The History of English society demonstrates innumerable changes over many centuries. The history of the British Isles has witnessed intermittent periods of competition and cooperation between the people that occupy the various parts of Great Britain, Prehistoric Britain was a period in the human occupation of Great Britain that was the later part of Prehistory, conventionally ending with the Roman invasion In Great Britain, the Bronze Age is considered to have been the period from around 2700 to 700 BC. In Britain and Ireland the Iron Age lasted from about the 7th century BC until the Roman conquest and until the 5th century in non- Romanised Archaeology and Geology continue to reveal the secrets of prehistoric Scotland, uncovering a complex and dramatic past before the Romans brought Scotland Prehistoric Wales in terms of human settlements covers the period from about 230000 years ago the date attributed to the earliest human remains found in what is now Wales Prehistory Mesolithic (8000 BC - 4500 BC What little is known of pre- Christian Ireland comes from a few references in Roman writings Roman Britain refers to those parts of the island of Great Britain controlled by the Roman Empire between AD 43 and 410 Up to and during the Roman occupation of Britain, the native inhabitants of Roman Britain spoke Brythonic languages (a sub-family of the Celtic languages Sub-Roman Britain is a term derived from an Archaeologists ' label for the material culture of Britain in Late Antiquity. The history of Ireland begins with the first known settlement in Ireland around 8000 BC when Hunter-gatherers arrived from Great Britain and continental The Early Medieval era in Ireland from 800 to 1166 is characterised by Viking raids then settlement in what had become a stable and wealthy country This period in Ireland's history was marked by the dominance of the so-called Protestant Ascendancy. Great Britain during the Middle Ages (from the 5th century withdrawal of Roman forces from the province of Britannia The Early Middle Ages, a period which corresponds in part with Early Historic Scotland and the Later Iron Age, is that era of Scottish pre-history and The history of Scotland in the High Middle Ages covers Scotland in the era between the death of Domnall II in 900 AD and the death of king Alexander III The history of Scotland in the Late Middle Ages might be said to be dominated by the twin themes of crisis and transition The Norman invasion of Wales began shortly after the Norman invasion of England. Wales in the Late Middle Ages covers the period from the death of Llywelyn ap Gruffydd in late 1282 to the incorporation of Wales into England by the Laws in Wales Acts Gaelic Ireland was the political order that existed in Ireland prior to the Norman invasion and that ran in parallel to the subsequent nominal Lordship The later medieval period in Ireland (" Norman Ireland " was dominated by the Cambro-Norman invasion of the country in 1171. Early Modern Britain is the History of the island of Great Britain roughly corresponding to the 16th 17th and 18th centuries Early Modern Ireland saw the first full conquest of Ireland by England and its colonization with Protestant settlers from England and Scotland The history of the United Kingdom — British history — as an unified Sovereign state begins with the legistlative union between the kingdoms of England The history of Ireland begins with the first known settlement in Ireland around 8000 BC when Hunter-gatherers arrived from Great Britain and continental Northern Ireland was established as a distinct region of the United Kingdom on 3 May 1921 under the terms of the Government of Ireland Act 1920. From 1801 to 1922 the whole island of Ireland formed a constituent part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (UK The Irish Free State (Saorstát Éireann (1922&ndash1937 was the state established as a Dominion on 6 December 1922 under the Anglo-Irish Treaty, signed by The country of Wales, or Cymru in Welsh has been inhabited by modern humans for at least 29000 years though continuous human habitation The history of England is similar to the history of Britain until the arrival of the Saxons The history of Ireland begins with the first known settlement in Ireland around 8000 BC when Hunter-gatherers arrived from Great Britain and continental Northern Ireland was established as a distinct region of the United Kingdom on 3 May 1921 under the terms of the Government of Ireland Act 1920. The Republic of Ireland first became an independent state on 6 December 1922 The Isle of Man has been the scene of human occupation since the end of the Last glacial period over 10000 years ago The history of Scotland begins around 10000 years ago when Humans first began to inhabit Scotland after the end of the Devensian glaciation, the last The country of Wales, or Cymru in Welsh has been inhabited by modern humans for at least 29000 years though continuous human habitation The Bailiwick of Guernsey (Bailliage de Guernesey is a British Crown dependency in the English Channel off the coast of Normandy. The island of Jersey and the other Channel Islands represent the last remnants of the medieval Duchy of Normandy that held sway in both France and Prehistoric Orkney See also Prehistoric Orkney As with Prehistoric Scotland generally the arrival of Hunter gatherers in Orkney had to The British Isles have a long history of migration from across Europe, starting in the Palaeolithic period The Constitution of the United Kingdom is said to be uncodified. Irish states have existed under a number of different names for nearly a thousand years This is a history of the economy of the United Kingdom and of the countries that joined to form it in 1707 and 1801 To 1800 The first settlers in Ireland were seafarers who survived largely by Fishing, Hunting and gathering. The military history of the United Kingdom covers the period from the birth of the united Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707 with the political union of England and The Maritime history of the United Kingdom involves events including Shipping, Ports Navigation, and seamen, as well as marine These major social changes have affected England both internally and in its relationship with other nations. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland

Prehistoric society

The distant past does not offer us much information on the structures of society, but major changes in human behaviour make it likely that society must have changed dramatically. In common with much of Europe, the switch from the hunter-gatherer lifestyle to farming around 4000 BC must have heralded an enormous shift in all aspects of human life. A hunter-gatherer society is one whose primary subsistence method involves the direct procurement of edible plants and animals from the wild Foraging and Hunting Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture Events Start of Naqada culture in Egypt 4000 BC — Early Jomon period begins on the islands of Japan Nobody knows what changes may have occurred, and recent evidence of permanent buildings and habitation from 3,000 years ago means that these may still have been gradual shifts. One of the most obvious symbols of change in prehistoric society is Stonehenge. Stonehenge is a Prehistoric Monument located in the English county of Wiltshire, about west of Amesbury and north of Salisbury The building of such stone circles, burial mounds and monuments throughout the British Isles seems to have required a division of labour. A stone circle is an ancient monument Such a monument is not always precisely circular and often forms an ellipse or a setting of four stones laid on an arc of a circle A tumulus (plural tumuli) is a Mound of earth and stones raised over a grave or graves A monument is a structure either explicitly created to commemorate a person or important event or which has become important to a social group as a part of their remembrance of past The British Isles (Irish variously Na hOileáin Bhriotanacha, Oileáin Iarthair Eorpa, Éire agus an Bhreatain Mhór; Ellanyn Goaldagh Eileanan Division of labour or specialization is the specialization of cooperative labour in specific circumscribed tasks and roles intended to increase the Productivity Builders would have needed to dedicate themselves to the task of monument construction to acquire the required skills. Not having time to hunt and farm would make them rely on others to such an extent that specialised farmers would emerge who provided not only for themselves but also for the monument builders.

What we know of prehistoric times apart from their monuments is mostly derived from the remains of burials, and this shows another major change in society: the rise of an aristocracy. Aristocracy is a form of Government, where rule is established through an internal struggle over who has the most status and influence over society and internal relations It is perhaps inevitable that a division of labour would give some people less work while others got more, and an increase of lavishly furnished graves seems to confirm this. A grave is a place where a dead body (usually a human although sometimes an animal is buried Again, care should be taken not to infer too many complex ideas of social history from grave sites, but they do show that people had surplus time for the production of decorative items and they hint at early beliefs about death and religion. This aristocracy, whether it gained its position through martial strength or technological skill, made further social stratification highly likely.

