- For other perspectives on the History of Catalonia, see also: History of Europe; History of Spain; History of France; Crown of Aragon; Catalonia (historic territory). The history of Europe describes the passage of time from humans inhabiting the European continent to the present day The History of Spain spans the period from Prehistoric Iberia, through the rise and fall of the first global empire, to Spain's current position The History of France has been divided into a series of separate historical articles navigable through the list to the right The Crown of Aragon was a permanent union of multiple titles and states in the hands of the King of Aragon. The Principality of Catalonia ˈkætəˌloʊ̯nɪə (Principat de Catalunya Aranese: Principautat de Catalonha; Spanish: Principado de Cataluña
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The territory that now constitutes the autonomous community of Catalonia in Spain, and the adjoining Catalan region of France, was first settled during the Middle Palaeolithic. Catalan ˈkætəˌlæn ( català kətəˈla or) is a Romance language, the national and official language of Andorra, and a co-official Catalan grammar is the Grammar of the Catalan language. Morphology For general discussion of morphology (not specific to Catalan see main article The Phonology of Catalan, a Romance language, has a certain degree of dialectal variation This article covers the Orthography of Catalan, a Romance language. The Institut d'Estudis Catalans (Institute for Catalan Studies or IEC is an academic institution which seeks to undertake research and study into "all elements of Catalan culture The Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua ( AVL) - Valencian Academy of the Language - is an institution created on September 16, 1998 by the The Count of Barcelona was the major ruler in Catalonia from the 9th until the 17th century The Crown of Aragon was a permanent union of multiple titles and states in the hands of the King of Aragon. Origins The origins of the military force in Catalonia soar to the 13th century, with the Sagramental, the fraternity among several villages to guarantee their Origin The Corts of Barcelona The Catalan constitutions were promulgated by the Corts of Barcelona ( corts being the Catalan for courts Furs of Valencia ( Furs de València, in Valencian) were the laws of the Kingdom of Valencia during most of Middle Ages and The Treaty of the Pyrenees was signed in 1659 to end the war between France and Spain that had begun in 1635 during the Thirty Years' War. The Nueva Planta decrees (Decretos de Nueva Planta were a number of Decrees signed between 1707 and 1716 by Philip V &mdashthe first Bourbon king of Different meanings Països Catalans is a polysemic expression and so it has different meanings depending on the context Catalonia (Cataluña Catalunya Aranese: Catalonha) is an Autonomous Community in the northeast part of Spain. The Valencian Community ( Valencian and official Comunitat Valenciana; Comunidad Valenciana is an Autonomous community located in central to The Balearic Islands ( Catalan and official Illes Balears; Spanish: Islas Baleares) are an Archipelago in the western Mediterranean The term La Franja ("The Strip" more properly Franja de Aragón or Franja de Poniente "Western Strip" in Spanish) Franja d'Aragó Andorra, officially the Principality of Andorra ( Catalan: Principat d'Andorra) is a small Landlocked country in western Alghero ( l'Alguer in Catalan and S'Alighèra in Sardinian) is a town of about 42000 inhabitants (down from 54300 inhabitants since early El Carche ( el Carxe in Valencian) is a mountainous sparsely populated area in Murcia, Spain, lying between the municipalities Jumilla The Generalitat Valenciana is the generic name covering the different self government institutions under which the Spanish Autonomous community of Valencia is politically The Balearic Islands ( Catalan and official Illes Balears; Spanish: Islas Baleares) are an Archipelago in the western Mediterranean The General Council of the Valleys (in Catalan, Consell General de les Valls) is the Unicameral Parliament of Andorra. Catalonia is a Spanish Autonomous Community with a high-level of self-government Catalan Nationalism, or Catalanism (from Catalanisme in Catalan) is a political movement advocating for either further political A castell is a human tower traditionally built during festivals in many places in Catalonia, Spain. Correfocs are amongst the most striking of Catalonia 's festive events " Devils quot play with Fire and with the people The Falles (in Valencian) are a Valencian traditional celebration in praise of Saint Joseph in Valencia Spain. The sardana (Catalan plural sardanes) is a type of Circle dance typical of Catalonia. Moros y Cristianos (in Spanish) or Moros i Cristians (in Valencian) literally means Moors and Christians, and A Caganer (kəɣəˈne is a little statue found in Catalonia, in neighbouring areas with Catalan culture such as Andorra, and in other parts of Spain Portugal and The Tió de Nadal (roughly "Christmas Log" also known as "Tió" (trunk or log a big piece of cut wood or "Tronca" ("log" Botifarra (butiˈfarə is the Catalan name for the Roman Sausage lucanica, made of raw pork and spicesthe recipe for which is still used today in Italy and other parts of the Fútbol Club Barcelona ( Catalan fudˈbɔɫ ˌklup bəɾsəˈlonə Spanish ˈfutβol ˌkluβ baɾθeˈlona known familiarly as Barça (Spanish ˈbaɾsa Catalan Paella (pa'eʎa is an internationally famous dish consisting of White rice, Meat, Seafood, Beans and Vegetables (depending on Catalan myths and legends are the traditional myths and Legends of the Catalan -speaking world especially Catalonia itself passed down for generations Catalan literature is the name conventionally used to refer to Literature written in the Catalan language. Catalan Modernisme (not to be confused with Modernism) was the Catalan equivalent to a number of fin-de-siècle movements such as Symbolism, The Renaixença (rənəˈʃɛnsə was an early 19th century late romantic revivalist movement in Catalan language and culture akin to the Noucentisme ( Noucentista being its adjective was a Catalan cultural movement of the early 20th century that originated largely as a reaction against Modernisme Salvador Domingo Felipe Jacinto Dalí i Domènech 1st Marquis of Púbol (May 11 1904 &ndash January 23 1989 was a Spanish Catalan Surrealist Joan Miró i Ferrà ( April 20, 1893 &ndash December 25, 1983) was an ethnic Catalan (of Spanish nationality Antoni Tàpies (born in Barcelona, December 13, 1923) is a Spanish Catalan painter An autonomous community is a first-level political division of the Kingdom of Spain, established in accordance with the Spanish Constitution. Catalonia (Cataluña Catalunya Aranese: Catalonha) is an Autonomous Community in the northeast part of Spain. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The Middle Paleolithic (or Middle Palaeolithic) is the second subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age as it is understood in Europe, Like the rest of the Mediterranean coast of the Iberian Peninsula, it was colonized by Ancient Greeks and Carthaginians and participated in the pre-Roman Iberian culture. The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe, and includes modern day Spain, Portugal, Andorra The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca Carthage (Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Carthago from the Phoenician קרת חדשת phn-Latn Qart-ḥadašt meaning new town) refers With the rest of Hispania, it was part of the Roman Empire, then came under Visigothic rule after Rome's collapse. Hispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal, Spain, Andorra, Gibraltar The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial The Visigoths (Visigothi, Wisigothi, Vesi, Visi, Wesi, or Wisi were one of two main branches of the Goths, an East The northernmost part of Catalonia was briefly occupied by the Moorish (Muslim-ruled) al-Andalus in the eighth century, but after the defeat of Emir Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqiwas's troops at Tours in 732 local Visigoths regained autonomy, though they voluntarily made themselves tributary to the emerging Frankish kingdom, which gave the grouping of these local powers the generic name Marca Hispanica. The description Moors has referred to several historic and modern populations of Muslim (and earlier non-Muslim people of Berber and Arab descent A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or Tours is a city in France the Préfecture (capital city of the Indre-et-Loire département, on the lower reaches of the river The Visigoths (Visigothi, Wisigothi, Vesi, Visi, Wesi, or Wisi were one of two main branches of the Goths, an East The Marca Hispanica (or Spanish March, also March of Barcelona) was a Buffer zone beyond the province of Septimania, created by Charlemagne
Identifiably Catalan culture developed in the Middle Ages under the hegemony of the Counts of Barcelona. The Count of Barcelona was the major ruler in Catalonia from the 9th until the 17th century As part of the Crown of Aragon — most historians would say the dominant part — the Catalans became a maritime power, expanding by trade and conquest into Valencia, the Balearic Islands, and even Sardinia and Sicily. The Crown of Aragon was a permanent union of multiple titles and states in the hands of the King of Aragon. The Valencian Community ( Valencian and official Comunitat Valenciana; Comunidad Valenciana is an Autonomous community located in central to The Balearic Islands ( Catalan and official Illes Balears; Spanish: Islas Baleares) are an Archipelago in the western Mediterranean Sardinia (sɑrˈdɪnɪə Sardegna Sardigna or Sardinnya is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea (after Sicily) Sicily ( Italian and Sicilian: Sicilia) is an autonomous region of Italy.
The marriage of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon (1469) unified Christian Spain; in 1492, the last of al-Andalus was conquered and the Spanish conquest of the Americas began. Ferdinand II of Aragon the Catholic (Fernando II de Aragón y V de Castilla "el Católico" Ferran II d'Aragó "el Catòlic" Ferrando II d'Aragón The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the Continents of North America and South America Political power began to shift away from Catalonia toward Castile.
