovenia, and Bohemia and Moravia after the death of King Louis II in 1526), maintained a constant grip on the position of the Holy Roman Emperor until 1806 (with the exception of the years between 1742 and 1745). Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich Slovenia, officially the Republic of Slovenia (Republika Slovenija) is a Country in southern Central Europe bordering Italy to the west Bohemia (Čechy; Bohemia Czechy is a historical region in central Europe, occupying the western two-thirds of the traditional Czech Lands, currently the Moravia (Morava; Morawy Moravie Moravia is a historical region in central Europe in the east of the Czech Republic, one of the former Czech lands. This situation, however, gave rise to increased disunity among the Holy Roman Empires territorial rulers and prevented sections of the country from coming together and forming nations in the manner of France and England. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland

During his reign from 1493 to 1519, Maximilian I tried to reform the Empire: an Imperial Supreme Court (Reichskammergericht) was established, imperial taxes were levied, the power of the Imperial Diet (Reichstag) was increased. The reforms were, however, frustrated by the continued territorial fragmentation of the Empire.

Early modern Germany

see List of states in the Holy Roman Empire for subdivisions and the political structure

Reformation and Thirty Years War

"The Holy Roman Empire, 1512.

Martin Luther, German reformer, 1529

Around the beginning of the 16th century there was much discontent in the Holy Roman Empire with abuses in the Catholic Church and a desire for reform. Martin Luther (November 10 1483 February 18 1546 was a German Monk, theologian, university professor Father of Protestantism, and church reformer

In 1517 the Reformation began: Martin Luther nailed his 95 theses to the church door in Wittenberg. The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time Martin Luther (November 10 1483 February 18 1546 was a German Monk, theologian, university professor Father of Protestantism, and church reformer The Ninety-Five Theses on the Power of Indulgences, commonly known as The Ninety-Five Theses, were written by Martin Luther in 1517 Wittenberg, officially Lutherstadt Wittenberg, is a Town in Germany in the Bundesland Saxony-Anhalt, on the Elbe These were the 95 things that he deemed unacceptable about the way that the Catholic church was run at that time.

In 1520 Luther was outlawed at the Diet of Worms. The Diet of Worms (Reichstag zu Worms was a general assembly of the estates of the Holy Roman Emperor that took place in Worms, a small town But the Reformation spread rapidly, helped by the Emperor Charles V's wars with France and the Turks. Charles V (24 February 1500 &ndash 21 September 1558 was This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish Hiding in the Wartburg Castle, Luther translated the Bible, establishing the basis of modern German. For other uses of Wartburg see Wartburg (disambiguation The Wartburg is a castle situated on a 1230-foot (410 m precipice to the

In 1524 the Peasants' War broke out in Swabia, Franconia and Thuringia against ruling princes and lords, following the preachings of Reformist priests. For other conflicts referred to as peasant wars or revolts see Peasant revolt (disambiguation. Swabia, Suabia, or Svebia ( German: Schwaben, Schwabenland or Ländle) is both a historic and linguistic Franconia (Franken is a historic region of Germany comprising the northern parts of the modern state of Bavaria and the area to its immediate west The Free State of Thuringia (Freistaat Thüringen is located in central Germany. But the revolts, which were assisted by war-experienced noblemen like Götz von Berlichingen and Florian Geyer (in Franconia), and by the theologian Thomas Münzer (in Thuringia), were soon repressed by the territorial princes. Götz von Berlichingen (c 1480 &ndash 23 July 1562; unabbreviated form Gottfried von Berlichingen) was a German Knight ( Florian Geyer (born around 1490 in Giebelstadt / Ochsenfurt &ndash 10 June 1525 in Gramschatz Forest near Würzburg Thomas Müntzer (ca 1488 – 27 May 1525 was an early Reformation-era German theologian and Anabaptist

From 1545 the Counter-Reformation began in Germany. The Counter-Reformation (also Catholic Reformation denotes the period of Catholic revival from the pontificate of Pope Pius IV in 1560 to the close of the The main force was provided by the Jesuit order, founded by the Spaniard Ignatius of Loyola. The Society of Jesus ( Latin: Societas Iesu, SJ and SI or SJ, SI) is a Catholic religious order Saint Ignatius redirects here for other Saints see Ignatius. Ignatius of Loyola, also known as Íñigo Oñaz López de Loyola Central and north-eastern Germany were by this time almost wholly Protestant, whereas western and southern Germany remained predominantly Catholic. In 1546, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V defeated the Schmalkaldic League, an alliance of Protestant rulers. The Schmalkaldic League (Schmalkaldischer Bund was a defensive alliance of Lutheran princes within the Holy Roman Empire during the mid- 16th

The Peace of Augsburg in 1555 brought recognition of the Lutheran faith. The Peace of Augsburg was a treaty between Ferdinand I, who replaced his brother Charles V as Holy Roman Emperor, and the forces of the Schmalkaldic But the treaty also stipulated that the religion of a state was to be that of its ruler (Cuius regio, eius religio). Cuius regio eius religio is a phrase in Latin that means "Whose region his Religion "

In 1556 Charles V abdicated. The Habsburg Empire was divided, as Spain was separated from the Imperial possessions.

In 1608/1609 the Protestant Union and the Catholic League were formed. The Protestant Union or League of Evangelical Union (also known as the Evangelical Union or Union of Auhausen) was a coalition of Protestant Background In 1555 the Peace of Augsburg was signed which confirmed the result of the First Diet of Speyer (1526 and ended the violence between the Lutherans

From 1618 to 1648 the Thirty Years' War ravaged in the Holy Roman Empire. For the Mauritanian Thirty Years' War see Char Bouba war. For the band see The 30 Years War. The causes were the conflicts between Catholics and Protestants, the efforts by the various states within the Empire to increase their power and the Emperor's attempt to achieve the religious and political unity of the Empire. The immediate occasion for the war was the uprising of the Protestant nobility of Bohemia against the emperor (Defenestration of Prague), but the conflict was widened into a European War by the intervention of King Christian IV of Denmark (1625-29), Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden (1630-48) and France under Cardinal Richelieu, the regent of the young Louis XIV (1635-48). The Defenestrations of Prague were two incidents in the history of Bohemia. Christian IV ( 12 April, 1577 &ndash 28 February, 1648) was the king of Denmark and Norway from 1588 until his death For the other Swedish kings known as Gustavus Adolphus see Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden or Gustav VI Adolf of Sweden This article is about a cardinal For information on the Russian also called The Red Eminence, see Mikhail Andreyevich Suslov. Early years Birth and ancestry Louis XIV was born in the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye on September 5 1638 and bore the Heir apparent Germany became the main theatre of war and the scene of the final conflict between France and the Habsburgs for predominance in Europe. The war resulted in large areas of Germany being laid waste, a loss of approximately a third of its population, and in a general impoverishment.

The war ended in 1648 with the Peace of Westphalia, signed in Münster and Osnabrück: Imperial territory was lost to France and Sweden and the Netherlands left the Holy Roman Empire after being de facto seceded for 80 years already. The term Peace of Westphalia refers to the two peace treaties of Osnabrück and Münster, signed on May 15 and October 24 of Münster ( is a city in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is located in the northern part of the state and is considered to be the cultural centre of the Osnabrück (ɔsnaˈbʁʏk is a City in Lower Saxony, Germany, some 80 km NNE of Dortmund, 45 km NE of Münster, and some 100 km due The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands The imperial power declined further as the states' rights were increased.

End of the Holy Roman Empire

From 1640, Brandenburg-Prussia had started to rise under the Great Elector, Frederick William. Brandenburg-Prussia (Brandenburg-Preußen was a German Monarchy established by the Personal union between the Duchy of Prussia and the Frederick William (Friedrich Wilhelm February 16 1620 &ndash April 29 1688) was the Elector of Brandenburg and the The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 strengthened it even further, through the acquisition of East Pomerania. The term Peace of Westphalia refers to the two peace treaties of Osnabrück and Münster, signed on May 15 and October 24 of A system of rule based on absolutism was established. An autocracy is a Form of government in which the Political power is held by a single self-appointed ruler

In 1701 Elector Frederick of Brandenburg was crowned "King in Prussia". Biography Born in Königsberg, he was the third son of Frederick William Elector of Brandenburg by his father's first marriage to Louise Henriette King in Prussia (König in Preussen was a title used by the Electors of Brandenburg from 1701 to 1772 From 1713 to 1740, King Frederick William I, also known as the "Soldier King", established a highly centralized state. Frederick William I (Friedrich Wilhelm I ( August 14, 1688 &ndash May 31, 1740) of the House of Hohenzollern, was the King

Meanwhile Louis XIV of France had conquered parts of Alsace and Lorraine (1678-1681), and had invaded and devastated the Palatinate (1688-1697). Early years Birth and ancestry Louis XIV was born in the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye on September 5 1638 and bore the Heir apparent Alsace (Alsace alzas Alsatian and Elsass pre-1996 German: Elsaß; Alsatia is one of the 26 Regions of France, located on the eastern Lorraine (Lorraine Lothringen is a historical area in present-day northeast France. The Palatinate of the Rhine (Pfalzgrafschaft bei Rhein later the Electoral Palatinate (Kurpfalz was a historical territory of the Holy Roman Empire Louis XIV benefited from the Empire's problems with the Turks, which were menacing Austria. He ultimately had to relinquish the Palatinate, though.