Two other changes which surely influenced social change were the beginning of the Iron Age and the building of hill forts. This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age for the mythological Iron Age see Ages of Man. A hill fort is a fortified refuge or defended settlement The first probably necessitated the second, but the growth in population, competition for resources and an unwillingness to simply move on and abandon settled lives or farms probably made the need for forts greater. Fortification and war raise one important unanswered question about British society: the role of invasion. Any incursion of other peoples into the British Isles is bound to have major social effects, but we do not really know whether these events were invasions, immigrations or simply adoptions of outside ideas; and the native populations may have been mostly killed, slowly supplanted, integrated with the new or just had the aristocracy replaced. These questions relate to many of the changes in culture seen in prehistoric and later times such as the Beaker people, the Celts, the Romans and the Anglo-Saxons. The Bell-Beaker culture (sometimes shortened to Beaker culture, Beaker people, or Beaker folk; Glockenbecherkultur) ca Celts (ˈkɛlts or /ˈsɛlts/, see Names of the Celts The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial For their language see Anglo-Saxon language. Anglo-Saxon is the term usually used to describe the invading Tribes in the south

Romans

The arrival of the Romans in 54 BC probably did not alter society greatly at first, as it was simply a replacement of the ruling class, but numerous, at first minor, ideas would later gain footholds. This page refers to the conquest begun in AD 43 For other Roman invasions see Caesar's invasions of Britain and Carausian Revolt. Year 54 BC was a year of the pre-Julian calendar. Events By place Rome Consuls Appius Claudius Pulcher and Certainly, it wouldn't have affected Ireland in the slightest. Ireland (pronounced /ˈaɾlənd/ Éire) is the third largest island in Europe, and the twentieth-largest island in the world It is from the Romans, and particularly Tacitus, that we get the earliest detailed written records of Britain and its tribal society. Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus (ca 56 &ndash ca 117 was a senator and a Historian of the Roman Empire. We get fascinating glimpses of society in Britain before the Romans, although only briefly and disparagingly mentioned, particularly the importance of powerful women such as Cartimandua and Boudica. Cartimandua (or Cartismandua, ruled ca 43 - 69) whose name appears to contain the Indo-European element *mandu(a "pony"was a queen of the Boudica (also spelled Boudicca, formerly known as Boadicea, and known in Welsh culture and legends as "Buddug" (d City dwelling was not new to pre-Roman Britain, but it was a lifestyle that the Romans preferred even though available to only a select few Romanised Britons. Romanisation was an important part of the Roman conquest strategy, and British rulers who willingly adopted Roman ways were rewarded as client kings; a good example of this is Togidubnus and his ultramodern Roman-style house at Fishbourne. Tiberius Claudius Cogidubnus (or Togidubnus) was a 1st century king of the Regnenses in early Roman Britain.

Although the Roman conquest was relatively swift, there was often rebellion, and war with the unconquered Caledonian tribes in the far north, and so the army became an important part of Roman British life. Caledonia is the Latin name given by the Roman Empire to a northern area of the island of Great Britain. An army, probably larger than that of most medieval monarchs, gave a low-status Briton the chance of a steady job, the possibility of seeing the rest of the empire, and rewards for service if they survived. The army also brought people to Britain, not just from present day Italy but from all over the empire. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest To subdue and control the country, the Romans built a major road network which not only was an important civil engineering project but formed the basis of the country's communication links. Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design construction and maintenance of the physical and naturally built The Romans brought many other innovations and ideas such as writing and plumbing, but how many of these things were the preserve of the rich or were even lost and re-appropriated at a later date is uncertain. The one other great social change the Romans brought to Britain was Christianity, whose effect on society was probably minimal at first but eventually far succeeded. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings

Early mediaeval society

The collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century is thought to have brought general strife and anarchy to society, but the actual events are not well understood. The Western Roman Empire refers to the western half of the Roman Empire, from its division by Diocletian in 285 the other half of the Roman Empire was the Eastern The 5th century is the period from 401 to 500 in accordance with the Julian calendar in Anno Domini / Common Era. Archaeology certainly shows a reduction in the expensive goods found before and the Roman cities began to be abandoned, but much of British society had never had such things. Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from Greek grc ἀρχαιολογία archaiologia – grc ἀρχαῖος archaīos Certainly, numerous peoples took advantage of the absence of Roman power, but how they affected British society is far from clear. The hegemony of Roman rule gave way to a selection of splintered, often competing, societies, including later the heptarchy. Heptarchy ( Greek: seven + realm) is a collective name applied to the Anglo-Saxon ancient kingdoms of south east and central Rather than think of themselves as a small part of a larger Roman empire, they reverted to smaller tribal allegiances.

The Anglo-Saxons' arrival is the most hotly disputed of events, and the extent to which they killed, displaced, or integrated with the existing society is still questioned. For their language see Anglo-Saxon language. Anglo-Saxon is the term usually used to describe the invading Tribes in the south What is clear is that a separate Anglo-Saxon society, which would eventually become England with a more Germanic feel, was set up in the south east of the island. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland The Germanic peoples are a historical group of Indo-European -speaking peoples originating in Northern Europe and identified by their use of the Germanic These new arrivals had not been conquered by the Romans but their society was perhaps similar to that of Britain. The main difference was their pagan religion, which the surviving northern areas of non-Saxon rule sought to convert to Christianity. Paganism (from Latin paganus, meaning "country dweller rustic" is a word used to refer to various religions and religious beliefs from across the world During the 7th century these northern areas, particularly Northumbria, became important sites of learning, with monasteries acting like early universities and figures such as Bede at the forefront of European thought. The 7th century is the period from 601 to 700 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. This article concerns the buildings occupied by monastics. For the life inside monasteries and its historical roots see Monasticism. A university is an institution of Higher education and Research, which grants Academic degrees in a variety of subjects Bede (ˈbiːd (also Saint Bede, the Venerable Bede, or (from Latin Beda (beda (c In the 9th century Alfred the Great was extremely interested in creating a literate, educated people and did much to promote the English language, even writing books himself. The 9th century is the period from 801 to 900 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. Alfred the Great (also Ælfred from the Old English Ælfrēd ˈælfreːd (c English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States Alfred and his successors unified and brought stability to most of the south of Britain that would eventually become England, and he is also credited with organising the country into shires, the forerunners of current counties. A shire is an Administrative division of Great Britain and Australia. A county is a Land area of Regional Government within a larger State.

Late mediaeval society

Feudalism, although always a very contentious idea, is often used to describe medieval society. Feudalism, a term first used in the early modern period (17th century in its most classic sense refers to a Medieval Europe Political system composed Basically stated, a lord owns land or a fief which he allows vassals to work in return for their military service. Under the system of Feudalism, a fiefdom, fief, feud, feoff, or fee, often consisted of inheritable lands or revenue-producing A vassal (also called feodary or fedary) in the terminology that both preceded and accompanied the feudalism of Medieval Europe, The vast majority of the people were peasants who would work on the vassal's fiefs. A peasant is an agricultural worker who subsists by working a small plot of ground This or a similar system was the basis of later medieval society. It probably existed in some form in England before the Norman conquest, but the Normans did much to institute it, either replacing existing lords or by becoming 'overlords' above now-demoted lords. The Normans were the people who gave their names to Normandy, a region in northern France. A wealth of information on these social structures can be drawn from one of the best early surveys of its type, the Domesday Book. The Domesday Book (ˈduːmzdeɪ bʊk also known as Domesday, or Book of Winchester) was the record of the great survey

After the Norman conquest of England, English society seemed fixed and unchanging for several centuries, but gradual and significant changes were still taking place, the exact nature of which would not be appreciated until much later. The Norman lords spoke Norman, and in order to work for them or gain advantage, the English had to use the Anglo-Norman language that developed in England. Norman is a Romance language and one of the Oïl languages. The northern Norman can be classified in the septentrional Oil languages with Picard and The Anglo-Norman language is a term traditionally used to refer to the variety of French used in England and to some extent elsewhere in the British Isles following the This became a necessary administrative and literary language (see Anglo-Norman literature), but despite this the English language was not supplanted, and after gaining much in grammar and vocabulary began in turn to replace the language of the rulers. A literary language is a register of a Language that is used in Literary Writing. Anglo-Norman literature is Literature composed in the Anglo-Norman language developed during the period 1066–1204 when the Duchy of Normandy and English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States At the same time the population of England more than doubled between Domesday and the end of the 13th century, and this growth was not checked by the almost continual foreign warfare, crusades and occasional civil anarchy. The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents

