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Historiography studies the processes by which historical knowledge is obtained and transmitted. Broadly speaking, historiography examines the writing of history and the use of historical methods, drawing upon such elements such as authorship, sourcing, interpretation, style, bias, and audience. History is the study of the past particularly the written record Those who study history as a Profession are called Historians Etymology The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which Historians use Primary sources and other evidence to research and then to write history The word historiography can also refer to a body of historical work. As the tools of historical investigation have changed over time and space, the term itself bears multiple meanings and is not readily associated with a single all-encompassing definition.

Historiography is often broken down topically, such as "Historiography of Islam" or "Historiography of China". There are many approaches or genres of history, such as oral history and social history. Oral history can be defined as the recording preservation and interpretation of historical information, based on the personal experiences and opinions of the speaker Social history is an area of historical study considered by some to be a Social science that attempts to view historical evidence from the point of view of developing Beginning in the 19th century with the rise of academic historians a corpus of literature related to historiography has come into existence, with classic works such as E. H. Carr's, What is History? (1961) and Hayden White's Metahistory (1974). What is History? is a 1961 non-fiction book by historian Edward Hallett Carr on Historiography. Hayden White (born 1928 is an Historian in the tradition of Literary criticism, perhaps most famous for his work Metahistory The Historical Imagination Metahistory The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth-Century Europe is a Historiography book by Hayden White first published in 1974

Contents

Defining historiography

There are two basic issues involved in historiography. (Breisach, 1994) First, the study of the development of history as an academic discipline over time, as well as its development in different cultures and epochs. Second, the study of the academic tools, methods and approaches that have been and are being used, including the historical method. The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which Historians use Primary sources and other evidence to research and then to write history

The term "historiography" can also be used to refer to a specific body of historical writing that was written during a specific time concerning a specific issue. For instance, a statement about "medieval historiography" would refer to some issue in the academic discipline of Medieval History, and not to the actual history of the Middle Ages or to historical works written in that time (e. g. , "during the last century, medieval historiography changed its focus from the study of political events to social and mental structures", or "medieval historiography has largely benefited from the recognition of the importance of parish records": that is, the discipline underwent some change).

Conal Furay and Michael J. Salevouris define historiography as "the study of the way history has been and is written — the history of historical writing. . . When you study 'historiography' you do not study the events of the past directly, but the changing interpretations of those events in the works of individual historians. "[1] One should be cautious, however, that in the sense given in the previous paragraph when a historian does historiography she is actually studying "the events of the past directly".

Questions studied

Some of the common questions of historiography are:

  1. Reliability of the sources used, in terms of authorship, credibility of the author, and the authenticity or corruption of the text.
  2. Historiographical tradition or framework. Every historian uses one (or more) historiographical traditions, some of which are Marxist, or Annales School, ("total history"), political history, etc. The Annales School (aˈnal(ə in French is a style of Historiography developed by French Historians in the 20th century Political history is the narrative and analysis of political events ideas movements and leaders
  3. Moral issues, guilt assignment, and praise assignment
  4. Revisionism versus orthodox interpretations
  5. Historical Metanarratives

Issues engaged by critical historiography includes topics such as:

The history of written history

Understanding the past appears to be a universal human need and the telling of history has emerged independently in civilisations around the world. In Critical theory, and particularly Postmodernism, a metanarrative (from Meta - Narrative, sometimes also known as a master- or Critical historiography is used by various scholars in recent decades to emphasize the ambiguous relationship between history writing and Historiography. Epistemology (from Greek επιστήμη - episteme, "knowledge" + λόγος, " Logos " or theory of knowledge What constitutes history is a philosophical question. Philosophy of history or historiosophy is an area of Philosophy concerning the eventual significance if any of human History. For the purposes of this survey it is written history recorded in a narrative format for the purpose of informing future generations about events. The earliest critical historical thought emerged in Greece, a development which would be an important influence on the writing of history elsewhere in the world.

Hellenic world

Reproduction of part of a Tenth-century copy of Thucydides's History of the Peloponnesian War
Reproduction of part of a Tenth-century copy of Thucydides's History of the Peloponnesian War

Written history appeared first with the ancient Greeks, whose historians greatly contributed to the development of historical methodology. Thucydides ( C 460 BC &ndash C 395 BC) ( Greek Θουκυδίδης Thoukydídēs) was a Greek The History of the Peloponnesian War is an account of the Peloponnesian War in Ancient Greece, fought between the Peloponnesian League (led by The very first historical works were The Histories composed by Herodotus of Halicarnassus (484 BC–ca. The Histories of Herodotus of Halicarnassus is considered the first work of history in Western literature. Herodotus of Halicarnassus ( Greek: Hēródotos Halikarnāsseús) was a Greek Historian who lived in the 5th century BC ( 484 BC&ndash 425 BC), who became later known as the 'father of history' (Cicero). Herodotus attempted to distinguish between more and less reliable accounts, and personally conducted research by travelling extensively, giving written accounts of various Mediterranean cultures. The Mediterranean Basin refers to the lands around and surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea. Although Herodotus' overall emphasis lay on the actions and characters of men, he also attributed an important role to divinity in the determination of historical events.