In 1683 the Turks were defeated outside Vienna by a Polish relief army led by King Jan Sobieski of Poland while the city itself was defended by Imperial and Austrian troops under the command of Charles IV, Duke of Lorraine. The Battle of Vienna ( German: Schlacht am Kahlenberg, Polish: Bitwa pod Wiedniem or Odsiecz Wiedeńska, Turkish: İkinci John III Sobieski, (Jan III Sobieski (17 August 1629 - 17 June 1696 was one of the most notable monarchs of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Charles IV ( April 5 1604 &ndash September 18 1675) was Duke of Lorraine from 1624 to 1634 when he abdicated under French pressure Hungary was reconquered, and later became a new destination for German settlers. Hungary (Magyarország 'mɔɟɔrorsaːg) officially in English the Republic of Hungary ( Magyar Köztársaság, literally Magyar (Hungarian Republic Austria, under the Habsburgs, developed into a great power.

In the War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748) Maria Theresa fought successfully for recognition of her succession to the throne. The War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748 involved nearly all the powers of Europe Maria Theresa (Maria Theresia see also names in other languages; May 13, 1717 November 29 1780) was the Archduchess regnant But in the Silesian Wars and in the Seven Years' War she had to cede Silesia to Frederick II, the Great, of Prussia. The Silesian Wars were a series of wars between Prussia and Austria (and their changing allies for control of Silesia. The Seven Years' War (1756&ndash1763 involved all of the major European powers of the period causing 900000 to 1400000 deaths Etymology One theory claims that the name Silesia is derived from the Silingi, who were most likely a Vandalic (East Germanic people Frederick II (Friedrich II January 24 1712 August 17 1786) was a King of Prussia (1740&ndash1786 from the After the Peace of Hubertsburg in 1763 between Austria, Prussia and Saxony, Prussia became a European great power. The Treaty of Hubertusburg (Frieden von Hubertusburg was signed on 15 February 1763 at Hubertusburg by Prussia, Austria, and Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich The Kingdom of Prussia (Königreich Preußen was a German kingdom from 1701 to 1918 and from 1871 was the leading state of the German Empire, comprising The Free State of Saxony (Freistaat Sachsen ˈzaksən Swobodny Stat Sakska is the easternmost federal state of Germany. This gave the start to the rivalry between Prussia and Austria for the leadership of Germany.

From 1763, against resistance from the nobility and citizenry, an "enlightened absolutism" was established in Prussia and Austria, according to which the ruler was to be "the first servant of the state". The economy developed and legal reforms were undertaken, including the abolition of torture and the improvement in the status of Jews; the emancipation of the peasants began. PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ Education was promoted.

In 1772-1795 Prussia took part in the partitions of Poland, occupying western territories of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which led to centuries of Polish resistance against German rule and persecution. The Partitions of Poland or Partitions of the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth took place in the second half of the 18th century and ended the existence of the The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, officially the Commonwealth of the Crown of the Polish Kingdom and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania also known as the Most Serene Republic

The French Revolution sparked a new war between France and several of its Eastern neighbors, including Prussia and Austria. The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an Following the Peace of Basel in 1795 with Prussia, the west bank of the Rhine was ceded to France. See Treaty of Basel for the 1499 treaty The Peace of Basel of 1795 consists of three peace treaties involving

Napoleon I of France relaunched the war against the Empire. Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. In 1803, under the "Reichsdeputationshauptschluss" (a resolution of a committee of the Imperial Diet meeting in Regensburg), he abolished almost all the ecclesiastical and the smaller secular states and most of the imperial free cities. The German Mediatisation was the series of mediatisations and secularisations that occurred in Germany in 1795 &ndash 1814, during Regensburg ( also Ratisbon, Ratisbona Řezno originally Castra Regina) is a City (population 131000 in 2007 in Bavaria, Germany New medium-sized states were established in south-western Germany. In turn, Prussia gained territory in north-western Germany.

The Holy Roman Empire was formally dissolved on 6 August 1806 when the last Holy Roman Emperor Francis II (from 1804, Emperor Francis I of Austria) resigned. The Holy Roman Empire ( HRE; German Heiliges Römisches Reich (HRR, Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium (SRI was a union of territories in Events 1538 - Bogotá, Colombia, is founded by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada. Year 1806 ( MDCCCVI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Francis II (Franz II Heiliger Römischer Kaiser ( 12 February 1768 &ndash 2 March 1835) was the last Holy Roman Emperor, ruling For the history of these states before 1804 see Holy Roman Empire, Habsburg Monarchy, and articles on each of the component countries. Francis II's family continued to be called Austrian emperors until 1918. In 1806 the Confederation of the Rhine was established under Napoleon's protection. The Confederation of the Rhine or Rhine Confederation (Rheinbund États confédérés du Rhin officially and Confédération du Rhin in practice) lasted

After the Prussian army was defeated by the French revolutionary forces at Jena and Auerstedt, the Peace of Tilsit was signed in 1807: Prussia ceded all its possessions west of the Elbe to France and the kingdom of Westphalia was established under Napoleon's brother Jérome. Jena (pronunciation ˈjeːna is a university City in central Germany on the river Saale. The Treaties of Tilsit were two agreements signed by Napoleon I of France in the aftermath of his victory at Friedland in the town of Tilsit The Elbe ( die Elbe Low German: de Ilv) is one of the major Rivers of Central Europe. Westphalia (Westfalen) is a region in Germany, centred on the cities of Bielefeld, Bochum, Dortmund, Gelsenkirchen, Münster Some of the territories Prussia conquered from Poland were regained by Duchy of Warsaw. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland The Duchy of Warsaw (Księstwo Warszawskie Duché de Varsovie Herzogtum Warschau Варшавское герцогство was a Polish state established by Napoleon

From 1808 to 1812 Prussia was reconstructed, and a series of reforms were enacted by Freiherr vom Stein and Freiherr von Hardenberg, including the regulation of municipal government, the liberation of the peasants and the emancipation of the Jews. A reform of the army was undertaken by the Prussian generals Gerhard von Scharnhorst and August von Gneisenau. Gerhard Johann David von Scharnhorst ( 12 November 1755 - 28 June 1813) was a General in Prussian service Chief August Wilhelm Antonius Graf Neidhardt von Gneisenau ( 27 October 1760 &ndash 23 August 1831) was a Prussian Field marshal

In 1813 the Wars of Liberation began, following the destruction of Napoleon's army in Russia (1812). Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending After the Battle of the Nations at Leipzig, Germany was liberated from French rule. The Battle of the Nations (or Battle of Leipzig or Völkerschlacht bei Leipzig) on 16–19 October 1813 was one of the most decisive defeats suffered by Napoleon This sort of fix restores section edit linkpoints to where they belong The Confederation of the Rhine was dissolved.

In 1815 Napoleon was finally defeated at Waterloo by the Britain's Duke of Wellington and by Prussia's Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher. In the Battle of Waterloo (Sunday 18 June 1815 near Waterloo Belgium The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the formal name of the United Kingdom from 1 January 1801 until 12 April 1927 Field Marshal Arthur Wellesley 1st Duke of Wellington, KG, KP, GCB, GCH, PC, FRS ( c Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher Fürst (Prince von Wahlstatt (gɛphaɐt lebəʁɛçt fɔn blyçɐ December 16 1742 - September 12 1819

German Confederation

Restoration and Revolution

Main articles: German Confederation and Revolutions of 1848 in the German states

After the fall of Napoleon, European monarchs and statesmen convened in Vienna in 1814 for the reorganization of European affairs, under the leadership of the Austrian Prince Metternich. The German Confederation (Deutscher Bund was the association of Central European states created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to serve as the successor to " Germany " at the time of the Revolutions of 1848 had been a collection of 39 States loosely bound together in the German Confederation. " Germany " at the time of the Revolutions of 1848 had been a collection of 39 States loosely bound together in the German Confederation. Vienna ( in Wien; see also other names) is the Capital of Austria, and is also one of the nine States of Austria. The political principles agreed upon at this Congress of Vienna included the restoration, legitimacy and solidarity of rulers for the repression of revolutionary and nationalist ideas. The Congress of Vienna was a conference of ambassadors of the major powers of Europe, chaired by the Austrian statesman Clemens Wenzel von Metternich

On the terrditory of the former "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation", the German Confederation (Deutscher Bund) was founded, a loose union of 39 states (35 ruling princes and 4 free cities) under Austrian leadership, with a Federal Diet (Bundestag) meeting in Frankfurt am Main. The German Confederation (Deutscher Bund was the association of Central European states created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to serve as the successor to

In 1817, inspired by liberal and patriotic ideas of a united Germany, student organisations gathered for the "Wartburg festival" at Wartburg Castle, at Eisenach in Thuringia, on the occasion of which reactionary books were burnt. For other uses of Wartburg see Wartburg (disambiguation The Wartburg is a castle situated on a 1230-foot (410 m precipice to the Eisenach is a city in Thuringia, Germany. It is situated between the northern foothills of the Thuringian Forest and the Hainich National Park The Free State of Thuringia (Freistaat Thüringen is located in central Germany.