The crusades are one measure of the ever increasing power of the church in medieval life, with some estimates suggesting that as many as 40,000 clergy were ordained during the 13th century. Clergy is the generic term used to describe the formal religious leadership within a given Religion. This is also shown by the spate of cathedral building, common throughout Europe, at the time. This article is about the history and organisation of the cathedral These great buildings would often take several generations to complete, spawning whole communities of artisans and craftsmen and offering them jobs for life. An artisan, also called a Craftsman, is a skilled manual worker who crafts items that may be functional or strictly decorative including furniture clothing An artisan, also called a Craftsman, is a skilled manual worker who crafts items that may be functional or strictly decorative including furniture clothing

The increase in population led not only to larger cities and towns, but also to the building of many more towns. This did not change England significantly from being a mainly rural society, and many agricultural changes, such as crop rotation, kept the countryside profitable. It has been suggested that the 13th century experienced a mini-industrial revolution, with the increased use of wind power and changes in the wool industry. Wool is the fiber derived from the specialized skin cells called follicles of animals in the Caprinae family principally sheep, but the hair of certain species Wool, always important to the British economy, was traditionally exported to be processed, but it was now more frequently processed in England, creating a variety of extra jobs. Many people were finding different roles and responsibilities within English society, with the growth of common law giving people greater access to the law and the "commons" starting to have a place in the Parliament of England during Edward I of England's time. Common law refers to law and the corresponding legal system developed through decisions of courts and similar tribunals rather than through legislative statutes or executive The Parliament of England was the Legislature of the Kingdom of England. Edward I (17 June 1239 – 7 July 1307 popularly known as Longshanks, was a King of England who achieved historical fame by conquering large parts of Wales and almost

The Black Death re-shaped society

After many years of growth and gradual change, there was one seismic event which changed British society dramatically. The Black Death in the middle of the 14th century, according to some estimates, almost halved the population. The Black Death, or the Black Plague, was one of the deadliest Pandemics in human history widely thought to have been caused by a bacterium named Yersinia Whole villages were wiped out by the plague, but rather than destroying society it managed to reinvigorate it. Before the plague there was a large, perhaps excessive, workforce with overpopulation and people competing for scarce resources. The drop in population meant that labourers were in short supply, and peasants who had once been confined to a landowner's estate now had great incentive to travel to areas without workers. This social mobility was combined with the fact that peasants could charge much more for their services, and this began a switch from indentured labourer to wage earner which signalled the decline of the feudal system.

The peasants' new-found freedoms were very worrying to the authorities, who passed laws specifying the maximum that a peasant should be paid, but this had little effect on wages. The first of several sumptuary laws were also made, dictating exactly how people at every level of society should dress and what they could own, in an effort to enforce social distinctions. Sumptuary laws (from Latin sumptuariae leges) are Laws which attempt to regulate habits of consumption These new laws, plus a newly levied poll tax which had been calculated on pre-plague population figures, led directly to the Peasants' Revolt. A poll tax, head tax, or capitation is a Tax of a uniform fixed amount per individual (as opposed to a percentage of income Although quickly put down, the revolt was an early popular reform movement -- a precursor to later, more successful uprisings.

Geofrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales give an illuminating picture of many of the different people who made up medieval society, although these portraits are limited mainly to the middle classes. Geoffrey Chaucer (c 1343 – 25 October 1400? was an English author poet Philosopher, bureaucrat, courtier and Diplomat. The Canterbury Tales is a collection of stories written by Geoffrey Chaucer in the 14th century (two of them in Prose, the rest in verse) The Wife of Bath is one particularly vibrant character within the Tales and a few years later a real-world equivalent, Margery Kempe, showed in her autobiography that women had an important part in medieval society. " The Wife of Bath's Tale " and its Prologue are among the best-known of Geoffrey Chaucer 's Canterbury Tales. Margery Kempe (c 1373 &ndash after 1438 is known for writing The Book of Margery Kempe, a work considered by some to be the first Autobiography in the English

Tudor society

The Tudor dynasty period was seen as a very stable time compared to the previous years of almost constant warfare. The Tudor dynasty or House of Tudor was an English royal Dynasty that lasted 118 years from 1485 to 1603 a period known as the Tudor period The Reformation caused not only internal and external conflict, but also had some surprising effects on society. The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time Before the Dissolution of the Monasteries these institutions had been one of the important parts of social welfare, giving alms and looking after the destitute, and their disappearance meant that the state would have to adopt this role, which culminated in the Poor law of 1601. The Dissolution of the Monasteries, sometimes referred to as the Suppression of the Monasteries, was the formal process between 1536 and 1541 by which Henry VIII disbanded Alms or almsgiving exists in a number of religions In general it involves giving materially to another as an act of religious virtue This article deals chiefly with the English Poor Laws covering England and Wales The monasteries also had been the major educational establishments in the country; after they had gone, many new grammar schools were founded and these, along with the earlier introduction of the printing press, helped to improve literacy. A printing press is a mechanical device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a medium (such as paper or cloth thereby transferring an image At the same time, though, language suffered when the Laws in Wales Act 1535, which combined England and Wales into one state, outlawed the use of Welsh language for public offices. The Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542 (Y Deddfau Uno 1535 a 1542 were a series of parliamentary measures by which the legal system of Wales was annexed to England and England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland Welsh ( cy Cymraeg or cy y Gymraeg, kəmˈrɑːɨɡ and {{IPA|[ə ɡəmˈrɑːɨɡ]}}, is a member of the Brythonic branch of Celtic

The agricultural reforms which had begun in the 13th century accelerated in the 16th century, with inclosure altering the open field system and denying many of the poor access to land. Enclosure or inclosure (the latter is used in Legal documents and Place names is the term used in England and Wales The open field system was the prevalent Agricultural system in much of Europe from the Middle Ages to as recently as the 20th century in places Large areas of land which had once been common, and whose usage had been shared between many people, were now being enclosed by the wealthy mainly for extremely profitable sheep farming. This change in farming practices probably contributed to the growth of cities, as the unlanded and unemployed moved to look for work; at the same time, there was a marked growth in the suburb. South San Jose (cropjpg||thumb|A suburban development in San Jose California. These features were described by an 'explorer' of England, John Leland, as not a place for the excluded poor, who were traditionally kept on the outskirts of the city, but a place for the middle classes to escape the crowded centre. This is about John Leland antiquary For other people called John Leland see John Leland (disambiguation.

Many new opportunities presented themselves for people to alter their places in society. There were the refinements of both the blast furnace and gunpowder which made the arms trade lucrative, and science, art, trade and exploration were all on the increase. A blast furnace is a type of metallurgical Furnace used for Smelting to produce metals generally Iron. Gunpowder is a an explosive mixture of Sulfur, Charcoal and Potassium nitrate (also known as saltpetre/saltpeter that burns rapidly producing volumes Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Art refers to a diverse range of Human activities creations and expressions that are appealing to the Senses or Emotions of a human individual Trade is the willing exchange of goods, services, or both Trade is also called Commerce. William Shakespeare is a very good example of the burgeoning society, showing not only that a lowly son of a glovemaker could go on, apparently without a university education, to become an actor, playwright and theatre owner - not highly socially regarded professions - but also that people increasingly had the money and time to attend the theatre. William Shakespeare ( baptised

Stuart society

Oliver Cromwell, the man with most influence on British society?