For some time, Catalonia retained its own laws, but these gradually eroded (albeit with occasional periods of regeneration). Over the next few centuries, Catalonia was generally on the losing side of a series of wars that led steadily to more centralization of power in Spain. The most significant conflict was the War of the Spanish Succession, which began when Carlos II died without a successor in 1700. Charles II ( November 6 1661, Madrid – November 1 1700, Madrid was the last Habsburg King of Spain and the Catalonia supported the claim of a member of the Austrian branch of the Habsburg dynasty, while the rest of Spain generally supported the French Bourbon claimant, Felipe V. Philip V of Spain ( December 19, 1683 - July 9, 1746) born Philippe de France, Fils de France and duc d'Anjou Following the final surrender of Catalan troops on September 11, 1714, Felipe V's Nueva Planta decrees banned all the main Catalan political institutions and imposed military-based rule over the region. Events 9 - The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest ends 506 - The Bishops of Visigothic Gaul Year 1714 ( MDCCXIV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a The Nueva Planta decrees (Decretos de Nueva Planta were a number of Decrees signed between 1707 and 1716 by Philip V &mdashthe first Bourbon king of
In the latter half of the 19th century, Catalonia became a center of Spain's industrialization; to this day it remains the most industrialized part of Spain, rivaled only by the Basque Country. is a process of social and economic change whereby a human group is transformed from a Pre-industrial society into an industrial one The Basque Country ( Basque Euskadi, Spanish País Vasco) is an autonomous community in northern Spain. In the first third of the 20th century, Catalonia several times gained and lost varying degrees of autonomy, but Catalan autonomy and culture were crushed to an unprecedented degree after the defeat of the Second Spanish Republic (founded 1931) in the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) brought General Francisco Franco to power. The Second Spanish Republic was the system of government in Spain between April 14 1931, when King Alfonso XIII left the country The Spanish Civil War was a major conflict in Spain that started after an attempted Coup d'état committed by parts of the army against the government of Francisco Paulino Hermenegildo Teódulo Franco y Bahamonde (born December 4, 1892 in Ferrol, died November 20, 1975 in Madrid Even public use of the Catalan language was banned. Catalan ˈkætəˌlæn ( català kətəˈla or) is a Romance language, the national and official language of Andorra, and a co-official
After Franco's death (1975), the Spanish transition to democracy, and the adoption of a democratic Spanish constitution (1978), Catalonia recovered cultural autonomy and some political autonomy. The Spanish transition to democracy was the era when Spain moved from the Dictatorship of Francisco Franco to a liberal democratic state. The Constitution of Spain is regarded as the culmination of the Spanish transition to democracy. Today, Catalonia is almost universally recognized as one of the most economically dynamic regions of Spain.
Prehistory in Catalonia
The first known human settlements in what is now Catalonia were at the beginning of the Middle Palaeolithic. Catalonia (Cataluña Catalunya Aranese: Catalonha) is an Autonomous Community in the northeast part of Spain. The Middle Paleolithic (or Middle Palaeolithic) is the second subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age as it is understood in Europe, The oldest known trace of human occupation is a mandible found in Banyoles, described by some sources as pre-Neanderthal some 200,000 years old; other sources suggest it to be only about one third that old. The mandible (from Latin mandibula, "jawbone" or inferior maxillary bone forms the lower Jaw and holds the lower teeth in place Banyoles (Banyoles is a city of 16359 inhabitants ( February 2003) located in the province of Girona in northeastern Catalonia, Spain. The Neanderthal (neɪˈændərtɑːl also with /niː-/ and /-θɔːl/ or Neandertal, is an extinct member of the Homo genus that is known from [1] Some of the most important prehistoric remains were found in the caves of Mollet (Serinyà, Pla de l’Estany), the Cau del Duc in the Montgrí mountain ("cau" meaning "cave" or "lair"), the remains at Forn d'en Sugranyes (Reus) and the shelters Romaní and Agut (Capellades), while those of the Upper Paleolithic are found at Reclau Viver, the cave of Arbreda and la Bora Gran d'en Carreres, in Serinyà, or the Cau de les Goges, in Sant Julià de Ramis. Reus is the capital of the comarca of Baix Camp, in the province of Tarragona, in Catalonia, Spain Capellades is a town in Catalonia, located in the south of the Comarca of Anoia, some sixty metres above the Anoia river where it cuts through The Upper Paleolithic (or Upper Palaeolithic) is the third and last subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age as it is understood in Europe Africa From the next prehistoric era, the Epipaleolithic or Mesolithic, important remains survive, the greater part dated between 8000 BC and 5000 BC, such as those of Sant Gregori (Falset) and el Filador (Margalef de Montsant). The Epipaleolithic is a term used for the "final Upper Palaeolithic industries occurring at the end of the final glaciation which appear to merge technologically into the The Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age was a period in the development of human technology in between the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age and the Neolithic or New Stone Age Falset (pop 2600 is the principal village of the comarca of the Priorat, in Catalonia.
The Neolithic era began in Catalonia around 4500 BC, although the population was slower to develop fixed settlements than in other places, thanks to the abundance of woods, which allowed the continuation of a fundamentally hunter-gatherer culture. The Neolithic (from Greek νεολιθικός — neolithikos from νέος neos, "new" + λίθος lithos A hunter-gatherer society is one whose primary subsistence method involves the direct procurement of edible plants and animals from the wild Foraging and Hunting The most important Neolithic remains in Catalonia are the Cave of Fontmajor (l'Espluga de Francolí), The Cave of Toll (Morà), the caves Gran and Freda (Montserrat) and the shelters of Cogul and Ulldecona. This is the mountain in Catalonia For other uses see Montserrat (disambiguation.
The Calcolithic or Eneolithic period developed in Catalonia between 2500 and 1800 BC, with the beginning of the construction of copper objects. The Chalcolithic (Greek khalkos + lithos ' Copper stone' period or Copper Age period known as the '''Eneolithic''' ('''Æneolithic''' is a Copper (ˈkɒpɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol Cu (cuprum and Atomic number 29 The Bronze Age occurred between 1800 and 700 BC. The term Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced Metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use included techniques for There are few remnants of this era, but there were some known settlements in the low Segre zone. The Segre is a river tributary to the Ebro (Ebre in Catalan) with a basin comprising territories across three states France, Andorra The Bronze Age coincided with the arrival of the Indo-Europeans, whose successive waves of migration began around 1200 BC, and they were responsible for the creation of the first proto-urban settlements. Around the middle of the 7th century BC, the Iron Age arrived in Catalonia. This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age for the mythological Iron Age see Ages of Man.
The rise of Iberian culture
During the period of Iberian civilization, the Catalan territory was home to several distinct tribes: The Indiketes in Empordà, the Ceretans in Cerdanya and the Airenosins in the Val d'Aran. A tribe, viewed historically or developmentally consists of a Social group existing before the development of or outside of States Many anthropologists use Empordà is a historical region of Catalonia, divided since 1936 into two comarques, Alt Empordà and Baix Empordà. Cerdanya (Ceritania Cerdagne Cerdaña is a small region of the eastern Pyrenees divided between France and Spain and which is historically one of the The Aran Valley (Era Val d'Aran la Vall d'Aran El Valle de Arán is a small valley (620 The influx of Celtic peoples led to a characteristic blend of cultures known as Celtiberian, which was affected by the first arrival of colonists from Ancient Greece and Carthage; like the rest of the Iberian Peninsula, Catalonia participated in what became the Iberian culture. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca Carthage (Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Carthago from the Phoenician קרת חדשת phn-Latn Qart-ḥadašt meaning new town) refers The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe, and includes modern day Spain, Portugal, Andorra At this time Empúries (originally Greek Emporion market, then Emporiae), on the coast of what is now the Catalan province of Girona, a commercial enclave, founded from the Greek city of Massilia (Marseille), in the 6th century BC. Empúries ( Catalan name in Spanish: Ampurias) is a town on the Mediterranean coast of the Catalan comarca of Alt Empordà (Spain Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Marseille, ( English alt Marseilles mɑrˈseɪ — French: maʁsɛj locally — Provençal Occitan: Marselha maʀˈsijɔ
From the 8th century BC to the 7th century BC the indigenous peoples came into contact with the colonizers, and the first iron objects are found in the area. From the 7th century BC to the middle of the 5th century BC, the process of Iberianization was consolidated. A period of plenty lasted from the middle of the 5th century BC until the 3rd century BC. Finally, after the 218 BC arrival of the Romans, the Iberian culture was absorbed into that of Rome. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial
Roman times
Romanization brought a second, distinct stage in the ancient history of Catalonia. Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus arrived in Empúries, with the objective of cutting off the sources of provisions of Hannibal's Carthaginian army during the Second Punic War. Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus (died 211 BC was a Roman general and statesman Hannibal (Pronounced in Phoenician: Hanniba'al means " Ba'al is my grace " or " Ba'al has given me grace " 247 BC &ndash The Second Punic War (referred to as "The War Against Hannibal" by the Romans lasted from 218 to 201 BC and involved combatants in the western After the Carthaginian defeat, and the defeat of various Iberian tribes who rose up against Roman rule, 195 BC saw the effective completion of the Roman conquest of the territory that later became Catalonia and Romanization began in earnest. The various tribes were absorbed into a common Roman culture and lost their distinct characteristics, including differences of language.