In 1819 the student Karl Ludwig Sand murdered the writer August von Kotzebue, who had scoffed at liberal student organizations. Karl Ludwig Sand ( Wunsiedel, then in Prussia, October 5, 1795 - Mannheim, May 20, 1820) was a German August Friedrich Ferdinand von Kotzebue (ˈaʊgʊst fɔn ˈkɔtsəbu May 3, 1761 &ndash March 23, 1819) was a German Dramatist Prince Metternich used the killing as an occasion to call a conference in Karlsbad, which Prussia, Austria and eight other states attended, and which issued the Karlsbad Decrees: censorship was introduced, and universities were put under supervision. The Carlsbad Decrees were a set of social restrictions introduced in the German Confederation by Prince Klemens Wenzel von Metternich on 20 September The decrees also gave the start to the so-called "persecution of the demagogues", which was directed against individuals who were accused of spreading revolutionary and nationalist ideas. Among the persecuted were the poet Ernst Moritz Arndt, the publisher Johann Joseph Görres and the "Father of Gymnastics" Ludwig Jahn. Ernst Moritz Arndt ( December 26, 1769 - January 29, 1860) was a German patriotic author and Poet.

In 1834 the Zollverein was established, a customs union between Prussia and most other German states, but excluding Austria. The Zollverein or German Customs Union was formed among the majority of the states of the German Confederation in 1834 during the Industrial Revolution

Growing discontent with the political and social order imposed by the Congress of Vienna led to the outbreak, in 1848, of the March Revolution in the German states. " Germany " at the time of the Revolutions of 1848 had been a collection of 39 States loosely bound together in the German Confederation. In May the German National Assembly (the Frankfurt Parliament) met in St. Paul's Church in Frankfurt am Main to draw up a national German constitution. The Frankfurt Parliament ( German: Frankfurter Nationalversammlung, literally Frankfurt National Assembly) was the first freely elected Parliament The Paulskirche is a church in Frankfurt am Main with important political symbolism in Germany.

But the 1848 revolution turned out to be unsuccessful: King Frederick William IV of Prussia refused the imperial crown, the Frankfurt parliament was dissolved, the ruling princes repressed the risings by military force and the German Confederation was re-established by 1850. Life Frederick William was educated by private tutors many of whom were experienced civil servants such as Friedrich Ancillon.

In 1862 Prince Bismarck was nominated chief minister of Prussia - against the opposition of liberals, who saw him as a reactionary. Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck Count of Bismarck-Schönhausen Duke of Lauenburg Prince of Bismarck ( April 1, 1815 July 30, 1898)

In 1863-64, disputes between Prussia and Denmark grew over Schleswig, which - unlike Holstein - was not part of the German Confederation, and which Danish nationalists wanted to incorporate into the Danish kingdom. The Kingdom of Denmark ( ˈd̥ænmɑɡ̊ (archaic ˈd̥anmɑːɡ̊ commonly known as Denmark, is a country in the Scandinavian region of northern Europe Holstein (ˈhɔlʃtain ( Low German: Holsteen, Danish: Holsten, Latin and historical English: Holsatia) The dispute led to the Second War of Schleswig, in the course of which Prussia, joined by Austria, defeated Denmark. The First Schleswig War occurred in 1848–1851. The Second Schleswig War (2 Denmark was forced to cede both the duchy of Schleswig and the duchy of Holstein to Austria and Prussia. In the aftermath, the management of the two duchies caused growing tensions between Austria and Prussia, which ultimately led to the Austro-Prussian War (1866). The Austro-Prussian The Prussians were victorious in this war, carrying a decisive victory at the Battle of Königgratz under the command of Helmuth von Moltke. The Battle of Königgrätz (Schlacht von Königgrätz also known as the Battle of Sadowa, Sadová, or Hradec Králové, was the decisive Battle Helmuth Karl Bernhard Graf After the Franco-Prussian War Moltke superintended the preparation of its history which was published between 1874 and 1881 by the great general staff

North German Federation

Main article: North German Federation

In 1866 the German Confederation was dissolved. The North German Confederation (Norddeutscher Bund came into existence in August 1866 as a military alliance of 22 states of northern Germany with the Kingdom of In its place the North German Federation (German Norddeutscher Bund) was established, under the leadership of Prussia. The North German Confederation (Norddeutscher Bund came into existence in August 1866 as a military alliance of 22 states of northern Germany with the Kingdom of Austria was excluded, and would remain outside German affairs for most of the remaining 19th and the 20th centuries.

The North German Federation was a transitory group that existed from 1867 to 1871, between the dissolution of the German Confederation and the founding of the German Empire, led by Otto Von Bismarck who was declared chancellor. Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck Count of Bismarck-Schönhausen Duke of Lauenburg Prince of Bismarck ( April 1, 1815 July 30, 1898) With it, Prussia established control over the 22 states of northern Germany and, via the Zollverein, southern Germany.

German Empire

Main article: German Empire

Age of Bismarck

Differences between France and Prussia over the possible accession to the Spanish throne of a German candidate — whom France opposed — was the French pretext to declare the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71). Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. The Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War, often referred to in France as the 1870 War ( 19 July, 1870 — 10 May, 1871 Due to their defensive treaties, joint southern-German and Prussian troops, under the command of Moltke, repelled French troops which had occupied Saarbrücken and proceeded to invade France in August 1870. Saarbrücken (ˈzaːɐ̯ˈbrʏkn in German; Sarrebruck is the capital of the state of Saarland in Germany. After a few weeks, the French army was finally forced to capitulate in the fortress of Sedan. The Battle of Sedan was fought during the Franco-Prussian War on 1 September 1870 French Emperor Napoleon III was taken prisoner and the Second French Empire collapsed, yet the new republic decided to prolong the war for several months. Napoléon III, also known as Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (full name Charles Louis Napoléon Bonaparte) (20 April 1808 9 January 1873 was the first President Months after the Siege of Paris was lifted, the Peace Treaty of Frankfurt was signed: France was obliged to cede what became known as Alsace-Lorraine to Germany. The Siege of Paris, lasting from September 19, 1870 &ndash January 28, 1871, brought about French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War The Treaty of Frankfurt (Le traité de Francfort Friede von Frankfurt was a Peace treaty signed in Frankfurt on May 10, 1871, at the end of Alsace-Lorraine (Reichsland Elsaß-Lothringen generally Elsass - Lothringen) was a territorial entity created by the German Empire in 1871 The ceded area consisted of Alsace and parts of Lorraine. Alsace (Alsace alzas Alsatian and Elsass pre-1996 German: Elsaß; Alsatia is one of the 26 Regions of France, located on the eastern Lorraine (Lorraine Lothringen is a historical area in present-day northeast France. The fact that many small, French-speaking areas were included was used by France to denounce the new border as hypocrisy, since Germany had justified it by the native Germanic dialects and culture of the areas inhabitants.

During the Siege of Paris, the German princes assembled in the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles and proclaimed the Prussian King Wilhelm I as the "German Emperor" on 18 January 1871. The Siege of Paris, lasting from September 19, 1870 &ndash January 28, 1871, brought about French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War The Palace of Versailles, or simply Versailles, is a royal Château in Versailles, in France 's Île-de-France region Events 350 - Generallus Magnentius deposes Roman Emperor Constans and proclaims himself Emperor Year 1871 ( MDCCCLXXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The German Empire was thus founded, with 25 states, three of which were Hanseatic free cities, and Bismarck, again, served as Chancellor. The German Empire is the name commonly used in English to describe Germany from 1871 to 1918 when it was a semi- Constitutional monarchy: beginning with the Unification It was dubbed the "Little German" solution, since Austria was not included.

Bismarck's domestic policies as Chancellor of Germany were characterized by his fight against perceived enemies of the Protestant Prussian state. In the so-called Kulturkampf (1872–1878), he tried to limit the influence of the Roman Catholic Church and of its political arm, the Catholic Centre Party, through various measures — like the introduction of civil marriage — but without much success. The German term (literally "culture struggle" refers to German policies in relation to Secularity and the influence of the Roman Catholic Church, enacted The German Centre Party ( Deutsche Zentrumspartei or merely Zentrum) was a Catholic political party in Germany during the Kaiserreich Millions of non-Germans subjects in the German Empire, like the Polish, Danish and French minorities, were discriminated against [1][2] and a policy of Germanization was implemented. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland The Kingdom of Denmark ( ˈd̥ænmɑɡ̊ (archaic ˈd̥anmɑːɡ̊ commonly known as Denmark, is a country in the Scandinavian region of northern Europe This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Germanisation (also spelled Germanization) is either the spread of the German language, people and culture either by force or Assimilation

The other perceived threat was the rise of the Socialist Workers' Party (later known as the Social Democratic Party of Germany), whose declared aim was the establishment of a new socialist order through the transformation of existing political and social conditions. From 1878, Bismarck tried to repress the social democratic movement by outlawing the party's organization, its assemblies and most of its newspapers. The Anti-Socialist Laws or Socialist Laws ( German: Sozialistengesetze; officially Gesetz gegen die gemeingefährlichen Bestrebungen der Sozialdemokratie Through the introduction of a social insurance system, on the other hand, he hoped to win the support of the working classes for the Empire.