If Shakespeare and his contemporaries symbolised the start of true social mobility, then Oliver Cromwell reached the high point of social movement, unequalled even in the 20th century. Oliver Cromwell (25 April 1599 Old Style &ndash 3 September 1658 Old Style) was an English military and political leader best known The son of a farmer, he went on to become a king in all but name, and the effect of that short-lived republicanism would permanently alter British society. Republicanism is the Ideology of governing a nation as a Republic, with an emphasis on Liberty, Rule of law, Popular sovereignty

Cromwell's rise to power was in part the outcome of religious conflict and dissent present since the Lollards of the 14th century. Lollardy was the political and religious movement of the Lollards from the mid- 14th century to the English Reformation. However, these religious radicals and even the Protestant Reformation did not seem to affect society greatly, and in the case of the Reformation it was in England a relatively calm transformation compared to other parts of Europe. There was burning of heretics on both sides as the two factions vied for power, but the vast majority of laypeople seemed unmoved or even uncertain as to which faith they belonged to. Heresy is an introduced change to some system of belief especially a religion that conflicts with the previously established canon of that belief It was only in Stuart times, when the population felt itself to be strongly Church of England, that fear of the re-adoption of the Catholic religion began to cause problems. The Church of England is the officially established Christian church in England, the Mother Church of the worldwide Anglican Catholic is an Adjective derived from the Greek adjective '' / 'katholikos' meaning "whole" or "complete".

The English civil war was far from just a conflict between two religious faiths, and indeed it had much more to do with divisions within the one Protestant religion. The English Civil War (1642-1651 was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists. Protestantism refers to the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated in the 16th century Protestant Reformation. The austere, fundamentalist Puritanism on the one side was opposed to what it saw as the crypto-Catholic decadence of the Anglican church on the other. A Puritan of 16th and 17th century England was an associate of any number of religious groups advocating for more "purity" of Worship and Doctrine, See also Anglicanism The Anglican Communion is an international association of national Anglican churches Divisions also formed along the lines of the common people and the gentry, and between the country and city dwellers. It was a conflict that was bound to disturb all parts of society, and a frequent slogan of the time was "the world turned upside down".

In 1648 the Grandees on the winning Parliamentary side of the Civil War, faced with the perceived duplicity and uncompromising stand of King Charles I, gradually came around to the idea which more radical elements on the Parliamentary side had been advocating for some time: that the death of the King was necessary to restore peace. Grandee is a word either to render in English the Iberic high aristocratic title 'Grande' used by the Spanish Portuguese and Brazilian peerage or by analogy to refer to other Charles I, (19 November 1600 &ndash 30 January 1649 was King of England, Scotland and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution. In January 1649 King Charles was tried and executed as a traitor. During the Interregnum there were two major types of government: the Commonwealth and the Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell. The English Interregnum was the period of Parliamentary and Military rule in the land occupied by modern-day England and Wales after the The Commonwealth of England was the Republican government which ruled first England (including Wales) and then Ireland and Scotland In British history, the Protectorate was the period 1653&ndash1659 during which the Commonwealth of England Scotland and Ireland was governed by a Lord Oliver Cromwell (25 April 1599 Old Style &ndash 3 September 1658 Old Style) was an English military and political leader best known Both these governments were based on the rule of the same class of gentry and wealthy merchants who had formed the majority of the electorate to Parliament before the Civil War. After the capture of King Charles I, and during the first few years of the Interregnum, the old ruling class faced challenges to their position by other sections of society. The most important of these groups were the Levellers, who wished to level society, removing class distinctions to make all men equal. See Levellers (disambiguation for alternative meanings. The Levellers were members of a mid 17th century English Political movement Social class refers to the hierarchical distinctions (or stratification) between individuals or groups in Societies or Cultures. They also wished to see universal suffrage for all adult male householders, regular elections and the abolition of all tithes - which would break the power of the established church. Suffrage (from the Latin suffragium, meaning "voting tablet" and figuratively "right to vote" probably from suffrago "hough" and originally A tithe (from Old English teogoþa "tenth" is a one-tenth part of something paid as a (usually voluntary contribution or as a Tax or levy An established church is a church officially sanctioned and supported by the government of a country e The Levellers' power base was in the New Model Army, but the Grandees managed to contain and then destroy dissent within the Army, and with this loss of influence the levellers were no longer able to mount a credible challenge to the established order. The New Model Army was formed in 1645 by the Parliamentarians in the English Civil War. There were more radical groups than the Levellers - for example the Diggers, the Fifth Monarchy Men, and the Ranters - but these more radical groups did not attract many supporters. The Diggers were an English group begun by Gerrard Winstanley as True Levellers in 1649, who became known as "Diggers" The Fifth Monarchists or Fifth Monarchy Men were active from 1649 to 1661 during the Interregnum, following the English Civil Wars of the 17th century The Ranters were a radical English Sect in the time of the Commonwealth (mid-1600s who were regarded as heretical by the established Church of that period

The Protectorate, which preceded the Restoration, might have continued a little longer if Oliver Cromwell's son, Richard Cromwell, had been capable of carrying on his father's policies. The English Restoration, or simply The Restoration began in 1660 when the English monarchy, Scottish monarchy and Irish monarchy were restored Richard Cromwell ( 4 October 1626 &ndash 12 July 1712) was the third son of Oliver Cromwell, and the second Lord Protector Richard Cromwell eventually resigned his position as Lord Protector, but England was not yet ready to be a republic. Lord Protector is a particular British title for Heads of State with two meanings (and full styles at different periods of history A republic is a State or Country that is not led by a hereditary Monarch, but in which the people (or at least a part of its people have impact on its George Monck, governor of Scotland under the Cromwells, instituted military rule when the younger Cromwell resigned his position in 1659; Monck then began negotiations for Charles to return from exile. George Monck 1st Duke of Albemarle, KG ( 6 December 1608 &ndash 3 January 1670) was an English soldier and politician Scotland ( Gaelic: Alba) is a Country in northwest Europethat occupies the northern third of the island of Great Britain. The Declaration of Breda paved the way for the restoration and Charles's return from exile, an event which took place on May 23, 1660. There are also two contemporary treaties known as the Treaty of Breda. Events 1430 - Siege of Compiègne: Joan of Arc is captured by the Burgundians while leading an army to relieve Compiègne Later in London, on May 29, he was restored as king. London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian defeats the Sassanid army in the Battle of Ctesiphon, under the walls of the

After eleven years without a king, the transition back to a true monarchy was quick and almost uneventful. A monarchy is a Form of government in which supreme power is actually or nominally lodged in an individual who is the Head of state, often for life or The people might have supported the limiting of the power of the king, but what they did not like were the strictures placed on society by the Puritans. Amongst other things, the Puritans banned gambling, cockfights, the theatre and even Christmas. A cockfight is a Blood sport between two Roosters held in a ring called a cockpit The arrival of Charles II—The Merry Monarch—brought a relief from the warlike and then strict society that people had lived in for several years. The theatre returned, along with expensive fashions such as the periwig and even more expensive commodities from overseas. A wig is a head of Hair made from horse-hair human hair wool feathers buffalo hair or synthetic worn on the head for fashion or various other aesthetic and stylistic The British Empire had been expanding since the late 16th century, and along with much wealth returning to the country, expensive luxury items were also appearing. The British Empire was the largest empire in history and for over a century was the foremost global power. Sugar and coffee from the East Indies, tea from India and slaves from Africa were all essential items forming the backbone of trade and the first three became the basis of London society. Sugar is a class of edible Crystalline substances mainly Sucrose, Lactose, and Fructose. CoFFEE is an Open source Software for computer supported collaborative learning (CSCL in a digital classroom The Indies or East Indies (or East India) is a term often used to refer to the islands of SE Asia, especially the Malay Archipelago Tea refers to the cured agricultural product of the leaves leaf buds and internodes of Camellia sinensis, which have been prepared and cured for the market India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom.

One in nine of the population of the country is estimated to have lived in London near the end of the Stuart period and, as a hub of trade, expensive goods from all over accumulated there. Coffee houses were becoming the centres of business and social life, and it has also been suggested that tea might have played its own part in making Britain powerful, as the antiseptic qualities of tea allowed people to live closer together, protecting them from germs, and making the Industrial Revolution possible. A coffeehouse ( French / Portuguese: café; Spanish: cafetería; Italian: caffè Antiseptics (from Greek αντί - anti, '"against" + σηπτικός - septikos, "putrefactive" are antimicrobial The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the ^[1] These products can be considered as beginning the consumer society which, while it promoted trade and brought development and riches to society, helped widen the gap between rich and poor. Consumers refers to individuals or households that use goods and services generated within the economy.