Most of what is now Catalonia first became part of the Roman province of Hispania Citerior; after 27 BC, they became part of Tarraconensis, whose capital was Tarraco (now Tarragona). In Ancient Rome, a province (Latin provincia, pl provinciae) was the basic and until the Tetrarchy (circa the Roman Republic, Hispania Citerior (English Hither Spain) was a region of Hispania roughly located in the northeastern coast and in the Ebro Hispania Tarraconensis was one of three Roman provinces in Hispania. Tarragona (tərəˈɣonə in Catalan) is a city located in the south of Catalonia and east of Spain, by the Mediterranean Sea. The arrival of Roman administrative and institutional structures led to the development of a network of cities and roads, the adoption of agriculture based on cereals, grapes, and olives, the introduction of irrigation, the development of Roman law, and the adoption of the Latin language. The Roman Roads were essential for the growth of the Roman Empire, by enabling the Romans to move armies and trade goods and to communicate news Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture For the Tokyo University supercomputer see Gravity Pipe. GRAPE, or GRA phics P rogramming E nvironment is The Olive ( Olea europaea) is a Species of small Tree in the family Oleaceae, native to the coastal areas of the eastern Irrigation is an artificial application of water to the soil usually for assisting in growing crops Roman law is the legal system of Ancient Rome. As used in the West the term commonly refers to legal developments prior to the Roman/Byzantine state's adopting Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome.
From late antiquity to feudalism
Visigothic and Muslim rule
The Crisis of the Third Century affected the whole Roman Empire, and gravely affected the Catalan territory, where there is evidence of significant levels of destruction and abandonment of Roman villas. Crisis of the Third Century (or "Military Anarchy" or "Imperial Crisis" was the crumbling and near collapse of the Roman Empire between 235 A villa was originally an Upper-class Country house, though since its origins in Roman times the idea and function of a villa has evolved considerably This is also the period of the first documentary evidence of the arrival of Christianity. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings While archaeological evidence shows the recovery of some urban nuclei, such as Barcino (later Barcelona), Tarraco (later Tarragona), and Gerunda (later Girona), the previous situation was not restored: the cities became smaller, and constructed defensive walls. Barcelona ( Catalan bəɾsəˈlonə Spanish baɾθeˈlona is the capital and most populous city of the Autonomous Community of Catalonia Girona ( Catalan: Girona ʒiˈɾonə Spanish: Gerona xeˈɾona is a city located in the northeast of Catalonia, Spain See also List of cities with defensive walls A defensive wall is a Fortification used to defend a city or settlement from potential aggressors
In the 5th century, as part of the invasion of the Roman Empire by Germanic tribes, the Visigoths led by Athaulf, installed themselves in Tarraconensis (410) and when in 475 the Visigothic king Euric formed the kingdom of Tolosa (modern Toulouse, France), he incorporated the territory equivalent to present-day Catalonia. The Germanic peoples are a historical group of Indo-European -speaking peoples originating in Northern Europe and identified by their use of the Germanic The Visigoths (Visigothi, Wisigothi, Vesi, Visi, Wesi, or Wisi were one of two main branches of the Goths, an East Ataulf (sometimes Athavulf, Atawulf, or Athaulf — "noble wolf" — Latinized as Ataulphus or Adolphus in Spanish and Euric, also known as Evaric Erwig or Eurico in Spanish and Portuguese (c Toulouse ( pronounced in standard French, and in the local accent ( Occitan: Tolosa, pronounced) is a city in southwest This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The Visigoths dominated the territory until the beginning of the 8th century, first from Toulouse and later from Toledo. Toledo Spain locationpng|thumb|right|200px|Location of Toledo in Spain In 718, the Muslim conquest of Spain reached the northwestern part of the peninsula and made incursions into Septimania, a process that took place with few major battles in this region, one of the most notable being at Tarragona. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or Septimania was the western region of the Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis that passed under the control of the Visigoths in 462 when Septimania was ceded to
Carolingian conquest
Within a century, the Catalan regions were conquered by the Franks as part of the Carolingian reaction against the Moorish advances. The Franks or Frankish people (Franci or gens Francorum) were West Germanic tribes first identified in the 3rd century as an Ethnic group In the last quarter of the 8th century, the Franks pacified Septimania and conquered the Pyrenean portion of Catalonia extending their power as far as Girona. Septimania was the western region of the Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis that passed under the control of the Visigoths in 462 when Septimania was ceded to Charlemagne's son Louis took Barcelona from the Moorish emir in 801, ultimately forming a frontier zone at the rivers Llobregat, Cardener, and the middle branch of the river Segre. Charlemagne (ˈʃɑrlɨmeɪn Carolus Magnus or Karolus Magnus meaning Charles the Great) (747 – 28 January 814 was King of the Franks from 768 to his Louis the Pious (778 &ndash 20 June 840) also called the Fair, and the Debonaire, was the King of Aquitaine from 781 and co-Emperor Barcelona ( Catalan bəɾsəˈlonə Spanish baɾθeˈlona is the capital and most populous city of the Autonomous Community of Catalonia The description Moors has referred to several historic and modern populations of Muslim (and earlier non-Muslim people of Berber and Arab descent The Llobregat ( IPA pronunciation:) is the second longest River in Catalonia, Spain. The Cardener is a River in Catalonia, Spain. Its source is at Les Fonts del Cardener in the municipality of La Coma i la Pedra ( The Segre is a river tributary to the Ebro (Ebre in Catalan) with a basin comprising territories across three states France, Andorra This borderland between the Franks and the Moors became known as the Marca Hispanica (Spanish Marches), a buffer zone ruled by the Count of Barcelona, with outlying small separate territories, each ruled by a lesser miles with armed retainers, who theoretically owed allegiance through the Count to the Emperor, or (with less fealty) to his Carolingian and Ottonian successors. The Marca Hispanica (or Spanish March, also March of Barcelona) was a Buffer zone beyond the province of Septimania, created by Charlemagne Mark from the Old English mearc and march (or various plural forms of these words derived from the Frankish word marka ("boundary" The Count of Barcelona was the major ruler in Catalonia from the 9th until the 17th century The Ottonian dynasty was a dynasty of Germanic Kings (919-1024 named after its first emperor but also known as the Saxon dynasty after the family's origin
This new Frankish territory was first organized politically into different counties (in the narrow sense of the word: the ruler of each took the title of count). A county is a Land area of Regional Government within a larger State. A count is a Nobleman in European countries The word count comes from French comte, itself from Latin At the end of the 9th century, the Carolingian monarch Charles the Bald designated Wilfred the Hairy — a noble descendant of a family from Conflent and son of the earlier Count of Barcelona Sunifred I — as count of Cerdanya and Urgell (870); after Charles's death (877), Wilfred became count of Barcelona and Girona (878) as well, which brought together the greater part of what was to become the Catalan territory, and although on his death the counties were divided again among his sons, except for one brief period Barcelona, Girona, and Osona continued to be unified under one count. Charles the Bald ( 13 June 823 – 6 October 877) Holy Roman Emperor (875–877 as Charles II) and King of West Francia Wilfred or Wifred, called the Hairy, was Count of Urgell (870&ndash897 Cerdanya (870&ndash897 Barcelona (878&ndash897 Conflent is a historical Catalan comarca of Northern Catalonia, now part of the French Département of Pyrénées-Orientales Sunifred I, was the count of many Catalan and Septimanian counties including Ausona, Besalú, Girona, Narbonne, Agde, Béziers Urgell (Spanish Urgel) is one of the historical Catalan counties, bordering on the counties of Pallars and Cerdanya. Osona, or Ausona (in Latin and Castilian) was one of the Catalan counties of the Marca Hispanica in the Early
The rise and fall of the aloers
During the 10th century the Catalan counts became increasingly independent of the Carolingian power, which the count Borrell II made official in 987 when he failed to swear fealty to Hugh Capet, the first Capetian monarch. Borrel II (died 992 was Count of Barcelona, Girona, and Ausona from 947 and Count of Urgel from 948 Hugh Capet (c 940 &ndash 24 October, 996) was the first King of France of the eponymous Capetian dynasty from his election to succeed the For a full history of the Capetian family see Capetian dynasty. In those years of the formation of the Catalan counties, the population of the territory began to increase for the first time since the Muslim invasion. During the 9th and 10th centuries, Catalonia increasingly became a society of aloers, peasant proprietors of small, family-based farms, producing little more than subsistence, and owing no formal feudal allegiance. Aloers (the word is originally Catalan) were independent Peasant proprietors of alous in what is now Catalonia, especially during A peasant is an agricultural worker who subsists by working a small plot of ground Subsistence agriculture is self-sufficient farming in which farmers grow only enough food to feed the family and to pay taxes or feudal dues Feudalism, a term first used in the early modern period (17th century in its most classic sense refers to a Medieval Europe Political system composed
The 11th century was characterized by the development of feudal society, as the miles formed links of vassalage over this previously independent peasantry. A vassal (also called feodary or fedary) in the terminology that both preceded and accompanied the feudalism of Medieval Europe, The middle years of the century were characterized by virulent class warfare. Seigniorial violence was unleashed against the peasants, utlizing new military tactics, based on contracting well armed mercenary soldiers mounted on horses. A mercenary is a person who takes part in an armed conflict who is not a national or a party to the conflict and is "motivated to take part in the hostilities essentially by The horse ( Equus caballus) is a hoofed ( Ungulate) Mammal, one of eight living species of the family Equidae. By the end of the century, most of the aloers had been converted into vassals.