Bismarck's priority was to protect Germany's expanding power through a system of alliances and an attempt to contain crises until Germany was fully prepared to initiate them. Of particular importance, in this context, was the containment and isolation of France, because Bismarck feared that France would form an alliance with Russia and take revenge for its loss of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany.

The Three Emperor's League was signed in 1872 by Russia, Austria and Germany. It stated that republicanism and socialism were common enemies and that the three powers would discuss any matters concerning foreign policy. Bismarck needed good relations with Russia in order to keep France isolated.

In 1879, Bismarck formed a Dual Alliance of Germany and Austria-Hungary, with the aim of mutual military assistance in the case of an attack from Russia, which was not satisfied with the agreement reached at the Congress of Berlin.

The establishment of the Dual Alliance led Russia to take a more conciliatory stance, and in 1887, the so-called Reinsurance Treaty was signed between Germany and Russia: in it, the two powers agreed on mutual military support in the case that France attacked Germany, or in case of an Austrian attack on Russia. The Reinsurance Treaty ( June 18 1887) was an attempt by Bismarck to continue to ally with Russia after the League of the Three Emperors

In 1882, Italy joined the Dual Alliance to form a Triple Alliance. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest The Triple Alliance was a military alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy that lasted from 1882 until the start of World War I Italy wanted to defend its interests in North Africa against France's colonial policy. North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan In return for German and Austrian support, Italy committed itself to assisting Germany in the case of a French military attack.

For a long time, Bismarck had refused to give in to Crown Prince Wilhelm II's aspirations of making Germany a world power through the acquisition of German colonies ("a place in the sun", originally a statement of Bernhard von Bülow). Bismarck wanted to avoid tensions between the European great powers that would threaten the security of Germany at all cost. But when, between 1880 and 1885, the foreign situation proved auspicious, Bismarck gave way, and a number of colonies were established overseas: in Africa, these were Togo, the Cameroons, German South-West Africa and German East Africa; in Oceania, they were German New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago and the Marshall Islands. TOGO was a Japanese roller coaster design company famous for inventing the Stand-up roller coaster. British Cameroons was a British Mandate territory in West Africa, now divided between Nigeria and Cameroon. German South West Africa ( German: Deutsch-Südwestafrika, DSWA) was a Colony of Germany from 1884 until 1915 when it was taken German East Africa (Deutsch-Ostafrika was a German Colony in East Africa, including what is now Burundi, Rwanda and Tanganyika German New Guinea ( Ger Deutsch-Neuguinea) was a former German Protectorate from 1884 to 1914 consisting of the northeastern part of The Bismarck Archipelago is a group of islands off the northeastern coast of New Guinea in the western Pacific Ocean and part of Papua New Guinea. The Marshall Islands, officially the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI is a Micronesian nation of islands in the middle of the Pacific Ocean In fact, it was Bismarck himself who helped initiate the Berlin Conference of 1885. See also Congress of Berlin (1878 and Berlin Conference of 1954 (Cold War Year 1885 ( MDCCCLXXXV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common He did it "establish international guidelines for the acquisition of African territory," (see Colonisation of Africa). The colonisation of Africa has a long history the most famous phase This conference was an impetus for the "Scramble for Africa" and "New Imperialism". New Imperialism refers to the colonial expansion adopted by Europe 's powers and later Japan and the United States, during the 19th

In 1888 Kaiser Wilhelm I died at age 91, and his terminally ill son Friedrich III ruled for only 99 days before his death. Frederick III (German Friedrich Wilhelm Nikolaus Karl, English Frederick William Nicholas Charles; October 18 1831 – June 15 1888 (German Friedrich The 29 year old and ambitious Wilhelm II, Friedrich's son, acceded to the throne. Political and personal differences between Bismarck and the new monarch, who wanted to be "his own chancellor", eventually caused Bismarck to resign in 1890.

Wilhelminian Era

When Bismarck resigned, Wilhelm II had declared that he would continue the foreign policy of the old chancellor. But soon, a new course was taken, with the aim of increasing Germany's influence in the world (Weltpolitik). The Reinsurance Treaty with Russia was not renewed. Instead, France formed an alliance with Russia, against the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. The Triple Alliance itself was undermined by differences between Austria and Italy.

From 1898, German colonial expansion in East Asia (Jiaozhou Bay, the Marianas, the Caroline Islands, Samoa) led to frictions with the United Kingdom, Russia, Japan and the United States. The Jiaozhou Bay ( was a German colonial concession which existed from 1898 to 1914 The Mariana Islands (also the Marianas; up to the early 20th century sometimes called Ladrones Islands, from Spanish Islas de los Ladrones meaning The Caroline Islands form a large Archipelago of widely scattered islands in the western Pacific Ocean, northeast of New Guinea. Samoa, officially the Independent State of Samoa, is a country governing the western part of the Samoan Islands Archipelago in the South Pacific Ocean For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The construction of the Baghdad Railway, financed by German banks and heavy industry, and aimed at connecting the North Sea with the Persian Gulf via the Bosporus, also collided with British and Russian geopolitical and economic interests. The North Sea is a marginal, Epeiric sea of the Atlantic Ocean on the European Continental shelf. The Persian Gulf, in the Southwest Asian region is an extension of the The Bosporus or Bosphorus, also known as the Istanbul Strait, (İstanbul Boğazı (Βόσπορος is a Strait that forms the boundary between the

To protect Germany's overseas trade and colonies, Admiral von Tirpitz started a programme of warship construction in 1898. Alfred von Tirpitz (March 19 1849 &ndash March 6 1930 was a German Admiral, Secretary of State of the Imperial Naval Office the powerful administrative branch This posed a direct threat to British hegemony on the seas, with the result that negotiations for an alliance between Germany and Britain broke down. Germany was increasingly isolated.

Main article: History of Germany during World War I

Imperialist power politics and the determined pursuit of national interests ultimately led to the outbreak in 1914 of the First World War, sparked by the assassination, on June 28, 1914, of the Austrian heir-apparent Franz Ferdinand and his wife at Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia-Herzegovina by a Serbian nationalist. During World War I, the German Empire was one of the Central Powers that ultimately lost the war World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Events 1098 - Fighters of the First Crusade defeat Kerbogha of Mosul. Year 1914 ( MCMXIV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Franz Ferdinand ( December 18, 1863 &ndash June 28, 1914) was an Archduke of Austria-Este, Prince Imperial of TemplateInfobox City for more fields--> Sarajevo is the Capital city and largest urban center of Bosnia and Herzegovina, with Bosnia and Herzegovina ( Latin script: Bosna i Hercegovina, Cyrillic script: Босна и Херцеговина is a country on the Balkan Serbia (Србија Srbija) officially the Republic of Serbia (Република Србија Republika Srbija) is a Landlocked Country The theorized underlying causes have included the opposing policies of the European states, the armaments race, German-British rivalry, the difficulties of the Austro-Hungarian multinational state, Russia's Balkan policy and overhasty mobilisations and ultimatums (the underlying belief being that the war would be short). Germany fought on the side of Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire against Russia, France, Great Britain, Italy, Japan and several other smaller states. Fighting also spread to the Near East and the German colonies.

In the west, Germany fought a war of attrition with bloody battles. After a quick march through Belgium, German troops were halted on the Marne, north of Paris. The Kingdom of Belgium is a Country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters as well as those Marne is a department in north-eastern France named after the Marne River which flows through the department Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city The frontlines in France changed little until the end of the war. In the east, despite there being initially no decisive victories against the Russian army, the trapping and defeat of large parts of the Russian contingent at the Battle of Tannenberg, followed by smaller Austrian and German successes led to a breakdown of Russian forces and an imposed peace. The British naval blockade in the North Sea had crippling effects on Germany's supplies of raw materials and foodstuffs. The North Sea is a marginal, Epeiric sea of the Atlantic Ocean on the European Continental shelf. The entry of the United States into the war in 1917 following Germany's declaration of unrestricted submarine warfare marked a decisive turning-point against Germany.

At the end of October, units of the German Navy in Kiel, in northern Germany, refused to set sail for a last, large-scale operation in a war which they saw as good as lost. For the city in the United States, see Kiel Wisconsin. For the name see Kiel (name. On November 3, the uprising spread to other cities. Events 644 - Umar ibn al-Khattab, the second Muslim Caliph, is killed by a Persian slave in Medina. So-called workers' and soldiers' councils were established.

Kaiser Wilhelm II and all German ruling princes abdicated. On November 9, the Social Democrat Philipp Scheidemann proclaimed a Republic. Events 694 - Egica, a king of the Visigoths of Hispania, accuses Jews of aiding Muslims sentencing all Philipp Scheidemann ( 26 July 1865 &ndash 29 November 1939) was a German Social Democratic politician who proclaimed the On November 11, an armistice ending the war was signed at Compiègne. Events 308 - The Congress of Carnuntum: Attempting to keep peace within the Roman Empire, the leaders of the Tetrarchy declare The armistice treaty between the Allies and Germany was signed in a railway carriage in Compiègne Forest on November 11, 1918 Compiègne is a commune in the Oise département of France, of which it is a Sous-préfecture.