At the beginning of the reign of the Stuart kings, James I of England (James VI of Scotland) authorised a new translation of the Bible which was known as the King James Bible or Authorised Version. James VI and I (19 June 1566 – 27 March 1625 was King of Scotland as James VI, and King of England and King of Ireland as James This was not only an important event in clearly separating the Anglican and Catholic churches, just as the Book of Common Prayer had done fifty years earlier, but as a standard text it also was a major influence on English literature, language and thought for centuries to come. Anglicanism is a tradition of Christian faith Churches in this tradition either have historical connections to the Church of England or have similar beliefs Catholic is an Adjective derived from the Greek adjective '' / 'katholikos' meaning "whole" or "complete". The Book of Common Prayer is the common title of a number of prayer books of the Church of England and used throughout the Anglican Communion. The term English literature refers to Literature written in the English language, including literature composed in English by Writers not necessarily from Newspapers, a fairly new invention, soon became important tools of social discourse and the diarists of the time such as Samuel Pepys and John Evelyn are some of the best sources we have of everyday life in Restoration England. A newspaper is a written Publication containing News, information and Advertising, usually printed on low-cost paper called Newsprint. For other uses of the term 'diary' see Diary (disambiguation. Samuel Pepys, FRS (23 February 1633 – 26 May 1703 was an English naval administrator and Member of Parliament, who is now most famous for John Evelyn ( 31 October 1620 – 27 February 1706) was an English writer gardener and diarist The English Restoration, or simply The Restoration began in 1660 when the English monarchy, Scottish monarchy and Irish monarchy were restored

Georgian society

Stuart society ended with the Glorious Revolution, perhaps not all that glorious, but it did show that the power of the king had not recovered from limitations it suffered in the civil war and was still under obligation to the state. The Glorious Revolution, also called the Revolution of 1688, was the overthrow of King James II of England (VII of Scotland in 1688 by a union One of William III's first actions on coming to power was to sign the Act of Toleration of 1689 which granted rights of free religious worship to many of the Protestant sects which had been formed around the time of the civil war. William III or William of Orange (14 November 1650 &ndash 8 March 1702 He is informally known in Northern Ireland and Scotland as "King Billy" Baptists, Congregationalists, Methodists, Ranters and Quakers were all allowed to pray freely, although many of these groups had taken the opportunity of the expanding empire and had set themselves up in colonies. Baptist is a term describing individuals belonging to a Baptist church or a Baptist denomination. Congregational churches are Protestant Christian churches practicing Congregationalist church governance, in which each congregation independently Methodism is a movement within Protestant Christianity represented by a number of denominations and organizations The Ranters were a radical English Sect in the time of the Commonwealth (mid-1600s who were regarded as heretical by the established Church of that period This article is about a type of political territory For other uses see Colony (disambiguation.

The Industrial Revolution can be thought of as starting as early as the 16th century, although it did not reach its peak until the 19th century, and the form it took during the Georgian era was an agricultural revolution. The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar The arts Especially during the mid-18th century the period was marked by cultural vibrancy with the establishment of the British Museum in 1753 and the contributions The British Agricultural Revolution describes a period of development in Britain between the 18th century and the end of the 19th century which saw a massive increase in agricultural Along with developments in technology such as Jethro Tull's seed drill which allowed greater yields, the process of enclosure, which had been altering rural society since the Middle Ages, became unstoppable. Jethro Tull ( 30 March 1674 &ndash 21 February 1741) was an English agricultural pioneer during the period before A seed drill is a device for planting Seeds in the soil Before the introduction of the seed drill the common practice was to "broadcast" seeds by hand Enclosure or inclosure (the latter is used in Legal documents and Place names is the term used in England and Wales More people were made unemployed by being excluded and forced off the land which, despite compensation, often meant having to enter the workhouse, leaving many with a lasting distrust of the law. A workhouse, colloquially known as a spike was a place where people who were unable to support themselves could go to live and work Criticism from the church did not stop the process, and the new mechanisation that was being introduced needed much larger fields — the layout of the British countryside with the patchwork of fields divided by hedgerows that we see today. As in other major times of inclosure, the poor moved into the cities looking for work, and not only did existing cities grow but small market towns such as Manchester, Sheffield and Leeds became cities simply by weight of population. Sheffield ( is a city and Metropolitan borough in South Yorkshire, England Leeds ( is located on the River Aire in West Yorkshire, England

Despite changes taking place in England throughout Georgian times, it is often noted that the country was relatively calm and stable, certainly compared with the revolutions and wars which were convulsing Europe at the time. The politics of the French Revolution did not translate directly into British society to spark an equally seismic revolution, nor did the loss of the American Colonies dramatically weaken or disrupt Great Britain. The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an In this article the inhabitants of the thirteen colonies that supported the American Revolution are primarily referred to as "Americans" with occasional references to "Patriots" Part of the economic stability can be ascribed to wealth gained through the colonisation of India. For usage see British rule in India Company rule in India (sometimes Company Raj, " raj," lit Great Britain's more gradual adoption of the radical politics of the time is often explained by the growth in Methodism among the poor and working classes, which diverted their attention to more spiritual rather than physical revolutions. Methodism is a movement within Protestant Christianity represented by a number of denominations and organizations Another factor frequently cited for the stable basis which the burgeoning industrial revolution would be built on is the fact of the Civil War in the 17th century. As a means of recording the passage of Time, the 17th Century was that Century which lasted from 1601 - 1700 in the Gregorian calendar Although not in living memory, the war that raged between king and parliament still influenced national life, and fear of yet another damaging revolution is thought to have prevented many from engaging in such activities.

Victorian era

The social changes during the Victorian era were wide-ranging and fundamental, leaving their mark not only upon the United Kingdom but upon much of the world which was under Britain's influence during the 19th century. Culture The Victorian fascination with novelty resulted in a deep interest in the relationship between modernity and cultural continuities The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar It can even be argued that these changes eclipsed the massive shifts in society during the 20th century; certainly many of the developments of the 20th century have their roots in the 19th. The twentieth century of the Common Era began on The technology of the Industrial Revolution had a great impact on society. The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the Inventions not only introduced new industries for employment, but the products and services produced also altered society. Mining to extract the coal and other raw materials needed to fuel the Industrial Revolution was a major new industry, and before 1842 even women worked in the mines. Mining is the extraction of valuable Minerals or other geological materials from the earth usually (but not always from an Ore body Year 1842 ( MDCCCXLII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common

The status of the poor is one area in which huge changes occurred. A good illustration of the differences between life in the Georgian and Victorian eras are the writings of two of England's greatest authors, Jane Austen and Charles Dickens. Jane Austen (16 Both writers held a fascination for people, society and the details of everyday life but in Austen the poor are almost absent, mainly because they were still the rural poor, remote and almost absent from the minds of the middle classes. For Dickens, only a few years later, the poor were his main subject, as he had partly suffered their fate. The poor now were an unavoidable part of urban society and their existence and plight could not be ignored. Industrialisation made large profits for the entrepreneurs of the times, and their success was in contrast not only to the farm workers who were in competition with imported produce but also to the aristocracy whose landowning wealth was now becoming less significant than business wealth. It is about this time that the class system, always seen as a hallmark of English society, began to flourish. Social class refers to the hierarchical distinctions (or stratification) between individuals or groups in Societies or Cultures. Probably inspired by the even more complex caste system of newly colonised India, the British class system created an intricate hierarchy of people which contrasted the new and old rich, the skilled and unskilled, the rural and urban and many more. Castes are Hereditary systems of occupation, Endogamy, social culture, Social class, and Political power. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country