This coincided with a weakening of the power of the counts and the division of the Spanish Marches into more numerous counties, which gradually became a feudal state based on complex fealties and dependencies. A state is a political association with effective Sovereignty over a geographic Area and representing a Population. From the time of the triumph of Ramon Berenguer I over the other Catalan counts, the counts of Barcelona stood firmly at the peak of a web of fealty, tying all the Catalan counts to their crown. Ramon Berenguer I el Vell ("the Old" was Count of Barcelona in 1035-1076
First references to the name Catalonia
In this new feudal state, each miles was the castlà ("castellan" or lord of the castle) in an area largely defined by a day's ride, the region dotted with strongholds becoming known by them, in an etymology parallel to Castile at a later date, as "Catalunya" or "Catalonia". Etymology is the study of the History of Words &mdash when they entered a language from what source and how their form and meaning have changed over time A former kingdom, Castile (Castilla kasˈt̪iʎa or) gradually merged with its neighbors to become the Crown of Castile and later the Kingdom of Spain
The term Catalonia is first documented in an early 12th-century oath to Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona, in which he is referred to in Latin as catalanicus heroes, rector catalanicus, and dux catalanensis, and also the name Catalania (Catalonia) is found. An oath (from Anglo-Saxon āð, also called plight) is either a Promise or a Statement of Fact calling Ramon Berenguer III the Great was the count of Barcelona, Girona, and Osona from 1082 (jointly with Berenguer Ramon II and solely Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. In it catalanenses (Catalans) appears opposite gots ("Goths"), referring to the people of what is now southern France. The Visigoths (Visigothi, Wisigothi, Vesi, Visi, Wesi, or Wisi were one of two main branches of the Goths, an East This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics.
Catalonia, Aragon and Castile
Union with Aragon
Until the middle of the 12th century, the successive counts of Barcelona tried to expand their domain in multiple directions. They incorporated the county of Besalú, part of the county of Empúries, all of the county of Cerdanya, and, briefly, even the county of Provence. Besalú is a town in the comarca of Garrotxa, in Catalonia. The town was once more important being the capital of the medieval County Empúries ( Catalan name in Spanish: Ampurias) is a town on the Mediterranean coast of the Catalan comarca of Alt Empordà (Spain Cerdanya (Ceritania Cerdagne Cerdaña is a small region of the eastern Pyrenees divided between France and Spain and which is historically one of the Provence ( Provençal Occitan: Provença in classical norm or Prouvènço in Mistralian norm is a region of southeastern France The Catalan church, for its part, became independent of the bishopric of Narbonne, recovering an episcopal see at Tarragona (1118). The former Catholic diocese of Narbonne existed from early Christian times until the French Revolution.
During the reign of Ramon Berenguer IV (reigned 1131-1162), several events occurred that would be crucial for the future of Catalonia. Ramon Berenguer IV Count of Barcelona also called Ramon the Holy (c His marriage to Petronila of Aragon implied the union of the County of Barcelona and the Kingdom of Aragon in a new state, this union later being confirmed in the 14th century by Peter IV of Aragon ("Peter the Ceremonious"). Petronila, Petronilla, or Petronella ( Aragonese and Peronella Petronila Ramírez (1135 &ndash October 17 1174, Barcelona The Kingdom of Aragon was an old kingdom in the Iberian Peninsula, corresponding to the modern-day autonomous community of Aragon ( Peter IV (also known as Pedro or Pere 5 September 1319, Balaguer – 5 January 1387) called the Ceremonious ( el Ceremonioso Ramon Berenguer IV used "Aragon" as his primary title and name of his ruling house, which absorbed the House of Barcelona, abolished in 1150 for reasons of mutual convenience and by the will of the Count himself, as he relinquished his own lineage to benefit from a higher one. Thus, he took the simple title Princeps ("prince") beside his wife with her title of Regina ("queen"); and their son, now that Barcelona was incorporated into the Crown, took the title Rex ("king") of Aragon, and not Catalonia. Catalonia and Aragon, however, retained their distinct traditional rights, and Catalonia its own personality with one of the first parliaments in Europe, the Corts catalanes. TalkParliament#Screen-size. -->A parliament is a Legislature, especially in those
In addition, the reign of Ramon Berenguer IV saw the Catalan conquest of Lleida and Tortosa, completing the unification of all of the territory that comprises modern Catalonia. Lleida (Standard Central Catalan ˈʎejðə or North-Western Catalan; Spanish Lérida, though officially referred as Lleida Tortosa ( Latin: Dertusa or Dertosa, Arabic: طرطوشة Ṭurṭūšah) is the capital of the comarca This included a territory to the south of the historic Spanish Marches, which became known as Catalunya Nova ("New Catalonia") and which was repopulated with Catalans by the end of the 12th century.
The Crown of Aragon
Over the next few centuries, Catalonia became one of the most important regions in Europe, dominating a maritime empire that extended across the western Mediterranean Sea after the conquest of Valencia, Balearic Islands, Sardinia, and the accession to Sicily of the kings of Aragon. The Valencian Community ( Valencian and official Comunitat Valenciana; Comunidad Valenciana is an Autonomous community located in central to The Balearic Islands ( Catalan and official Illes Balears; Spanish: Islas Baleares) are an Archipelago in the western Mediterranean Sardinia (sɑrˈdɪnɪə Sardegna Sardigna or Sardinnya is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea (after Sicily) Sicily ( Italian and Sicilian: Sicilia) is an autonomous region of Italy. Aragon ( Spanish: "Aragón") is an autonomous community of Spain.
At the end of the 12th century, a series of pacts with the kingdom of Castile delimited the zones that the two kingdoms would each attempt to conquer back Muslim-ruled territory (the "Reconquista"); to the east, in 1213, the defeat and death of Peter II of Aragon ("Peter the Catholic") in the Battle of Muret put an end to the project of consolidating Catalan power over Provence. The Reconquista (a Spanish and Portuguese word for "Reconquest" Arabic: الاسترداد, "Recapturing" was a period Peter II of Aragon ( 1174 &ndash September 12 1213) surnamed the Catholic, was the king of Aragon (as Pedro II and count of At the Battle of Muret on September 12, 1213 the Crusading army of Simon IV de Montfort defeated the Aragonese and Catalan forces Provence ( Provençal Occitan: Provença in classical norm or Prouvènço in Mistralian norm is a region of southeastern France His successor James I of Aragon did not fully consolidate his power until 1227; once he consolidated his inherited realm, he began a series of new conquests. James I the Conqueror ( Catalan: Jaume el Conqueridor, Aragonese: Chaime lo Conqueridor, Spanish: Jaime el Conquistador Over the course of the next quarter-century he conquered Majorca and Valencia. Majorca ( Spanish and Mallorca is the largest island of Spain. The Valencian Community ( Valencian and official Comunitat Valenciana; Comunidad Valenciana is an Autonomous community located in central to
The latter became a new state, the third kingdom associated with the crown of Aragon (or, as some historians now call it, the Catalan-Aragonese empire), with its own court and a new fuero (code of laws): the Furs de Valencia. The Crown of Aragon was a permanent union of multiple titles and states in the hands of the King of Aragon. Fuero ( Spanish) is a Spanish legal term and conceptThe word comes from Latin forum, an open space used as market tribunal In contrast, the Majorcan territory together with that of the counts of Cerdanya and Roussillon and the city of Montpellier were left as a kingdom for his son James II of Majorca as the Kingdom of Majorca. Roussillon ( French: Roussillon, ʀusiˈjɔ̃ Catalan: Rosselló, pronounced; Spanish: Rosellón, pronounced) is Montpellier ( Occitan Montpelhièr) is a City in the south of France. James II (Jaume (died 1311 was King of Majorca and Lord of Montpellier from 1243 until his death The Kingdom of Majorca was founded by James I of Aragon, also known as James The Conqueror. This division began a period of struggle that ended with the annexation of that kingdom by the Crown of Aragon in 1344 by Peter IV "the Ceremonious".