Weimar Republic

Main article: Weimar Republic

On 28 June 1919 the Treaty of Versailles was signed. The term Weimar Republic ( ˈvaɪmarɐ repuˈbliːk is used by historians to signify the democratic and Republican period of Germany from 1919 to 1933 Events 1098 - Fighters of the First Crusade defeat Kerbogha of Mosul. Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. Germany was to cede Alsace-Lorraine, Eupen-Malmédy, North Schleswig, and the Memel area. Alsace-Lorraine (Reichsland Elsaß-Lothringen generally Elsass - Lothringen) was a territorial entity created by the German Empire in 1871 Short description of South Jutland South Jutland county is also known as Northern Schleswig ( Danish: Nordslesvig, German: Nordschleswig Klaipėda ( ˈklaɪpɛdə Memel is a City in Lithuania situated at the mouth of the Curonian Lagoon where it flows into the Baltic Sea Poland was restored and most of the provinces of Posen and West Prussia, and some areas of Upper Silesia were reincorporated into the reformed country after plebiscites and independence uprisings. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland The Province of Posen (Provinz Posen Prowincja Poznańska was a province of Prussia from 1848-1918 and as such part of the German Empire from 1871 to 1918 the whole West Prussia ( Prusy Zachodnie was a province of the Kingdom of Prussia from 1773&ndash1824 and 1878&ndash1918 which was created out of the earlier Polish Upper Silesia (Horní Slezsko Oberschlesien Latin: Silesia Superior; Górny Śląsk Silesian: Gůrny Ślůnsk) is the southeastern part All German colonies were to be handed over to the Allies. The left and right banks of the Rhine were to be permanently demilitarised. The Rhine (Rhein Rijn Rhin Reno Rain Rhenus is one of the longest and most important Rivers in Europe at 1320 kilometres (820 mi with an average discharge The industrially important Saarland was to be governed by the League of Nations for 15 years and its coalfields administered by France. Saarland (ˈzaːɐ̯lant in German; French: Sarre) is one of the 16 federal states (German Bundesländer) of Germany. The League of Nations was an International organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920 At the end of that time a plebiscite was to determine the Saar's future status. To ensure execution of the treaty's terms, Allied troops would occupy the left (German) bank of the Rhine for a period of 5–15 years. The German army was to be limited to 100,000 officers and men; the general staff was to be dissolved; vast quantities of war material were to be handed over and the manufacture of munitions rigidly curtailed. The navy was to be similarly reduced, and no military aircraft were allowed. Germany and its allies were to accept the sole responsibility of the war, in accordance with the War Guilt Clause, and were to pay financial reparations for all loss and damage suffered by the Allies. Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles (1919 reads in full " The Allied and Associated Governments affirm and Germany accepts the responsibility of Germany

The humiliating peace terms provoked bitter indignation throughout Germany, and seriously weakened the new democratic regime.

On 11 August 1919 the Weimar constitution came into effect, with Friedrich Ebert as first President. Events 2492 BC - Traditional date of the defeat of Bel by Hayk, progenitor and founder of the Armenian nation Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The term Weimar Republic ( ˈvaɪmarɐ repuˈbliːk is used by historians to signify the democratic and Republican period of Germany from 1919 to 1933 Friedrich Ebert ( February 4, 1871 February 28, 1925) was a German Politician ( SPD) who served as

The two biggest enemies of the new democratic order, however, had already been constituted. In December 1918, the German Communist Party (KPD) was founded, followed in January 1919 by the establishment of the German Workers' Party, later known as the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP). The Communist Party of Germany ( German Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands &ndash KPD) was a major political party in Germany between 1918 The, officially National Socialist German Workers' Party, ( abbreviated NSDAP) was a Political party in Germany between 1919 and 1945 Both parties would make reckless use of the freedoms guaranteed by the new constitution in their fight against the Weimar Republic.

In the first months of 1920, the Reichswehr was to be reduced to 100,000 men, in accordance with the Treaty of Versailles. The Reichswehr ( German for "National Defence" formed the military organisation of Germany from 1919 until 1935 when it was This included the dissolution of many Freikorps - units made up of volunteers. The designation of Freikorps ( German for "Free Corps " was originally applied to voluntary armies formed in German lands from the middle of 18th century Some of them made difficulties. The discontent was exploited by the extreme right-wing politician Wolfgang Kapp. He let the rebelling Freikorps march on Berlin and proclaimed himself Reich Chancellor (Kapp Putsch). The Kapp Putsch — or more accurately the Kapp-Lüttwitz Putsch — was a 1920 coup attempt during the German revolution aimed at overthrowing the After only four days the coup d'état collapsed, due to lack of support by the civil servants and the officers. Other cities were shaken by strikes and rebellions, which were bloodily suppressed.

Faced with animosity from Britain and France and the retreat of American power from Europe, in 1922 Germany was the first state to establish diplomatic relations with the new Soviet Union. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Under the Treaty of Rapallo, Germany accorded the Soviet Union de jure recognition, and the two signatories mutually cancelled all pre-war debts and renounced war claims.

When Germany defaulted on its reparation payments, French and Belgian troops occupied the heavily industrialised Ruhr district (January 1923). The German government encouraged the population of the Ruhr to passive resistance: shops would not sell goods to the foreign soldiers, coal-mines would not dig for the foreign troops, trams in which members of the occupation army had taken seat would be left abandoned in the middle of the street. Nonviolent resistance (or nonviolent action) is the practice of achieving socio-political goals through Symbolic Protests Civil disobedience, The passive resistance proved effective, insofar as the occupation became a loss-making deal for the French government. But the Ruhr fight also led to hyperinflation, and many who lost all their fortune would become bitter enemies of the Weimar Republic, and voters of the anti-democratic right. Certain figures in this article use Scientific notation for readability See 1920s German inflation. The inflation in the Weimar Republic was a period of Hyperinflation in Germany (the Weimar Republic) during 1921-1923

In September 1923, the deteriorating economic conditions led Chancellor Gustav Stresemann to call an end to the passive resistance in the Ruhr. ( May 10, 1878 &ndash October 3, 1929) was a German liberal politician and statesman who served as Chancellor and Foreign Minister In November, his government introduced a new currency, the Rentenmark (later: Reichsmark), together with other measures to stop the hyperinflation. The Rentenmark (literally " Security Mark" ( RM) was a Currency issued on 15 November 1923 to stop the Hyperinflation For a detailed discussion of the English translation of Reich, see Reich. In the following six years the economic situation improved. In 1928, Germany's industrial production even regained the pre-war levels of 1913.

On the evening of November 8, 1923, six hundred armed SA men surrounded a beer hall in Munich, where the heads of the Bavarian state and the local Reichswehr had gathered for a rally. Events 1519 - Hernán Cortés enters Tenochtitlán and Aztec ruler Moctezuma welcomes him with great a Celebration Year 1923 ( MCMXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The, abbreviated SA, ( German for "Assault detachment" or "Assault section" usually translated as " stormtroop(ers Munich (München; Minga is the capital city of Bavaria, Germany. The storm troopers were led by Adolf Hitler. Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently vandalized and vandalism is reverted immediately Born in 1889 in Austria, a former volunteer in the German army during WWI, now a member of a new party called NSDAP, he was largely unknown until then. Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich The, officially National Socialist German Workers' Party, ( abbreviated NSDAP) was a Political party in Germany between 1919 and 1945 Hitler tried to force those present to join him and to march on to Berlin to seize power (Beer Hall Putsch). The Beer Hall Putsch (also known as the Munich Putsch) was a failed Coup d'état that occurred between the evening of Thursday November 8 Hitler was later arrested and condemned to five years in prison, but was released at the end of 1924 after less than one year of detention.

The national elections of 1924 led to a swing to the right (Ruck nach rechts). Field Marshal Hindenburg, a supporter of the monarchy, was elected President in 1925. Paul Ludwig Hans Anton von Beneckendorff und von Hindenburg ( known universally as Paul von Hindenburg ( ( October 2, 1847 &ndash August 2 The presidential election ( Reichspräsidentenwahl) of 1925 was the first direct election to the office of President of the Reich ( Reichspräsident

In October 1925 the Treaty of Locarno was signed between Germany, France, Belgium, the United Kingdom and Italy, which recognized Germany's borders with France and Belgium. The Locarno Treaties were seven agreements negotiated at Locarno, Switzerland on 5 October &ndash 16 October 1925 and formally signed Moreover, Britain, Italy and Belgium undertook to assist France in the case that German troops marched into the demilitarised Rheinland. The Treaty of Locarno paved the way for Germany's admission to the League of Nations in 1926. The League of Nations was an International organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920

The stock market crash of 1929 on Wall Street marked the beginning of the Great Depression. A stock market crash is a sudden dramatic decline of Stock prices across a significant cross-section of a Stock market. Wall Street is a street in lower Manhattan, New York City, United States. The effects of the ensuing world economic crisis were also felt in Germany, where the economic situation rapidly deteriorated. In July 1931, the Darmstätter und Nationalbank - one of the biggest German banks - failed, and, in early 1932, the number of unemployed rose to more than 6,000,000.