John Wesley's Methodists had succeeded in their campaign for the abolition of slavery in 1807 and Britain began its work to eradicate it worldwide, but at the same time indentured labour and near-slavery were still common, even at the heart of Empire. John Wesley (ˈwɛslɪ ( – March 2, 1791) was an Anglican cleric and Christian theologian who was the founder of the (Evangelical Methodism is a movement within Protestant Christianity represented by a number of denominations and organizations As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another Year 1807 ( MDCCCVII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common An indentured servant is a form of Debt bondage worker The Laborer is under Contract of an Employer for some period of time usually three to Some of the first attacks on industrialisation were the Luddites' destruction of machines, but this had less to do with factory conditions and more to do with machines mass-producing linen much quicker and cheaper than the handmade products of skilled labourers. The Luddites were a Social movement of British Textile artisans in the early Nineteenth century who protested&mdashoften by destroying mechanized The army was called to the areas of Luddite activity such as Lancashire and Yorkshire and for a time there were more British soldiers controlling the Luddites than fighting Napoléon in Spain. Lancashire is a non-metropolitan county of historic origin in the North West of England, bounded to the west by the Irish Sea Yorkshire is a historic county of Northern England and the largest in Great Britain. Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. The squalid, dangerous and oppressive conditions of many of the new Victorian factories and the surrounding communities which rose to service them became important issues of discontent, and the workers began to form trade unions to get their working conditions addressed. A trade union or labour union is an organization of workers who have banded together to achieve common goals in key areas such as wages hours and working conditions forming

The first unions were feared and distrusted by the government, which tried in different ways to ban them. The most widely known case was that of the Tolpuddle Martyrs of 1834, an early attempt at a union whose members were tried on a spurious charge, found guilty and transported to Australia. The Tolpuddle Martyrs were a group of 19th century British labourers who were arrested for and convicted of swearing a secret oath as members of the Friendly Society Year 1834 ( MDCCCXXXIV) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common Transportation or penal transportation refers to the deporting of Convicted Criminals to a Penal colony, for example by France For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. The sentence was challenged and they were released shortly afterwards, but unions were still threatened. It was not until the formation of the TUC in 1868 and the passing of the Trade Union Act 1871 that union membership became reasonably legitimate. The Trades Union Congress (TUC is a national trade union centre, a federation of Trade unions in the United Kingdom, representing the majority of trade Year 1868 ( MDCCCLXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap Many pieces of legislation were passed to improve working conditions, including the Ten Hours Act 1847 to reduce working hours, and these culminated in the Factory Act 1901. The Factory Acts were a series of Acts passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom to limit the number of hours worked by women and children first in the textile

Many of these acts resulted from the blight of Britain's agricultural depression. Beginning in 1873 and lasting until 1896, many farmers and rural workers were hard-pressed for a stable income. With thte decline in wheat prices and land productivity many countrymen were left looking for any hope of prosperity. Although the British parliament gave substantial aid to farmers and laborers, many still complained that rents were too high, wages too low, and the hours laborers were required to work were too long for their income. As a result many workers turned to unions to have their concerns heard and, with the acts listed above as proof, were able to achieve some success.

Links and progress

The railways changed communications and society dramatically

Another important development during the Victorian era was the improvement of communication links. Stage coaches, canals, steam ships and most notably the railways all allowed goods, raw materials and people to be moved about, rapidly facilitating trade and industry. For other meanings see Stagecoach (disambiguation. A stagecoach (also called diligence) is a type of four-wheeled enclosed Canals are artificial channels for water There are two types of canals water conveyance canals which are used for the conveyance and delivery of water and Waterways A steamboat or steamship, sometimes called a steamer, is a ship in which the primary method of propulsion is steam power, typically driving a Propeller "Railroad" and "Railway" both redirect here For other uses see Railroad (disambiguation. Even later communication methods such as photography, cinema, telegraph, telephones, cars and aircraft, which would not have an impact but also leisure. Photography (fә'tɒgrәfi or fә'tɑːgrәfi (from Greek φωτο and γραφία is the process and Art of recording pictures by means of capturing Basic principle A traditional landline telephone system also known as "plain old telephone service" (POTS, commonly handles both signaling and audio information Many people used the train services to visit the seaside, helped by the Bank Holiday Act of 1871 which created a number of fixed holidays which all sectors of society could enjoy. The Bank Holidays Act 1871 established the first Bank Holidays in the United Kingdom. Large numbers travelling to quiet fishing villages such as Worthing, Brighton, Morecambe and Scarborough began turning them into major tourist centres, and people like Thomas Cook saw tourism and even overseas travel as viable businesses. Worthing (ˈwɜrðɪŋ is a large seaside town and a local government borough in West Sussex, England Brighton ( is a town on the south coast of England and with its neighbour Hove, forms the city of Brighton and Hove. Morecambe is a resort town within the City of Lancaster district of Lancashire, England. Scarborough is a town on the North Sea coast of North Yorkshire, England. Thomas Cook ( 22 November 1808 &ndash 18 July 1892) of Melbourne Derbyshire, founded the travel agency that is now Thomas Cook The trains became another important factor in regulating and ordering society, with "railway time" being the standard by which clocks were set throughout Britain. Steam ships such as the SS Great Britain and SS Great Western made international travel more common but also advanced trade, so that in Britain it was not just the luxury goods of earlier times that were imported into the country but essentials such as corn from the America and meat from Australia. History The SS Great Britain was designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, Thomas Guppy, Christopher Claxton and William Patterson Origins Isambard Kingdom Brunel 's idea was that steam would replace sail power on the regularly-scheduled trans-Atlantic "packet boat" services which had The United States of America —commonly referred to as the For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. One more important innovation in communications was the Penny Black, the first postage stamp, which standardised postage to a flat price regardless of distance sent. The Penny Black, the world's first adhesive Postage stamp of a public postal system was issued by the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland on A postage stamp is an adhesive paper evidence of pre-paying a fee for postal services

The Victorians were impressed by science and progress, and felt that they could improve society in the same way as they were improving technology. The model town of Saltaire was founded, along with others, as a planned environment with good sanitation and many civic, educational and recreational facilities, although it lacked a pub, which was regarded as a focus of dissent. Saltaire is the name of a Victorian era Model village in the City of Bradford, West Yorkshire, England, by the River Aire Similar sanitation reforms, prompted by the Public Health Acts 1848 and 1869, were made in the crowded, dirty streets of the existing cities, and soap was the main product shown in the relatively new phenomenon of advertising. Sanitation is the hygienic means of preventing human contact from the hazards of wastes to promote health "Board of Health" redirects here This page describes the defunct bodies in England and Wales which used that name not any modern ones SOAP (see below for name and origins is a protocol for exchanging XML -based messages over Computer networks normally using Advertising is a form of Communication that typically attempts to persuade potential Customers to Purchase or to consume more of a particular Brand Victorians also strove to improve society through many charities and relief organisations such as the Salvation Army, the RSPCA and the NSPCC, and at the same time there were many people such as Florence Nightingale trying to reform areas of public life. The definition of charitable organization, and of charity varies according to the country and in some instances the region of the country in which the charitable organization operates The Salvation Army is a Christian charity and church that is internally organised like a military service. This article is about the original RSPCA in England and Wales The National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children ( NSPCC) is a UK charity campaigning and working in child protection Florence Nightingale, OM, RRC (in her own pronunciation ˈflɒɾəns ˈnaɪtɪŋgeɪl 12 May 1820 – 13 August 1910 who came to be known as "The Another new institution was Robert Peel's "peelers", one of the earliest formal police forces. Sir Robert Peel 2nd Baronet (5 February 1788 &ndash 2 July 1850 was the Conservative Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 10 December 1834 to 8 April Police are agents or agencies usually of the executive, empowered to enforce the law and to effect public and social order through the legitimatized use of force

Queen Victoria was possibly one of the most powerful women in Britain since Queen Elizabeth, but her status did not dramatically improve the position of women within society. Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901 was from 20 June 1837 the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland There were many movements to obtain greater rights for women, but voting rights did not come until the next century. The Married Women's Property Act 1882 meant that women did not lose their right to their own property when they got married and could divorce without fear of poverty, although divorce was frowned upon and very rare during the 19th century. Traditionally a husband and Wife were 'one person in law' As a result according to Blackstone, 'the very being or legal existence of married woman suspended during the The Victorians are often credited with having invented childhood. Despite the image of large Victorian families, the trend was towards smaller families, probably because of lower infant mortality rates and longer life spans. Legislation reduced the working hours of children while raising the minimum working age, and the passing of the Education Act 1870 set the basis for universal primary education. The Elementary Education Act 1870 commonly known as Forster's Education Act set the framework for schooling of all children over the age of 5 and under 13 in England Primary education is the first stage of Compulsory education.