Catalonia saw a prosperous period at the end of the 13th century and the beginning of the 14th. The population increased; Catalan culture expanded into the islands of the Western Mediterranean. The reign of Peter III of Aragon ("the Great") included the conquest of Sicily and the successful defense against a French crusade; his son and successor Alfonso ("the Generous") conquered Minorca; and Peter's second son James II, who first acceded to the throne of Sicily and then succeeded his older brother as king of Aragon, conquered Sardinia; under James II, Catalonia reached the height of its power in the Middle Ages. Peter the Great ( Catalan: Pere el Gran, Spanish: Pedro el Grande; 1239 &ndash 2 November 1285) was the King of Aragon Sicily ( Italian and Sicilian: Sicilia) is an autonomous region of Italy. The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents Alfonso III (1265 &ndash 18 June 1291) called the Liberal ( el Liberal) or the Free (also "the Frank" from Minorca ( Catalan and Spanish: Menorca; from Latin Balearis Minor, later Minorica "minor island" is one of the James II ( 10 August 1267 in Valencia &ndash 2 November or 5 November 1327 in Barcelona) called the Just
Nonetheless, the second quarter of the 14th century saw crucial changes for Catalonia, marked by a succession of natural catastrophes, demographic crises, stagnation and decline in the Catalan economy, and the rise of social tensions. The reign of Peter the Ceremonious was a time of war: the annexation of Majorca, the quelling of a rebellion in Sardinia, a rebellion by Aragonese unionists (that is, a faction who wished to extinguish local privileges in favor of a more centralized kingdom of Aragon), and, above all, war with Castile. Majorca ( Spanish and Mallorca is the largest island of Spain. These wars created a delicate financial situation, in a framework of demographic and economic crisis, to which was added a generation later a crisis of succession generated by the death in 1410 of Martin I without a descendant or a named successor. Martin of Aragon (1356 &ndash 31 May 1410) called the Elder, the Humane, the Ecclesiastic, was the King of Aragon, A two-year interregnum progressively evolved in favor of a candidate from the Castilian Trastámara dynasty, Ferdinand of Antequera, who after the Compromise of Caspe (1412), was named Ferdinand I of Aragon. An interregnum (plural interregna or interregnums) is a period of discontinuity of a government organization or social order The House of Trastámara was a Dynasty of kings in the Iberian Peninsula, which governed in Castile from 1369 to 1504, The Compromise of Caspe made in 1412 was an act and resolution of parliamentary representatives on behalf of the Kingdoms of Aragon and Valencia and the County of Ferdinand I (Ferran - Catalan (Medina del Campo Castile 27 November 1380 &ndash Igualada Catalonia 2 April 1416) called of Antequera
Ferdinand's successor, Alfonso V ("the Magnanimous"), promoted a new stage of expansion, this time over the Kingdom of Naples, over which he finally gained dominion in 1443. Alfonso the Magnanimous (also Alphonso; Catalan: Alfons) (1396 &ndash 27 June 1458) was the King of Aragon (as The Kingdom of Naples was an informal name of the Polity officially known as the Kingdom of Sicily which existed on the mainland of the southern Italian At the same time, though, he aggravated the social crisis in Catalonia, both in the countryside and in the cities. The outcome of these conflicts was the 1462 "remença" (serfs') rebellion, a peasant rebellion against seignorial pressures, which led to a ten-year civil war that left the country exhausted. Remença was a Catalan mode of Serfdom Those who were serfs under this mode are properly pagesos de remença ( pagesos meaning A civil war is a War between a State and domestic political actors that are in control of some part of the territory claimed by the state The remença conflict did not reach any definitive conclusion and from 1493 France formally annexed the counties of Roussillon and Cerdanya, which it had occupied during the conflict. Ferdinand II of Aragon ("Ferdinand the Catholic") finally resolved the major grievances of the remences with the Sentencia Arbitral de Guadalupe in 1486, profoundly reformed Catalan institutions, recovered without war the northern Catalan counties, and increased active involvement in Italy. Ferdinand II of Aragon the Catholic (Fernando II de Aragón y V de Castilla "el Católico" Ferran II d'Aragó "el Catòlic" Ferrando II d'Aragón Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest
Crown of Aragon union with Crown of Castile
Ferdinand's 1469 marriage to Isabella of Castile brought about a dynastic union of the Crown of Aragon with Castile. In 1516 the monarchies were formally united into a single Kingdom of Spain, but each former kingdom conserved its political institutions and maintained its own courts, laws, public administration, and separate coinage of money.
The discovery of America by Christopher Columbus in a Spanish-sponsored expedition shifted Europe's economic centre of gravity (and the focus of Spain's ambitions) from the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean and undermined Catalonia's economic and political importance. The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the Continents of North America and South America Christopher Columbus (1451 &ndash May 20 1506 was an Italian Navigator, colonizer Aragonese and Catalan power in the Mediterranean would continue, but efforts to achieve further Spanish conquests in Europe itself generally slackened, and the maritime expansion into the Atlantic and the conquest of Central and South America was not a Catalan enterprise. South America is a Continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a Castile and Aragon were separate states until 1716, in spite of the dynastic union, and the newly established colonies in the Americas were Castilian, administered as appendages of Castile, until 1778 Seville was the only port authorized to trade in America, and until the dynastic union Catalans, as subjects of the Crown of Aragon, had no right to trade in the Castilian-ruled Americas. Seville ( Spanish: Sevilla, see also different names) is the artistic cultural and financial capital of southern Spain. The Crown of Aragon was a permanent union of multiple titles and states in the hands of the King of Aragon.
In the 16th century, the Catalan population began a demographic recuperation and some measure of economic recuperation. The reign of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor as Charles I of Spain was a harmonious period, during which Catalonia generally accepted the new structure of Spain, despite its own marginalization. Charles V (24 February 1500 &ndash 21 September 1558 was As the focus of Spanish maritime power and of European rivalry shifted to the Atlantic, the Kingdom of Valencia became the most important kingdom of the former Aragonese confederation, eclipsing Barcelona. The Christian Kingdom of Valencia, located in the Eastern shore of the Iberian Peninsula, was one of the component realms of the Crown of Aragon. The reign of Philip II marked the beginning of a gradual process of deterioration of Catalan economy, language, and culture. Philip II (Felipe II de España Filipe I ( May 21, 1527 &ndash September 13 1598) was King of Spain from 1556 until 1598 Among the most negative elements of the period were a rise in piracy along the coasts and banditry in the interior. Piracy is Robbery committed at sea or sometimes on shore without a commission from a sovereign Nation (as distinct from Privateering This is about the television program Bandit as a general term refers to Outlaw.
The Reapers' War
The Reapers' War Catalan: Guerra dels Segadors (1640–1652) started as an uprising of peasants in Barcelona. The Catalan Revolt (known in Catalan as the Guerra dels Segadors or Reapers' War) affected a large part of Catalonia between the years of Catalan ˈkætəˌlæn ( català kətəˈla or) is a Romance language, the national and official language of Andorra, and a co-official Conflicts had already arisen between Catalonia and the monarchy in the time of Philip II. Having exhausted the economic resources of Castile, Philip wished to avail himself of those of Catalonia; the Catalan governmental institutions and privileges were well protected by the terms of union of the kingdoms, and were jealously guarded by the Catalan oligarchy. After Philip IV acceded to the throne in 1621, the Count-Duke of Olivares attempted to sustain an ambitious foreign policy by taxing the kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula, which meant laying aside the until-then-prevailing principles of confederation, in favor of centralism (often referred to in a Spanish context as unitarianism, no relation to the religion of the same name). Philip IV (es ''Felipe IV'' pt ''Filipe III'' ( 8 April, 1605 &ndash 17 September, 1665) was King of Spain between 1621 and Don Gaspar de Guzmán y Pimentel Count of Olivares and Duke of Sanlúcar (Gaspar de Guzmán y Pimentel conde-duque de Olivares also known as es ''Conde de Olivares y A confederation is a group of empowered states or communities usually created by treaty but often later adopting a common constitution Resistance in Catalonia was especially strong, given the lack of any significant apparent regional return for the sacrifices.
When Spanish tercios (military corps) concentrated in Roussillon at the end of the 1630s, because of the Thirty Years' War with France, the local peasants were required to lodge and provision the troops. For the Mauritanian Thirty Years' War see Char Bouba war. For the band see The 30 Years War. On June 7, 1640, an uprising known as the Corpus de Sang took the lives of various royal functionaries, not all of them Castilian. Events 1099 - The First Crusade: The Siege of Jerusalem begins Mutinies continued; the Generalitat of Catalonia succeeded in channeling the revolt against the policies of the Count-Duke, transforming a social revolt into a political war against Castilian domination, a war for Catalan independence.
The president of the Generalitat, Pau Claris, declared a Catalan Republic under the protection of Louis XIII of France. Pau Claris i Casademunt (1586&ndash1641 Barcelona) was an ecclesiastic and Canonist from Catalonia. For the cognac see Louis XIII de Rémy Martin. Louis XIII ( September 27, 1601 – May 14, 1643) This allowed French troops to draw that much closer to the heartland of Spain. By 1652, Catalonia was again occupied by Spanish troops; war with France lasted until 1659, when the Peace of the Pyrenees ceded Roussillon, Conflent, Vallespir, Capcir, and the northern half of Cerdanya to France. The Treaty of the Pyrenees was signed in 1659 to end the war between France and Spain that had begun in 1635 during the Thirty Years' War. Vallespir is a historical Catalan comarca of Northern Catalonia, part of the French Département of Pyrénées-Orientales. Capcir is an historical Catalan comarca of Northern Catalonia, now part of the French Département of Pyrénées-Orientales. These remain French territory to this day.