In addition to the flagging economy came political problems, due to the inability by the political parties represented in the Reichstag to build a governing majority. The Reichstag ( German for "Imperial Diet " was the Parliament of the Holy Roman Empire, the North German Confederation, In March 1930, President Hindenburg appointed Heinrich Brüning Chancellor. Dr Heinrich Brüning ( ( November 26, 1885 &ndash March 30, 1970) was a German Politician during the Weimar Republic To push through his package of austerity measures against a majority of Social Democrats, Communists and the NSDAP, Brüning made use of emergency decrees, and even dissolved Parliament. In March and April of 1932, Hindenburg was re-elected in the German presidential election of 1932. The presidential election ( Reichspräsidentenwahl) of 1932 was the second and final direct election to the office of President of the Reich ( Reichspräsident

The NSDAP was the big winner in the national elections of July 1932. It gained 38% of the vote, making it the biggest party in the Reichstag. The Communist KPD came third, with 15%. Together, the anti-democratic parties of right and left were now able to hold the majority of seats in Parliament. The NSDAP was particularly successful among young voters, who were unable to find a place in vocational training, with little hope for a future job; among the petite bourgeoisie (lower middle class) which had lost its assets in the hyperinflation of 1923; among the rural population; and among the army of unemployed. In new elections in November 1932, the NSDAP's share of the vote declined slightly, but it remained the biggest party in the Parliament.

On January 30, 1933, pressured by former Chancellor Franz von Papen and other conservatives, President Hindenburg finally appointed Hitler Chancellor. Events 1648 - Eighty Years' War: The Treaty of Münster is signed ending the conflict between the Netherlands and Spain Year 1933 ( MCMXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. (29 October 1879 2 May 1969 was a German nobleman Catholic monarchist Politician, General Staff officer and Diplomat

German Reich

Main articles: Nazi Germany, The Holocaust, and Military history of Germany during World War II

Nazi revolution or 'Seizure of Power'

In order to secure a majority for his NSDAP in the Reichstag, Hitler called for new elections. Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers The Holocaust (from the Greek el ''ὁλόκαυστον'' (el-Latn holókauston holos, "completely" and kaustos, "burnt" also known as The history of Germany during World War II closely parallels that of Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler. Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently vandalized and vandalism is reverted immediately On the evening of 27 February 1933, a fire was set in the Reichstag building. Events 1560 - The Treaty of Berwick, which would expel the French from Scotland, is signed by England and the Congregation Year 1933 ( MCMXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. On 27 February 1933, the Reichstag building was subject to an arson attack and as a result seen as the pivotal event in the establishment of Nazi Germany Hitler swiftly blamed an alleged Communist uprising, and convinced President Hindenburg to sign the Reichstag Fire Decree. The Reichstag Fire Decree (Reichstagsbrandverordnung is the common name of the Order of the Reich President for the Protection of People and State issued by German president This decree, which would remain in force until 1945, repealed important political and human rights of the Weimar constitution. Communist agitation was banned, but at this time not the Communist Party itself.

Eleven thousand Communists and Socialists were arrested and brought into concentration camps, where they were at the mercy of the Gestapo, the newly established secret police force (9,000 were found guilty and very many executed). Internment is the imprisonment or confinement of people commonly in large groups without trial The ( contraction of ge heime Sta ats' po' lizei: "Secret State Police" was the official Secret police of Nazi Germany Communist Reichstag deputies were taken into protective custody (despite their constitutional privileges).

Despite the terror and unprecedented propaganda, the last free General Elections of March 5 failed to bring the majority for the NSDAP that Hitler had hoped for. Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian moves from Antioch with an army of 90000 to attack the Sassanid Empire, in a Together with the German National People's Party (DNVP), however, he was able to form a slim majority government. The German National People's Party (Deutschnationale Volkspartei DNVP was a national-conservative party in Germany during the time of the Weimar Republic With accommodations to the Catholic Centre Party Germany, Hitler succeeded in convincing a required two-thirds of a rigged Parliament to pass the Enabling act of 1933 which gave his government full legislative power. The German Centre Party ( Deutsche Zentrumspartei or merely Zentrum) was a Catholic political party in Germany during the Kaiserreich The Enabling Act ( in German) was passed by the Reichstag ( Germany 's parliament on March 23, 1933 and signed Only the Social Democrats voted against the Act. The Enabling Act formed the basis for the Dictatorship, dissolution of the Länder; the trade unions and all political parties other than the National Socialist (Nazi) Party were suppressed. A dictatorship is usually defined as an autocratic Form of government in which the Government is ruled by a Dictator. Germany (Deutschland is a Federal Republic consisting of sixteen States, known in German as Länder (singular The, officially National Socialist German Workers' Party, ( abbreviated NSDAP) was a Political party in Germany between 1919 and 1945 A centralised totalitarian state was established, no longer based on the liberal Weimar constitution. Weimar (ˈvaɪmaʁ is a City in Germany. It is located in the Bundesland of Thuringia (Thüringen north of the Thüringer Wald, Germany left the League of Nations. The League of Nations was an International organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920 The coalition Parliament was rigged on this fateful 23 March 1933 by defining the absence of arrested and murdered deputies as voluntary and therefore cause for their exclusion as wilful absentees. TalkParliament#Screen-size. -->A  parliament is a Legislature, especially in those Events 1174 - Jocelin, Abbot of Melrose, is elected Bishop of Glasgow. Year 1933 ( MCMXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Subsequently in July the Centre Party was voluntarily dissolved in a quid pro quo with the Holy See under the anti-communist Pope Pius XI for the Reichskonkordat; and by these maneuvers Hitler achieved movement of these Catholic voters into the Nazi party, and a long-awaited international diplomatic acceptance of his regime. The Holy See is the episcopal jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome, commonly known as the Pope, and is the preeminent Episcopal see of the Roman Catholic Pope Pius XI ( Latin: Pius PP XI; Italian: Pio XI; May 31 1857 &ndash February 10 1939) born The Reichskonkordat is the Concordat between the Holy See and Nazi Germany. The Communist Party was proscribed in April 1933 .

However, many leaders of the Nazi SA were disappointed. The, abbreviated SA, ( German for "Assault detachment" or "Assault section" usually translated as " stormtroop(ers The Chief of Staff of the SA, Ernst Röhm, was pressing for the SA to be incorporated into the Wehrmacht under his supreme command. Ernst Julius Röhm, (Munich November 28, 1887 – July 2, 1934) was a German military officer and later the commander and co-founder Wehrmacht (literally "defense force" was the name of the unified Armed forces of Germany from 1935 to 1945 Hitler felt threatened by these plans. On the weekend of June 30, 1934, he gave order to the SS to seize Röhm and his lieutenants, and to execute them without trial (known as the Night of the Long Knives). Events 350 - Roman usurper Nepotianus, of the Constantinian dynasty, is defeated and killed by troops of the Usurper Year 1934 ( MCMXXXIV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display full 1934 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The ( German for "Protective Squadron" abbreviated SS - or ( Runic)- was a major Nazi organization under Adolf Hitler and the The Night of the Long Knives (German) or " Operation Hummingbird " was a Purge that took place in Nazi Germany between June 30 and July

The SS became an independent organisation under the command of the Reichsführer SS Heinrich Himmler. Heinrich Luitpold Himmler ( 7 October 1900 – 23 May 1945 was a Nazi German politician and head of the Schutzstaffel (SS. He would become the supervisor of the Gestapo and of the concentration camps, soon also of the ordinary police. The ( contraction of ge heime Sta ats' po' lizei: "Secret State Police" was the official Secret police of Nazi Germany Hitler also established the Waffen-SS as a separate troop. The Waffen-SS ( German for "Armed SS" literally "Weapons SS" was the Combat arm of the Schutzstaffel ("Protective Squadron"

The regime showed particular hostility towards the Jews. PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ In September 1935, the Reichstag passed the so-called Nuremberg race laws directed against Jewish citizens. The racial policy of Nazi Germany refers to the policies and laws implemented by Nazi Germany, asserting the superiority of the so-called " Aryan race " and Jews lost their German citizenship, and were banned from marrying Germans. About 500,000 individuals were affected by the new rules.

Hitler re-established the German air force and reintroduced universal military service. The open rearmament was in flagrant breach of the Treaty of Versailles, but neither the United Kingdom, France or Italy went beyond issuing notes of protest.

In 1936 German troops marched into the demilitarised Rhineland. The Remilitarization of the Rhineland by the German Army took place on 7 March 1936 when German forces entered the Rhineland. In this case, the Treaty of Locarno would have obliged the United Kingdom to intervene in favour of France. The Locarno Treaties were seven agreements negotiated at Locarno, Switzerland on 5 October &ndash 16 October 1925 and formally signed But despite protests by the French government, Britain chose to do nothing about it. The coup strengthened Hitler's standing in Germany. His reputation was going to increase further with the 1936 Summer Olympics, which were held in the same year in Berlin and in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, and which proved another great propaganda success for the regime. The 1936 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XI Olympiad, an International Multi-sport event which was held in 1936 in Berlin Garmisch-Partenkirchen is a Market town in Bavaria, southern Germany.