20th century

War and depression

Victorian attitudes and ideals continued into the first years of the 20th century, and what really changed society was the start of World War I. The twentieth century of the Common Era began on World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All The army was traditionally never a large employer in the nation, and the regular army stood at 247,432 at the start of the war. By 1918 there were about five million people in the army and the fledgling Royal Air Force, newly formed from the RNAS and the RFC, was about the same size of the pre-war army. Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The Royal Naval Air Service or RNAS was the air arm of the Royal Navy until near the end of the First World War, when it merged with the British The Royal Flying Corps (RFC was the over-land air arm of the British military during most of the First World War. The almost three million casualties were known as the "lost generation", and such numbers inevitably left society scarred; but even so, some people felt their sacrifice was little regarded in Britain, with poems like Siegfried Sassoon's Blighters criticising the ill-informed jingoism of the home front. Siegfried Loraine Sassoon, CBE MC ( 8 September 1886 &ndash 1 September 1967) was an English poet and Author Jingoism is defined in the Oxford English Dictionary as "extreme Patriotism in the form of aggressive foreign policy" Home front is the informal term commonly used to describe the Civilian populace of the Nation at War as an active support Conscription brought people of many different classes, and also people from all over the empire, together and this mixing was seen as a great leveller which would only accelerate social change after the war. Conscription (also known as the draft, the call-up or national service) is a general term for involuntary labor demanded by some established authority

The social reforms of the previous century continued into the twentieth with the Labour Party being formed in 1900, but this did not achieve major success until the 1922 general election. The Labour Party is a Political party in the United Kingdom. Founded at the start of the 20th century it has been since the 1920s the principal party of the Year 1900 ( MCM) was an exceptional Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar Year 1922 ( MCMXXII) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Lloyd George said after the First World War that "the nation was now in a molten state", and his Housing Act 1919 would lead to affordable council housing which allowed people to move out of Victorian inner-city slums. David Lloyd George 1st Earl Lloyd George of Dwyfor OM, PC (17 January 1863 &ndash 26 March 1945 was a British Statesman and the only The council house is a form of public or social housing in the United Kingdom. The inner city is the central area of a major city or metropolis The slums, though, remained for several more years, with trams being electrified long before many houses. A tram, tramcar, trolley, trolley car, or streetcar is a railborne vehicle, of lighter weight and construction than a Train The Representation of the People Act 1918 gave women householders the vote, but it would not be until 1928 that equal suffrage was achieved. The Representation of the People Act 1918 was an Act of Parliament passed to reform the electoral system in the United Kingdom. Year 1928 ( MCMXXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.

A short lived post-war boom soon led to a depression that would be felt worldwide. This article deals with the effects of the Great Depression of the 1930s - also known as the Great Slump - on the United Kingdom. Particularly hardest hit were the north of England and Wales, where unemployment reached 70% in some areas. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland The General Strike was called during 1926 in support of the miners and their falling wages, but little improved, the downturn continued and the Strike is often seen as the start of the slow decline of the British coal industry. The UK General Strike of 1926 was a General strike that lasted nine days from 3 May 1926 to 12 May 1926. Year 1926 ( MCMXXVI) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. In 1936 two hundred unemployed men walked from Jarrow to London in a bid to show the plight of the industrial poor, but the Jarrow March, as it was known, had little impact and it was not until the Second World War that industrial prospects improved. Year 1936 ( MCMXXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Jarrow (ˈjæroʊ or /ˈjærə/ is a Town on the River Tyne, England with a Population around 27000 (2001 Census) London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. The Jarrow March (or Jarrow Crusade, from the phrase on banners carried by the marchers was an October 1936 Protest march against Unemployment George Orwell's book The Road to Wigan Pier gives a bleak overview of the hardships of the time. Eric Arthur Blair (25 June 1903 – 21 January 1950 who used the Pseudonym George Orwell, was an English writer The Road to Wigan Pier was written by George Orwell and published in 1937.

The Second World War is sometimes regarded as simply a continuation of the previous war after a brief period of peace, but the conflicts were significantly different, particularly for British society. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including The war started with a phony war in which threats of major actions did not materialise, but thousands of children were moved from the cities into the country. The Phoney War, also called the Twilight War by Winston Churchill, der Sitzkrieg in German ("the sitting war" a Ten times the number of children were evacuated in 1939, when there were troops on the early expeditionary force in France, but many returned some months later and remained in the cities until the end of the war. Evacuations of civilians in Britain during World War II were designed to save the population of urban or military areas from German aerial bombing Year 1939 ( MCMXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. There were half the number of military casualties in this war than the last, but the improvements in aerial warfare meant that there were many more civilian casualties and a foreign war seemed much closer to home. The early years of the war in which Britain "stood alone" and the Blitz spirit which developed as Britain suffered under aerial bombardment helped pull the nation together after the divisions of the previous decade, and campaigns such as "Dig for Victory" helped give the nation a common purpose. Victory gardens, also called war gardens or food gardens for defense, were Vegetable, Fruit and Herb Gardens planted at The focus on agriculture to feed the nation gave some people their first introduction to the countryside, and women played an important part in the war effort as the Land Girls; there were also half a million women in the armed forces, with even Princess Elizabeth, the future queen, training as a lorry driver. For the ship see RMS Queen Elizabeth 2 Elizabeth II (Elizabeth Alexandra Mary Context States headed by Elizabeth II The measure of freedom women received through these jobs, and working in factories in the jobs of male workers who had gone into battle, is considered as contributing to the later sexual revolution. The sexual revolution refers to the well-documented changes in social thought and codes of behaviour related to sexuality throughout the Western world that continues to evolve

Late 20th century

The Labour Party victory after World War II was seen as a vote by the returning soldiers for what they felt were their rights after serving their country. The Labour Party is a Political party in the United Kingdom. Founded at the start of the 20th century it has been since the 1920s the principal party of the World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including The most important reform was the founding of the National Health Service on July 5, 1948. The National Health Service is the name commonly used to refer to the four Publicly-funded healthcare systems of the United Kingdom collectively or individually (although Events 1295 - Scotland and France form an alliance the beginnings of the Auld Alliance, against England. Year 1948 ( MCMXLVIII) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the 1948 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. It promised to give cradle to grave care for everyone in the country, regardless of income. Rationing, which had been instituted during the war, was extended even after the war — with bread rationed between 1946 and 1948, and sweets rationed until 1954. Rationing is the controlled distribution of resources and scarce goods or services Confectionery is a set of Food items that are rich in Sugar; modern usage may include substances rich in artificial sweeteners as well For some of the very poorest, rationing was beneficial, because their rationed diet was of greater nutritional value than their pre-war diet. Just as after the World War I, there was a short-lived economic boom after the Second World War, followed by an economic downturn in the early 1950s, which became known as the austerity years. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All In Economics, austerity is when a national government reduces its spending in order to pay back Creditors Austerity is usually required when a government's fiscal