War of the Spanish Succession
The War of the Spanish Succession (1705–1714) resulted in the revocation of Catalonia's traditional autonomy and privileges. In the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714 several European powers combined to stop French succession to the Spanish throne and what would likely have been a resulting Afterwards, Spain attempted to crush the Catalans' sense of identity as a nation. The Catalan language was repressed in varying degrees for the next two and a half centuries.
In the last decades of the 17th century, despite the persistence of intermittent violent conflict with France, the Catalan economy began to recover, not only in Barcelona, but also along the Catalan coast and even in some inland areas. However, at the end of the century, after the death of the childless Charles II (1700), the crown of Spain went to Philip V of the House of Bourbon. Charles II ( November 6 1661, Madrid – November 1 1700, Madrid was the last Habsburg King of Spain and the Philip V of Spain ( December 19, 1683 - July 9, 1746) born Philippe de France, Fils de France and duc d'Anjou The House of Bourbon is an important European Royal house, a branch of the Capetian dynasty. The Grand Alliance of England, the United Provinces (the antecedent of the Netherlands) and Austria gave military support to a rival claimant to the crown, Archduke Charles. The Grand Alliance was a European Coalition, consisting (at various times of Austria, Bavaria, Brandenburg, England, the England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland "United Netherlands" redirects here For the "Kingdom of the United Netherlands" see United Kingdom of the Netherlands. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich Charles VI (German Karl VI) ( October 1, 1685 &ndash October 20, 1740) was Holy Roman Emperor, King of Bohemia Catalonia initially accepted Philip V, but this did not last. In 1705 the Archduke entered Barcelona, which recognized him as king in 1706.
The resulting war (1705–1714) may have benefitted Charles's foreign allies, but was a disaster for the Catalan and Aragonese lands. By 1710 politico-administrative structures of Valencia and Aragon were destroyed and their privileges abolished. The later course of the war and the Treaty of Utrecht (1713–1714) ended the possibility of Barcelona's resistance. The Treaty of Utrecht that established the Peace of Utrecht, rather than a single document comprised a series of individual peace treaties signed in the Dutch After the fall of Barcelona (September 11, 1714), the triumphant forces systematically dismantled the Catalan institutions, in a process that culminated in the Nueva Planta decree (1716), which abolished the Catalan constitutions, established a new territorial and administrative structure, suppressed the Catalan universities and abolished the administrative use of the Catalan language; half a century later, the Catalan language would also be banned from primary and secondary schools. Events 9 - The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest ends 506 - The Bishops of Visigothic Gaul Year 1714 ( MDCCXIV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a The Nueva Planta decrees (Decretos de Nueva Planta were a number of Decrees signed between 1707 and 1716 by Philip V &mdashthe first Bourbon king of Origin The Corts of Barcelona The Catalan constitutions were promulgated by the Corts of Barcelona ( corts being the Catalan for courts
Economic recovery
Despite the difficult internal situation, the Catalonia recovered significantly in the course of the 18th century. The population and the economy both grew, agricultural production increased, and trade increased (especially thanks to increased commerce with the Americas), transformations all of which (as in France) tended to undermine the Old Regime and lay the ground for the rise of industrialization, the first signs of which appeared in the 18th-century manufacture of cotton goods and other textiles. Ancien Régime ( pronounced: /ɑ̃sjɛ̃ ʁeʒim/ refers primarily to the aristocratic social and political system established in is a process of social and economic change whereby a human group is transformed from a Pre-industrial society into an industrial one Cotton is a soft staple Fibre that grows around the seeds of the cotton plant ( Gossypium sp By the end of the 18th century, the popular classes began to experience the first effects of proletarianization. The proletariat (from Latin la ''proles'' "offspring" is a term used to identify a lower Social class; a member of such a class is proletarian
The Napoleonic Wars
In the 1790s, new conflicts arose on the French border, due to the French Revolution and the French Revolutionary Wars. The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an The French Revolutionary Wars were a series of major conflicts from 1792 until 1802 fought between the French Revolutionary government and several European states In 1808, during the Napoleonic Wars, Catalonia was occupied by the troops of General Guillaume Philibert Duhesme. The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815 involved Napoleon's French Empire and a shifting set of European allies and opposing coalitions Guillaume Philibert Duhesme ( July 7 1766, Bourgeuf, Burgundy – June 18 1815 near Waterloo) was a French The official Spanish army had evaporated, but popular resistance against the French occupation occurred in Catalonia as in other parts of Spain, and eventually developed into the Spanish War of Independence. The Peninsular War or Spanish War of Independence pitted an alliance of Spain, the United Kingdom, and Portugal against France Girona was besieged by the French and defended by its inhabitants under the direction of general and military governor Mariano Alvarez de Castro. Girona ( Catalan: Girona ʒiˈɾonə Spanish: Gerona xeˈɾona is a city located in the northeast of Catalonia, Spain Brigadier Mariano Alvarez de Castro (1749-1810 was a Spanish military officer and the military governor of Gerona during the siege by the French during the War of Spanish The French finally took the city December 10, 1809, after many deaths on both sides from hunger, epidemics, and cold; Álvarez de Castro died in prison one month later. Events 1041 - Empress Zoe of Byzantium elevates her adoptive son to the throne of the Eastern Roman Empire as Michael V Year 1809 ( MDCCCIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year
Between 1812 and 1813, Catalonia was directly annexed to France itself, and organized as four (later two) départements. In the Terminology of Political geography and Historiography a National department (département departamento is an administrative
French dominion in parts of Catalonia lasted until 1814, when the British General Wellington signed the armistice by which the French left Barcelona and the other strongholds that they had managed to keep until the last. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Field Marshal Arthur Wellesley 1st Duke of Wellington, KG, KP, GCB, GCH, PC, FRS ( c An armistice is a situation where the warring parties agree to stop fighting Barcelona ( Catalan bəɾsəˈlonə Spanish baɾθeˈlona is the capital and most populous city of the Autonomous Community of Catalonia
The Carlist wars
The reign of Ferdinand VII (reigned 1808–1833) saw several Catalan uprisings and after his death the conflict over the succession between the absolutist "Carlist" partisans of Infante Carlos and the liberal partisans of Isabella II led to the First Carlist War, which lasted until 1840 and was especially virulent in the Catalan territory. Early life In his youth he occupied the painful position of an heir apparent who was jealously excluded from all share in government by his parents and the royal favorite Absolute monarchy is a monarchical Form of government where the king and queen have absolute power over everything Carlism is a traditionalist and legitimist political movement in Spain seeking the establishment of a separate line of the Bourbon family on Liberalism is a broad array of related ideas and theories of Government that consider individual Liberty to be the most important political goal "Isabella II" redirects here For the Queen of Jerusalem also known as Isabella II see Yolande of Jerusalem. See also Carlism The First Carlist War was a Civil war in Spain from 1833 to 1839 As with the Basques, many of the Catalans fought on the Carlist side, not because they supported absolute monarchy but because they hoped that restoration of the Old Regime would mean restoration of their fueros and recovery of regional autonomy. The Basques (Euskaldunak are a people who inhabit a region spanning over parts of north-central Spain and southwestern France.
The victory of the liberals over the absolutists led to a "bourgeois revolution" during the reign of Isabella II. The reign of Isabella II was marked by corruption, administrative inefficiency, centralism, and political and social tensions. The liberals soon divided into "moderates" and "progressives", and in Catalonia a republican current began to develop; also, inevitably, Catalans generally favored a more federal Spain. Republicanism is the Ideology of governing a nation as a Republic, with an emphasis on Liberty, Rule of law, Popular sovereignty
In September 1868, Spain's continuing economic crisis triggered the September Revolution or La Gloriosa, beginning the so-called Sexenio Revolucionario, the "six revolutionary years" (1868–1873). The Glorious Revolution (Spanish La Gloriosa) took place in Spain in 1868, deposing Queen Isabella II. The Glorious Revolution (Spanish La Gloriosa) took place in Spain in 1868, deposing Queen Isabella II. Among the most notable events of this period were the government of General Joan Prim and his assassination, the federalist revolt of 1869, the rise of Amadeo to the monarchy, the proclamation of the First Spanish Republic, the outbreak of the Third Carlist War and the spread of the ideas of the First International. Don Juan Prim Marquis of los Castillejos Count of Reus Viscount del Bruch ( ca: Joan Prim i Prats comte de Reus i vescomte del Bruc marquès dels Castillejos; Background Prince Amedeo of Savoy was born in Turin, Italy. He was the second son of Victor Emmanuel II (King of Piedmont, Savoy The First Spanish Republic started with the Abdication as King of Spain on February 10 1873, of Amadeo I, following the Hidalgo The Third Carlist War (Tercera Guerra Carlista ( 1872 - 1876) was the last Carlist War in Spain.