Expansion and defeat

After establishing the "Rome-Berlin axis" with Mussolini, and signing the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan - which was joined by Italy a year later in 1937 - Hitler felt able to take the offensive in foreign policy. The Anti-Comintern Pact was concluded between Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan (later to be joined by other countries on November 25, 1936 For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest On 12 March 1938, German troops marched into Austria, where an attempted Nazi coup had been unsuccessful in 1934. Events 538 - Witiges, king of the Ostrogoths ends his siege of Rome and retreats to Ravenna, leaving Year 1938 ( MCMXXXVIII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich When Hitler entered Vienna, he was greeted by loud cheers. Vienna ( in Wien; see also other names) is the Capital of Austria, and is also one of the nine States of Austria. Four weeks later, 99% of Austrians voted in favour of the annexation (Anschluss) of their country to the German Reich. The ( German: "link-up" also known as the, was the 1938 Annexation of Austria into Greater Germany by the Nazi Deutsches Reich was the name for Germany from 1871 to 1945 in the German language. Hitler thereby fulfilled the old idea of an all encompassing German Reich with the inclusion of Austria - the "greater Germany" solution that Bismarck had shunned when, in 1871, he united the German-speaking lands under Prussian leadership. Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck Count of Bismarck-Schönhausen Duke of Lauenburg Prince of Bismarck ( April 1, 1815 July 30, 1898) Prussia ( Latin: Borussia, Prutenia; Prūsija Prūsija Prusy Old Prussian: Prūsa) was most recently a historic state Although the annexation denounced the Treaty of Saint-Germain, which expressedly forbade the unification of Austria with Germany, the western powers once again merely protested. The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, was signed on 10 September 1919 by the victorious Allies of World War I on the one hand and by the new

After Austria, Hitler turned to Czechoslovakia, where the 3. Czechoslovakia may also refer to what is now the Czech Republic and Slovakia. 5 million-strong Sudeten German minority was demanding equal rights and self-government. See also History of Czechoslovakia (1918–1938 From 1918 to 1938 several million ethnic Germans lived in Czechoslovakia as their home was At the Munich Conference of September 1938, Hitler, the Italian leader Benito Mussolini, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and French Prime Minister Édouard Daladier agreed upon the cession of Sudeten territory to the German Reich by Czechoslovakia. The Munich Agreement (Mnichovská dohoda Mníchovská dohoda Münchner Abkommen Accords de Munich was an agreement regarding the Sudetenland, which were areas along borders Arthur Neville Chamberlain (18 March 1869 &ndash 9 November 1940 was a British Conservative Politician and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Édouard Daladier (18 June 1884 - 10 October 1970 was a French Radical politician and Prime Minister of France at the start of the Second World Czechoslovakia may also refer to what is now the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Hitler thereupon declared that all of German Reich's territorial claims had been fulfilled. However, hardly six months after the Munich Agreement, in March 1939, Hitler used the smoldering quarrel between Slovaks and Czechs as a pretext for taking over the rest of Czechoslovakia as the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. } The Slovaks or Slovakians are a western Slavic People that primarily inhabit Slovakia and speak the Slovak language, which is The Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (Reichsprotektorat Böhmen und Mähren Protektorát Čechy a Morava was the majority ethnic-Czech Protectorate which In the same month, he secured the return of Memel from Lithuania to Germany. Memel is a name mainly used by Germans and both for towns and rivers Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the British Prime Minister Chamberlain was forced to acknowledge that his policy of appeasement towards Hitler had failed.

In six years, the Nazi regime prepared the country for World War II. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including The Nazi leadership attempted to remove or subjugate the Jewish population of Nazi Germany and later in the occupied countries through forced deportation and, ultimately, genocide now known as the Holocaust. Genocide is the deliberate and systematic destruction in whole or in part of an ethnic racial religious or national group The Holocaust (from the Greek el ''ὁλόκαυστον'' (el-Latn holókauston holos, "completely" and kaustos, "burnt" also known as A similar policy applied to the various ethnic and national groups considered subhuman such as Poles , Roma or Russians. subHuman is the fifth album released by Recoil. Alan Wilder stated in a YouTube greeting that there would be a new album coming in spring or early The Polish people, or Poles, (Polacy) are a Western Slavic Ethnic group of Central Europe, living predominantly in Poland. The Romani people (singular Rom, plural Roma as a Noun; also known as Romanies or Roma people) are an ethnic group with origins The Russian people (Русские— Russkie) are an East Slavic Ethnic group, primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries These groups were seen as threats to the purity of Germany's Aryan race. Aryan is an English word derived from the Sanskrit " Ārya " meaning "noble" or "honorable" There were also many groups, such as the mentally handicapped and those who were physically challenged from birth, which were singled out as being detrimental to Aryan purity. After annexing the Sudetenland border country of Czechoslovakia (October 1938), and taking over the rest of the Czech lands as a protectorate (March 1939), the German Reich and the Soviet Union invaded Poland on first September 1939 predominantly as part of the Wehrmacht operation codenamed Fall Weiss. Sudetenland ( Czech and Polish: Sudety) is the German name used in English in the first half of the 20th century for the western regions of Czechoslovakia may also refer to what is now the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland The invasion of Poland began World War II. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including

By 1941, the Germans were having the upper hand, but the tide turned in December 1941 after the invasion of the Soviet Union stalled in front of Moscow and the USA joined the war. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Moscow (Москва́ romanised: Moskvá, IPA: see also other names) is the Capital and the largest city of The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Because of the invasion (see Operation Barbarossa) , the Soviets joined the Allies. Operation Barbarossa ( Unternehmen Barbarossa) was the Codename for Nazi Germany 's invasion of the Soviet Union during World War II The tide turned further after the Battle of Stalingrad. The Battle of Stalingrad is a commonly used name in English sources for several large operations by Germany and its allies and Soviet forces conducted with the By late 1944, the United States and Great Britain were closing in on Germany in the West, while the Soviets were closing from the East. In May 1945, Nazi Germany collapsed when Berlin was taken over by Soviet and Polish forces. Berlin is the capital city and one of sixteen states of Germany. A soviet (сове́т, "council" originally was a workers' local council in late Imperial Russia. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland Hitler committed suicide when it seemed inevitable that the Allies would win.

By September 1945, the German Reich (Which lasted only 10 years) and its Axis partners (Italy and Japan) had been defeated, chiefly by the forces of the Soviet Union, the United States, United Kingdom, France and Canada. The Axis powers also known as the Axis alliance Axis nations Axis countries or sometimes just the Axis were those Countries Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page Much of Europe lay in ruins, over sixty million people had been killed (most of them civilians), including approximately six million Jews and five million non-Jews in what became known as the Holocaust. The Holocaust (from the Greek el ''ὁλόκαυστον'' (el-Latn holókauston holos, "completely" and kaustos, "burnt" also known as World War II resulted in the destruction of Germany's political and economic infrastructure and led directly to its partition, considerable loss of territory (especially in the east), and historical legacy of guilt and shame.

Germany since 1945

Main article: History of Germany since 1945

Germans frequently refer to 1945 as the Stunde Null (zero hour) to describe the near-total collapse of their country. As a consequence of Germany 's defeat in World War II and the onset of the Cold War, the country was split between the two global blocs in the East and West At the Potsdam Conference, Germany was divided into four military occupation zones by the Allies, see Partitions of Germany; the three western zones would form the Federal Republic of Germany (commonly known as West Germany), while part of the Soviet zone became the German Democratic Republic (commonly known as East Germany), both founded in 1949. The Potsdam Conference was held at Cecilienhof, the home of Crown Prince Wilhelm Hohenzollern, in Potsdam, Germany, from July 16, In general allies are people groups or nations that have joined together in an association for mutual benefit or to achieve some common purpose As a consequence of Germany 's defeat in World War II and the onset of the Cold War, the country was split between the two global blocs in the East and West West Germany ( Inf German: Westdeutschland or West-Deutschland) was the common English name for the Federal Republic of Germany ( The German Democratic Republic ( GDR; Deutsche Demokratische Republik DDR; commonly known in English as East Germany) was a Socialist state West Germany was established as a liberal democratic republic while East Germany became a Communist State under the influence of the Soviet Union. West Germany ( Inf German: Westdeutschland or West-Deutschland) was the common English name for the Federal Republic of Germany ( The German Democratic Republic ( GDR; Deutsche Demokratische Republik DDR; commonly known in English as East Germany) was a Socialist state Communist state is a term used by many Political scientists to describe a Form of government in which the State operates under a one-party system The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Also in Potsdam, the allies agreed that the provinces east of the Oder and Neisse rivers (the Oder-Neisse line) were transferred to Poland and Russia (Kaliningrad). The Oder-Neisse line (Granica na Odrze i Nysie Łużyckiej Oder-Neiße-Grenze was drawn in the aftermath of World War II as the eastern border of Germany and Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Kaliningrad (Калининград is a Seaport and the administrative center of Kaliningrad Oblast, the Russian Exclave between Poland The agreement also set forth the abolition of Prussia and the repatriation of Germans living in those territories, and formalized the German exodus from Eastern Europe. Prussia ( Latin: Borussia, Prutenia; Prūsija Prūsija Prusy Old Prussian: Prūsa) was most recently a historic state The German exodus from Eastern Europe refers to the exodus of ethnic German populations from lands to the east of present-day Germany and Austria. In the process of the expulsion millions of these German expellees from the lost pre-1945 German east provinces died, and many suffered from exhaustion and dehydration. The expulsion of Germans after World War II was the Forced migration and Ethnic cleansing of German nationals ( Reichsdeutsche) and ethnic The former eastern territories of Germany (ehemalige deutsche Ostgebiete describes collectively those Provinces or Regions east of the current eastern