Leisure activities began to be more accessible to more people after the war. Holiday camps, which had first opened in the 1930s, became popular holiday destinations in the 1950s — and people increasingly had money to pursue their personal hobbies. Holiday Camp is a 1947 British film directed by Ken Annakin, starring Jack Warner, Jimmy Hanley, Kathleen Harrison and Dennis The BBC's early television service was given a major boost in 1953 with the coronation of Elizabeth II, attracting an estimated audience of twenty million, proving an impetus for people to buy televisions. A coronation is a ceremony marking the investiture of a Monarch with regal power specifically involving the placement of a crown upon his or her head and the For the ship see RMS Queen Elizabeth 2 Elizabeth II (Elizabeth Alexandra Mary Context States headed by Elizabeth II At the same time, other new consumer goods were coming into homes, and houses were more likely to be owned with mortgages. The markets where people traditionally bought their goods were being replaced by chain stores and shopping centres, and advertising became widespread. Chain stores are Retail outlets that share a Brand and central management and usually have standardized business methods and practices A shopping mall or shopping centre is a building or set of buildings that contain Retail units with interconnecting Walkways enabling visitors Cars were becoming a significant part of British life, with city-centre congestion and ribbon developments springing up along many of the major roads. Ribbon development means building houses along the roads radiating from a town These problems led to the idea of the green belt to protect the countryside, which was at risk from development. A green belt or greenbelt is a policy or land use designation used in Land use planning to retain areas of largely undeveloped wild or agricultural land

The 1960s are often considered a time of great shifts in attitudes in the United Kingdom. One notable event was the publication of D. H. Lawrence's Lady Chatterley's Lover by Penguin Books in 1960. David Herbert Richards Lawrence (11 September 1885 – 2 March 1930 was an English writer of the 20th century whose prolific and diverse output included Novels short Lady Chatterley's Lover is a Novel by D H Lawrence written in 1928 Penguin Books is a British Publisher founded in 1935 by Allen Lane. Although first printed in 1928, the release in 1960 of an inexpensive mass-market paperback version prompted a court case. Mass Marketing is a market coverage strategy in which a firm decides to ignore market segment differences and go after the whole market with one offer Paperback, softback, or softcover describe and refer to a Book by the nature of its binding. The prosecuting council's question, "Would you want your wife or servants to read this book?" highlighted how far society had changed, and how little some people had noticed the change. The book was seen as one of the first events in a general relaxation of sexual attitudes. Other elements of the sexual revolution included the development of The Pill, Mary Quant's miniskirt and the 1967 legalisation of homosexuality. The sexual revolution refers to the well-documented changes in social thought and codes of behaviour related to sexuality throughout the Western world that continues to evolve Mary Quant OBE FCSD (born 11 February 1934 in Blackheath, London, England) is an English The miniskirt (often hyphenated as mini-skirt) is a Skirt with Homosexuality refers to sexual behavior with or attraction to people of the same sex or to a Homosexual orientation. There was a rise in the incidence of divorce and abortion, and a resurgence of the women's liberation movement, whose campaigning helped secure the Equal Pay Act and the Sex Discrimination Act in 1975. The feminist movement (also known as the Women's Movement or Women's Liberation) is a series of campaigns on issues such as Reproductive rights (sometimes Equal pay for women is an issue involving pay Inequality between men and women The Sex Discrimination Act 1975 is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom to protect Men and Women from Discrimination on

The 1960s were a time of greater disregard for the establishment, with a satire boom led by people who were willing to attack their elders. Satire is often strictly defined as a literary genre or form; although in practice it is also found in the graphic and Performing arts In satire human Pop music became a dominant form of expression for the young, and bands like The Beatles and the Rolling Stones were seen as leaders of youth culture. Pop music as a genre features a noticeable rhythmic element catchy melodies and hooks, a mainstream style and conventional structure The Beatles were a pop and rock band from Liverpool, England formed in 1960 A youth subculture is a Youth -based Subculture with distinct styles behaviours and interests Youth-based subcultures such as the mods, rockers, hippies and skinheads became more visible. For the term in biology see Subculture (biology. For the song by New Order see Sub-culture (song. Mod (originally modernist, sometimes capitalised is a Subculture that originated in London in the late 1950s and peaked in the early to mid 1960s The Hippie Subculture was originally a Youth movement that began in the United States during the early 1960s and spread around the world A skinhead is a member of a Subculture that originated among Working class youths in the United Kingdom in the 1960s and then spread to other parts of

Reforms in education led to the effective elimination of the grammar school. A grammar school is one of several different types of School in the history of education in the United Kingdom and other English-speaking countries The rise of the comprehensive school was aimed at producing a more egalitarian educational system, and there were ever-increasing numbers of people going into higher education. A comprehensive school is a Secondary school and State school for children from the age of 11 to at least 16 that does not select children on the basis of academic Higher education is Education that is provided by universities, vocational universities, Community colleges Liberal arts colleges

In the 1950s and 1960s, immigration of people to the United Kingdom, mainly from former British colonies in the Caribbean, India and Pakistan, began to escalate, leading to racism. Since the formation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in 1922 there has been substantial Immigration from other parts of The world. The Caribbean (ˌkærəˡbiən kæ'rəbiən Cariben|Caraïben or Caraïben; Caraïbe or more commonly Antilles; Caribe is a Region consisting India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and List of racism-related topics|Racism by country Racism, by its simplest definition is the belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that Dire predictions were made about the effect of these new arrivals on British society (most famously Enoch Powell's Rivers of Blood speech), and tension led to a few race riots. Brigadier John Enoch Powell, MBE ( June 16 1912 &ndash February 8 1998) was a British Politician, The Rivers of Blood speech was a speech about Immigration and anti- Discrimination legislation in the United Kingdom made on 20 April, 1968 Race Riot is a 1929 animated Short subject, featuring Oswald the Lucky Rabbit. In the longer term, many people with differing cultures have successfully integrated into the country, and some have risen to high positions.

One important change during the 1980s was the opportunity given to many people to buy their council houses, which resulted in many more people becoming property owners in a stakeholder society. The council house is a form of public or social housing in the United Kingdom. At the same time, prime minister Margaret Thatcher weakened the trade unions. This article is about the government position For other uses see Prime Minister (disambiguation. Margaret Hilda Thatcher Baroness Thatcher LG, OM, PC, FRS (born 13 October 1925 A trade union or labour union is an organization of workers who have banded together to achieve common goals in key areas such as wages hours and working conditions forming The United Kingdom's entry into the European Community (EEC) in 1973 meant that Britain was now more closely tied to its member states than ever before, and the country's relationship with the European Union (as the EEC is now called) is still much debated. The European Community (EC is one of the Three pillars of the European Union (EU created under the Maastricht Treaty (1992 The European Union ( EU) is a political and economic union of twenty-seven member states, located primarily in The ecology movements of the 1980s reduced the emphasis on intensive farming, and promoted organic farming and conservation of the countryside. Ecology (from Greek grc οἶκος oikos, "house(hold" and grc -λογία -logia) is the scientific study of Intensive farming or intensive agriculture is an Agricultural production system characterized by the high Inputs of Capital, Fertilizers Organic farming is a form of agriculture that relies on Crop rotation, Green manure, Compost, Biological pest control, and mechanical Cultivation "Conservation Biology" redirects here For the Scientific journal, see Conservation Biology (journal.

Religious observance declined notably in Britain during the 20th century, even with the growth of non-Christian religions due to immigration and travel. Church of England attendance has particularly dropped, although it is not clear if personal spirituality has changed markedly. The Church of England is the officially established Christian church in England, the Mother Church of the worldwide Anglican The movement to Keep Sunday Special seems to have all but lost its battle, and the move towards a 24-hour society continues, with working and living patterns changing accordingly.

Notes

References

• Briggs, Asa (1983). Asa Briggs Baron Briggs (born 7 May 1921) is a British Historian, one of the most respected historians who has written on the Victorian era A Social History of England. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 0-29-778074-3.  
• Trevelyan, G. M. (1967). George Macaulay Trevelyan CBE OM ( February 16, 1876 Welcombe House, Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire English Social History: A Survey of Six Centuries from Chaucer to Queen Victoria. Penguin Books Ltd. ISBN 0-14-020860-7.  
• Strong, Roy (1996). Sir Roy Colin Strong (born 23 August 1935) is an English Art historian, museum curator writer broadcaster and landscape designer The Story of Britain. London: Hutchinson. ISBN 1-85-681099-2.