Industrialization
The second third of the 19th century saw a Catalan cultural renaissance, a cultural movement to recover Catalan language and culture after a long period of decay. This became politically important to Spain as a whole, because in the latter half of the 19th century, Catalonia became a centre of Spain's industrialization. is a process of social and economic change whereby a human group is transformed from a Pre-industrial society into an industrial one An increasingly industrial Catalonia had to contend with a grave shortage of energy resources and the weakness of the domestic Spanish market. They were helped out by protectionist policies, which reduced the competition from foreign products. For the protectionist Australian political party from the 1880s to 1909 see Protectionist Party As in so much of Europe, the popular classes were molded into an industrial proletariat, living and working in inhuman conditions.
Catalan nationalism and the workers movement
In 1874, a coup by General Martínez Campos in Sagunto led to a restoration of the Bourbon dynasty in the person of Alfonso XII. Arsenio Martínez Campos ( Segovia, Spain, December 14 1831 - Zarauz, Spain, September 23 1900 Sagunto ( Valencian Sagunt; Latin Saguntum) formerly Murviedro (Valencian Morvedre) is an ancient city in Eastern In exile When Queen Isabella and her husband were forced to leave Spain by the Revolution of 1868, Alfonso accompanied them to Paris. A period of political stability, of repression of the workers movement, and of a slow growth in Catalan nationalist identity extended to the early years of the 20th century, when once again political opposition broke to the fore, especially republicanism and Catalan nationalism, but also class-based politics reflecting social tensions. Catalan Nationalism, or Catalanism (from Catalanisme in Catalan) is a political movement advocating for either further political
The following decades saw the rise of the political Catalanism still prevalent today: the first formulations of the modern Catalan national identity can be seen in Valentí Almirall. Catalan independentism is a Political movement which supports the independence of Catalonia from Spain and France, this is usually In 1901 Enric Prat de la Riba and Francesc Cambó formed the Regionalist League, which led to the electoral coalition Solidaritat Catalana. Enric Prat de la Riba i Sarrà ( Castellterçol, 1879 - 1917 was a Catalan politician Francesc Cambó i Batlle ( Verges ( Catalonia) 2 September, 1876 - 30 April, 1947 Argentina) was a conservative Regionalist League (in Catalan: Lliga Regionalista) was a political party of Catalonia, Spain, that appeared thanks to the triumph of the candidacy Catalan nationalism, under the leadership of Prat de la Riba, achieved in 1913 a victory in obtaining partial self-government for the "Commonwealth" (Catalan: Mancomunitat de Catalunya; Spanish: Mancomunidad), a grouping of the four Catalan provinces, presided over first by Prat de la Riba, and later by Josep Puig i Cadafalch; this was later suppressed in March 1925, during the 1923-1930 dictatorship of Miguel Primo de Rivera. The Mancomunitat de Catalunya ( Catalan for "Commonwealth of Catalonia " was an institution which covered the four Catalan Josep Puig i Cadafalch ( Mataró, October 15, 1867 - Barcelona, December 21, 1956) was a Modernist Miguel Primo de Rivera y Orbaneja 2 Marqués de Estella ( Jerez de la Frontera, January 8, 1870 - Paris,
The Catalan workers movement at the turn of the twentieth century consisted of three tendencies: syndicalism, socialism, and anarchism, part of the last openly embracing "propaganda of the deed" as advocated by Alejandro Lerroux. Syndicalism is a type of movement which aims to degrade capitalist societies through action by the Working class on the industrial front Socialism refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the Means of production and distribution Anarchism is a Political philosophy encompassing theories and attitudes which support the elimination of all compulsory Government, i Alejandro Lerroux García (La Rambla Córdoba, March 4, 1864 - Madrid, June 25, 1949) was a Spanish politician Along with Asturias, Catalonia in general and Barcelona in particular was a center of radical labor agitation, marked by numerous general strikes, assassinations (especially in the late 1910s), and the rise of the anarchist Confederación Nacional del Trabajo ("National Confederation of Labour" or "CNT"). The Principality of Asturias ( Spanish: Principado de Asturias, Asturian: Principáu d'Asturies or Asturies) is an Template talkInfobox Union for usage --> The Confederación Nacional del Trabajo ( CNT; English The escalating violence between Catalan workers and the Catalan bourgeoisie led the latter to embrace the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera, despite his centralizing tendencies. (See also Anarchism in Spain. Anarchism has historically gained more support and influence in Spain than anywhere else especially before Francisco Franco 's victory in the Spanish Civil War )
Republic and civil war
After the fall of Primo de Rivera, the Catalan left made great efforts to create a united front under Francesc Macià. Francesc Macià i Llussà ( October 21, 1859 - December 25, 1933) was a Catalan soldier politician and President of the The Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya (Republican Left of Catalonia, or ERC) represented a break with the electoral abstentionism that, until then had been characteristic of the Catalan workers. The Republican Left of Catalonia (Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya ERC) is a left-wing Catalan independentist political party in Spain campaigning for Advocating socialism and Catalan independence, the party achieved a spectacular victory in the municipal elections of April 12, 1931, which preceded the April 14 proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic. Events 467 - Anthemius is elevated to Emperor of the Western Roman Empire. Year 1931 ( MCMXXXI) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1931 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 43 BC - Battle of Forum Gallorum: Mark Antony, besieging Julius Caesar 's assassin Decimus Junius Brutus in The Second Spanish Republic was the system of government in Spain between April 14 1931, when King Alfonso XIII left the country The Catalan Generalitat was revived, and a September 1932 statute of autonomy for Catalonia gave a strong, though not absolute, grant of self-government. A similar statute granted automomy to the Basque Country. The Basque Country ( Basque Euskadi, Spanish País Vasco) is an autonomous community in northern Spain.
Under its two presidents, Francesc Macià (1931–1933) and Lluís Companys (1934–1939), the republican Generalitat carried out a considerable task, despite the serious economic crisis, its social repercussions and the political vicissitudes of the period, including its suspension in 1934, due to an uprising in Barcelona in October that year. Francesc Macià i Llussà ( October 21, 1859 - December 25, 1933) was a Catalan soldier politician and President of the Lluís Companys i Jover ( June 21 1882 &ndash October 14 1940) was a Spanish Catalan Politician As for the workers' movement, there was the CNT crisis with the break-away faction in the 1930s and the formation of the Workers' Party of Marxist Unification (Spanish: Partido Obrero de Unificación Marxista, POUM) and Unified Socialist Party of Catalonia (Catalan: Partit Socialista Unificat de Catalunya, PSUC). POUM Campesinosjpg|thumb|A POUM poster appeals to peasants "Peasants the land is yours"]]The Workers' Party of Marxist Unification (POUM Spanish: Partido Obrero The PSUC ( Partit Socialista Unificat de Catalunya, Unified Socialist Party of Catalonia) was formed on July 23 1936 through the unification
After the electoral victory of the left in the Spanish national elections of February 1936 came the July 1936 armed insurrection that led to the Spanish Civil War. The Spanish Civil War was a major conflict in Spain that started after an attempted Coup d'état committed by parts of the army against the government of The defeat of the initial military rebellion in Catalonia placed Catalonia firmly in the Republican camp. During the war, there were two rival powers in Catalonia: the de jure power of the Generalitat and the de facto power of the armed popular militias. Anarchist Catalonia ( July 21, 1936 – February 10, 1939) was the self-proclaimed Stateless territory and Anarchist Violent confrontations between the workers' parties culminated in the defeat of the CNT-FAI and POUM, against whom the PSUC unleashed strong repression. The local situation resolved itself progressively in favor of the Generalitat, but at the same time the Generalitat was losing its autonomous power within republican Spain.
The military forces of the Generalitat were concentrated on two fronts: Aragon and Majorca. The latter was an utter disaster. The Aragon front resisted firmly until 1937, when the occupation of Lérida and Balaguer destabilized it. Lleida (Standard Central Catalan ˈʎejðə or North-Western Catalan; Spanish Lérida, though officially referred as Lleida Balaguer is the capital of the comarca of Noguera, in the province of Lleida, Catalonia, Spain. Finally, Franco's troops broke the republican territory in two by occupying Vinaròs, isolating Catalonia from the rest of republican Spain. Vinaròs is a town and Municipality in eastern Spain, in the province of Castellón, part of the autonomous community of Valencia (population The defeat of the Republican armies in the Battle of the Ebro led in 1938 and 1939 to the occupation of Catalonia by Franco's forces, who abolished Catalan autonomy and brought in a dictatorial regime, which took strong measures against Catalan nationalism and Catalan culture. The Battle of the Ebro ( Spanish: Batalla del Ebro, Catalan: Batalla de l'Ebre) was the last great Republican offensive in the Anarchist Catalonia ( July 21, 1936 – February 10, 1939) was the self-proclaimed Stateless territory and Anarchist Only forty years later, after Franco's death (1975) and the adoption of a democratic constitution in Spain (1978), did Catalonia recover its autonomy and reconstitute the Generalitat (1979).