In the immediate post-war years the German population lived on near starvation levels,^[3] and the Allied economic policy was one of de-industrialisation^[4] (Morgenthau Plan) in order to preclude any future German war-making capability. The Morgenthau Plan was a plan for the occupation of Germany after World War II that advocated measures intended to remove Germany's ability to wage war U. S. policy began to change at the end of 1946^[5] (Restatement of Policy on Germany), and by mid 1947, after lobbying by the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and Generals Clay and Marshall, the Truman administration finally realized that economic recovery in Europe could not go forward without the reconstruction of the German industrial base on which it had previously been dependent. " Restatement of Policy on Germany " is a famous speech by James F The Joint Chiefs of Staff ( JCS) is a group comprising the Chiefs of service of each major branch of the Armed services in the United States armed forces General Lucius Dubignon Clay ( April 23 1897 &ndash April 16 1978) was an American general and military governor best known for his George Catlett Marshall Jr (December 31 1880 &ndash October 16 1959 was an American military leader Chief of Staff of the Army, Secretary of ^[6] In July, Truman rescinded on "national security grounds"^[7] the punitive JCS 1067, which had directed the U. The Morgenthau Plan was a plan for the occupation of Germany after World War II that advocated measures intended to remove Germany's ability to wage war S. forces of occupation in Germany to "take no steps looking toward the economic rehabilitation of Germany. " It was replaced by JCS 1779, which instead stressed that "[a]n orderly, prosperous Europe requires the economic contributions of a stable and productive Germany. "^[8]

West Germany eventually came to enjoy prolonged economic growth beginning in the early 1950s (Wirtschaftswunder). The term ( German for "economic miracle" describes the rapid reconstruction and development of the economies of West Germany and Austria The recovery occurred largely because of the previously forbidden currency reform of June 1948 and to a minor degree by U. S. assistance through Marshall Plan loans. The Marshall Plan (from its enactment officially the European Recovery Program, ERP) was the primary plan of the United States for rebuilding and creating a stronger ^[9][10] West Germany joined NATO in 1955 and was a founding member of the European Economic Community in 1958 . The North Atlantic Treaty The European Community (EC is one of the Three pillars of the European Union (EU created under the Maastricht Treaty (1992 Across the border, East Germany soon became the richest, most advanced country in the Warsaw Pact, but many of its citizens looked to the West for political freedoms and economic prosperity. The Warsaw Pact (see Nomenclature) was an organization of Communist states in Central and Eastern Europe.

Reunification

Relations between the two post-war German states remained icy until the West German Chancellor Willy Brandt launched a highly controversial rapprochement with the East European communist states (Ostpolitik) in the 1970s, culminating in the Warschauer Kniefall on 7 December 1970. Willy Brandt, born Herbert Ernst Karl Frahm (18 December 1913 - 8 October 1992 was a German politician Chancellor of West Germany 1969&ndash1974 Ostpolitik ( German for Eastern Politics) describes the politics of the "Change Through Rapprochement" principle &mdash as verbalized by Egon Bahr Warschauer Kniefall (German for " Warsaw Genuflection " refers to a gesture of humility and penance by social democratic Chancellor of Events 43 BC - Marcus Tullius Cicero assassinated 1696 - Connecticut Route 108, one of the oldest highways Year 1970 ( MCMLXX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link shows full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Although anxious to relieve serious hardships for divided families and to reduce friction, West Germany under Brandt's Ostpolitik was intent on holding to its concept of "two German states in one German nation. " Relations improved, however, and in September 1973, East Germany and West Germany were admitted to the United Nations.

During the summer of 1989 , rapid changes took place in East Germany, which ultimately led to German reunification. German reunification (Deutsche Wiedervereinigung took place twice after 1945 first in 1957 the Saarland was permitted to join the Federal Republic of Germany Growing numbers of East Germans emigrated to West Germany via Hungary after Hungary's reformist government opened its borders. Hungary (Magyarország 'mɔɟɔrorsaːg) officially in English the Republic of Hungary ( Magyar Köztársaság, literally Magyar (Hungarian Republic Thousands of East Germans also tried to reach the West by staging sit-ins at West German diplomatic facilities in other East European capitals. The exodus generated demands within East Germany for political change, and mass demonstrations in several cities continued to grow.

Faced with civil unrest, East German leader Erich Honecker was forced to resign in October, and on 9 November, East German authorities unexpectedly allowed East German citizens to enter West Berlin and West Germany. Erich Honecker ( August 25, 1912 – May 29, 1994) was a German Communist Politician who led the German Democratic Events 694 - Egica, a king of the Visigoths of Hispania, accuses Jews of aiding Muslims sentencing all Hundreds of thousands of people took advantage of the opportunity; new crossing points were opened in the Berlin Wall and along the border with West Germany. This led to the acceleration of the process of reforms in East Germany that ended with the German reunification that came into force on 3 October 1990. German reunification (Deutsche Wiedervereinigung took place twice after 1945 first in 1957 the Saarland was permitted to join the Federal Republic of Germany Events 42 BC - First Battle of Philippi: Triumvirs Mark Antony and Octavian fight an indecisive battle with Caesar's Year 1990 ( MCMXC) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1990 Gregorian calendar) The reunification of Germany also brought to light civil discontent concerning the racial makeup of Germany. Poet/historian May Ayim brought to light to various perspectives of both the German people and the minorities such as the Afro-German and Afro-Turkish populations. May Ayim ( 3 May, 1960 in Hamburg &mdash 9 August, 1996 in Berlin; original name Sylvia Opitz was an Afro-German Showing Our Colors (May Opitz, 1992) and Blues in Black and White (Blues in schwarz-weiss) are two published books that contain much of May Ayim's poems and essays along with the work of other Afro-German and German feminist scholars that were inspired by events surrounding the German reunification.

Role in the European Union

Together with France and other EU states, the new Germany has played the leading role in the European Union. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The European Union ( EU) is a political and economic union of twenty-seven member states, located primarily in Germany (especially under Chancellor Helmut Kohl) was one of the main supporters of the wish of many East European countries to join the EU. Helmut Josef Michael Kohl (born 3 April 1930 is a German conservative politician and statesman Germany is at the forefront of European states seeking to exploit the momentum of monetary union to advance the creation of a more unified and capable European political, defence and security apparatus. The German chancellor expressed an interest in a permanent seat for Germany in the UN Security Council, identifying France, Russia and Japan as countries that explicitly backed Germany's bid. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics.

Historiography

Main article: Sonderweg

A major historiographical debate about the German history concerns the Sonderweg, the alleged “special path” that separated German history from the “normal” course of historical development, and whether or not Nazi Germany was the inevitable result of the Sonderweg. Sonderweg (literally "special path" is a controversial theory in German Historiography that considers the German -speaking lands or the country Sonderweg (literally "special path" is a controversial theory in German Historiography that considers the German -speaking lands or the country Proponents of the Sonderweg theory such as Fritz Fischer point to such events of the Revolution of 1848, the authoritarian of the Second Empire and the continuation of the Imperial elite into the Weimar and Nazi periods. Fritz Fischer ( March 5, 1908 &ndash December 1, 1999) was a German historian best known for his analysis of the Causes of World War I The European Revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as the Spring of Nations or the Year of Revolution, were a series of political upheavals throughout the European Authoritarianism describes a Form of government characterized by an emphasis on the Authority of the State in a republic or union Opponents such as Gerhard Ritter of the Sonderweg theory argue that proponents of the theory are guilty of seeking selective examples, and there was much contingency and chance in German history. Gerhard Albert Ritter ( April 6, 1888 - July 1, 1967) was a Conservative German Historian. In addition, there was much debate within the supporters of the Sonderweg concept as for the reasons for the Sonderweg, and whether or not the Sonderweg ended in 1945.

See also

• Medieval East Colonisation by German noblemen and farmers
• German exodus from Eastern Europe
• Germany
• 1920s Berlin
• History of Europe
• History of German settlement in Eastern Europe
• History of present-day nations and states
• Territorial changes of Germany
• Military history of Germany

References

External links

• Historical maps of Germany
• Propaganda and Nazi Era Stamps
• The full text of the "Reichsdeputationshauptschluss" of 25th February 1803
• Constitution of the German Empire ("Constitution of Paulskirche") of 28th March 1849, in full text
• Constitutional charter for the Prussian State (Imposed Constitution of 5th December 1848, in full text)
• Kingdom of Prussia: Constitutional charter for the Prussian State (Revised Constitution of 31st January 1850, in full text)
• History of Germany: Primary Documents
• Pessimistic Germans Losing Faith in Democracy, Study Shows

Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 43 BC - Marcus Tullius Cicero assassinated 1696 - Connecticut Route 108, one of the oldest highways

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