George Orwell served with the POUM in Catalonia from December 1936 until June 1937. Eric Arthur Blair (25 June 1903 – 21 January 1950 who used the Pseudonym George Orwell, was an English writer POUM Campesinosjpg|thumb|A POUM poster appeals to peasants "Peasants the land is yours"]]The Workers' Party of Marxist Unification (POUM Spanish: Partido Obrero His memoir of that time, Homage to Catalonia, was first published in 1938 and foreshadowed the causes of Second World War. Homage to Catalonia is political journalist and Novelist George Orwell 's personal account of his experiences and observations in the World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including It remains one of the most widely-read books on the Spanish Civil War. The Spanish Civil War was a major conflict in Spain that started after an attempted Coup d'état committed by parts of the army against the government of
Franco's dictatorship
As in the rest of Spain, the Franco era (1939–1975) in Catalonia saw the annulment of democratic liberties, the prohibition and persecution of parties, the rise of thoroughgoing censorship, and the banning of all leftist institutions. In Catalonia, it also meant the annulment of the statute of autonomy, the banning of many specifically Catalan institutions, and the complete suppression of the Catalan-language press. During the first years, all resistance was energetically suppressed, the prisons filled up with political prisoners, and thousands of Catalans went into exile. In addition, 4000 Catalans were executed between 1938 and 1953, among them the former president of the Generalitat Lluís Companys.
After an initial period in which Spain tried to build an autarky, in the 1960s the economy entered a stage of agricultural modernization, increasing industrialization and the start of mass tourism. An autarky is an economy that is self-sufficient and does not take part in International trade, or severely limits trade with the outside world Tourism is Travel for Recreational or Leisure purposes The World Tourism Organization defines tourists as people who "travel Catalonia was on the receiving end of migration within Spain, which especially accelerated the growth of Barcelona and its surrounding area. Working-class opposition to Franco began to appear, usually clandestinely, and most notably in the form of the Comisiones Obreras ("Workers Commissions"), a return of trade union organizing, and the revival of the PSUC. Template talkInfobox Union for usage --> The Workers' Commissions ( Spanish: Comisiones Obreras, A trade union or labour union is an organization of workers who have banded together to achieve common goals in key areas such as wages hours and working conditions forming In the 1970s democratic forces united under the banner of the Assemblea de Catalunya ("Catalan Assembly").
Democracy restored
Franco's death initiated a period that came to be known as the "democratic transition", during which democratic liberties were restored, culminating in the Spanish Constitution of 1978. The Constitution of Spain is regarded as the culmination of the Spanish transition to democracy. This constitution recognized the existence of multiple national communities within the Spanish state, which proposed the division of the country into autonomous communities. An autonomous community is a first-level political division of the Kingdom of Spain, established in accordance with the Spanish Constitution. The first general elections in 1977 restored a provisional Generalitat, headed by Josep Tarradellas and including representatives of the various leading forces of the time. Josep Tarradellas i Joan ( Cervelló, Baix Llobregat 1899 - Barcelona 1988) Marquess of Tarradellas in 1985 was a Catalan In 1979, the statute of autonomy was finally approved delegating more automomy in matters of education and culture than the 1932 statute, but less in terms of the systems of justice and public order. In it, Catalonia is defined as a "nationality", Catalan is recognized as Catalonia's own language, and became co-official with Spanish. New elections under this statute gave the Catalan presidency to Jordi Pujol, a position he would hold until 2003. Jordi Pujol i Soley (born June 9, 1930) was the leader of the party Convergència Democràtica de Catalunya (CDC from 1974 to 2003 and During this time he also led Convergència i Unió (Convergence and Unity, CiU) a center-right Catalan nationalist electoral coalition consisting of his own Convergència Democràtica de Catalunya (Democratic Convergence of Catalonia, CDC) and the smaller and more conservative Unió Democràtica de Catalunya (Democratic Union of Catalonia). Convergence and Union (Convergència i Unió CiU) is a Political party in Catalonia, Spain. The Democratic Convergence of Catalonia ( Convergència Democràtica de Catalunya) is a Political party in Catalonia, Spain.
Throughout the 1980s and 1990s the institutions of Catalan autonomy continued to develop, among them an autonomous police force, the creation of the comarcal administrations (roughly equivalent to a US "counties" or a United Kingdom "shires" or "counties", but distinct from the historical Catalan counties) and a supreme court in the form of the Tribunal Superior de Justícia de Catalunya. This is a list of the comarques (singular "comarca") of Catalonia ( Spain) The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located A shire is an Administrative division of Great Britain and Australia. Catalonia's Law of Linguistic Normalization promoted Catalan-language media. The Catalan government provides subsidies to various means of promoting Catalan culture, including (for example) the making of Catalan-language films or the subtitling of foreign-language films in Catalan. Subtitles are textual versions of the dialog in films and television programs usually displayed at the bottom of the screen
In 1992 Barcelona hosted the Summer Olympics, which brought international attention to Catalonia. The 1992 Summer Olympic Games, officially known as the Games of the XXV Olympiad, were an International Multi-sport event held in Barcelona, During the 1990s, the absence of absolute majorities in the Spanish parliament made governments reliant on support from the various nationalist parties (Catalan, Basque, Canary Islands, etc. The Cortes Generales ( Spanish for General Courts or Cortes Españolas, Spanish Courts) is the Legislature of Spain. The Canary Islands ( English pronunciation kəˈnæriː ˈaɪləndz Spanish: Islas Canarias, ˈizlas kaˈnarjas are a Spanish ) which was leveraged by CiU, to gain broaden the scope of Catalan autonomy during the last government of Felipe González (1993-1996) and the first of José María Aznar (1996-2000). Felipe González Márquez (born 5 March 1942 is a Spanish socialist politician (born 25 February 1953 served as the Prime Minister of Spain from 1996 to 2004
In November 2003, elections to the Generalitat gave the plurality, but not the majority of seats to CiU. Three other parties (PSC-PSOE, ERC and ICV) united to take the government, making Pasqual Maragall, (PSC-PSOE) the new president. Socialists' Party of Catalonia (Partit dels Socialistes de Catalunya PSC is a Political party in Catalonia, Spain. The Spanish Socialist Workers' Party, commonly abbreviated by its Spanish initials PSOE ( P artido S ocialista O brero E spañol is The Republican Left of Catalonia (Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya ERC) is a left-wing Catalan independentist political party in Spain campaigning for Initiative for Catalonia Greens ( Iniciativa per Catalunya Verds, ICV is a Political party in Catalonia, Spain. Pasqual Maragall i Mira (born January 13, 1941 in Barcelona) was the 127th President of Generalitat de Catalunya (the government of Socialists' Party of Catalonia (Partit dels Socialistes de Catalunya PSC is a Political party in Catalonia, Spain. The Spanish Socialist Workers' Party, commonly abbreviated by its Spanish initials PSOE ( P artido S ocialista O brero E spañol is
This government proved unstable, especially on the issue of reforming the Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia, and new elections were held in autumn 2006. The Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia provides Catalonia's basic institutional regulations The result was again a plurality, but not a majority, for CiU, and PSC-PSOE, ERC and ICV again formed a coalition. Socialists' Party of Catalonia (Partit dels Socialistes de Catalunya PSC is a Political party in Catalonia, Spain. The Spanish Socialist Workers' Party, commonly abbreviated by its Spanish initials PSOE ( P artido S ocialista O brero E spañol is The Republican Left of Catalonia (Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya ERC) is a left-wing Catalan independentist political party in Spain campaigning for Initiative for Catalonia Greens ( Iniciativa per Catalunya Verds, ICV is a Political party in Catalonia, Spain.
On 16 September 2005, the ICANN officially approved the domain.cat, the first domain for a language community. Events 1400 - Owain Glyndŵr is declared Prince of Wales by his followers Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. ICANN (aɪkæn eye-can is the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers.
Notes and references
- ^ R. Grun, et al. , "ESR and U-series analyses of enamel and dentine fragments of the Banyoles mandible", Journal of Human Evolution, 2005; abstract available online, accessed 31 October 2006.
- Historia de Cataluña, by V. Balaguer (II vols. , Madrid, 1886, &c. )
- Historia de Cataluña, by A. Bori y Fontesta (Barcelona, 1898)
- Origines historicos de Cataluna, by J. Balari y Jovany, Establecimiento Tipográfico de Hijos de Jaime Jesús, (Barcelona, 1899)
- Coleccio de monografies de Catalunya, by J. Reig y Vilardell (Barcelona, 1
- This article draws on material in the corresponding article in the Spanish-language Wikipedia.
See also
External links
- Museum of the History of Catalonia
- The Spirit of Catalonia. Origins The origins of the military force in Catalonia soar to the 13th century, with the Sagramental, the fraternity among several villages to guarantee their Anarchist Catalonia ( July 21, 1936 – February 10, 1939) was the self-proclaimed Stateless territory and Anarchist 1946 book by Oxford Professor Dr. Josep Trueta
- The Spanish March at Convergence
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