Thucydides, on the other hand, largely eliminated divine causality in his account of the war between Athens and Sparta, establishing a rationalistic element which became defining of subsequent Western historical writings. Thucydides ( C 460 BC &ndash C 395 BC) ( Greek Θουκυδίδης Thoukydídēs) was a Greek He was also the first to distinguish between cause and immediate origins of an event, while his successor Xenophon (ca. Xenophon (Ancient Greek, Modern Greek "Ξενοφών" "Ξενοφώντας" ca 431–355 BC) introduced autobiographical elements and character studies in his Anabasis.

The proverbial Philippic attacks of the Athenian orator Demosthenes (384-322 BC) on Philip II of Macedon marked the height of ancient political agitation. A philippic is a fiery damning speech or Tirade, delivered to condemn a particular political actor For the Athenian general see Demosthenes (general. For the ancient physician see Demosthenes Philalethes. Philip II of Macedon, ( Greek: Φίλιππος Β' ο Μακεδών &mdash φίλος = friend + ίππος = Horse The now lost history of Alexander's campaigns by the diadoch Ptolemy I (367-283 BC) may represent the first historical work composed by a ruler. The Diadochi (plural of Latin Diadochus, from Greek Διάδοχοι, Diadokhoi, "successors" were the rival successors For the astronomer see Ptolemy; for others named "Ptolemy" or "Ptolemaeus" see Ptolemy (disambiguation. Polybius (ca. Polybius (ca 203 &ndash 120 BC, Greek) was a Greek historian of the Hellenistic Period noted for his book called The Histories 203–120 BC) wrote on the rise of Rome to world prominence, trying to harmonize the Greek and Roman point of views.

The Chaldean priest Berossus (fl. Berossus (also Berossos or Berosus; Greek: Βήρωσσος was a Hellenistic -era Babylonian writer and astronomer who 3rd century) composed a Greek-language History of Babylonia for the Seleucid king Antiochus I, combining Hellenistic methods of historiography and Mesopotamian accounts to form a unique composite. Babylonia was an Amorite state in lower Mesopotamia (modern southern Iraq) with Babylon as its capital The Seleucid Empire /sə'lusɪd/ ( 312 - 63 BC) was a Hellenistic empire i Antiochus I Soter (unknown - 261 BC was a king of the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire. This article focuses on the cultural aspects of the Hellenistic age for the historical aspects see Hellenistic period. Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding Reports exist of other near-eastern histories, such as that composed by the Phoenician historian Sanchuniathon; but his very existence is considered semi-fabled and writings attributed to him are fragmentary, known only through the later historians Philo of Byblos and Eusebius, who asserted that he wrote before even the Trojan war. Sanchuniathon is the purported Phoenician author of three lost works originally in the Phoenician language, surviving only in partial paraphrase and summary of a The more famous Philo of Alexandria (20 BCE-40 CE was an educated Hellenized Jewish philosopher In Greek mythology, the Trojan War was waged against the city of Troy by the Achaeans after Paris of Troy stole Helen from her

Roman world

Main article: Roman historiography

The Romans adopted the Greek tradition, becoming the first European people to write history in a non-Greek language. History The History of Roman Historiography Roman Historiography is indebted to the Greeks, who invented the form While early Roman works were still written in Greek, the Latin Origines, composed by the Roman statesman Cato the Elder (234–149 BC) in a conscious effort to counteract the Greek cultural influence, marked the beginning of Latin historical writings. Marcus Porcius Cato ( Latin: M·PORCIVS·M·F·CATO (234 BC Tusculum &ndash149 BC was a Roman statesman surnamed the Censor Hailed for its lucid style, Julius Caesar's (100 BC–44 BC) Bellum Gallicum may represent the earliest autobiographical war coverage. Commentarii de Bello Gallico is Julius Caesar 's third-person account of his nine years of war in Gaul. The politician and orator Cicero (106–43 BC) introduced rhetorical elements in his political writings. Marcus Tullius Cicero ( Classical Latin ˈkikeroː usually ˈsɪsərəʊ in English January 3, 106 BC &ndash December 7, 43 BC was a Roman

Strabo (63 BC–ca. Strabo ( Greek: Στράβων 63/64 BC – ca AD 24 was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher. AD 24) was a main exponent of the Greco-Roman tradition of combining geography with history, presenting a descriptive history of peoples and places known to his era. Livy (59 BC–AD 17) records the rise of Rome from city-state to world dominion. Titus Livius (traditionally 59 BC &ndash AD 17 known as Livy in English, was a Roman historian who wrote a monumental history of Rome The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial His inquiry into the question of what would have happened if Alexander the Great had marched against Rome represents the first known instance of alternate history. Alexander the Great ( or, Mégas Aléxandros; July 20 356 BC June 10 or June 11 323 BC also known as Alexander III of Macedon (el Ἀλέξανδρος Γ' Alternate history or alternative history is a subgenre of Speculative fiction (or Science fiction) and Historical fiction [2]

Biography, although popular throughout antiquity, was introduced as a branch of history by the works of Plutarch (c. Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Greek: Μέστριος Πλούταρχος c 46 - 127) and Suetonius (c. Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius (ca 69/75 &ndash after 130 was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. 69-after 130) who described the deeds and characters of ancient personalities, stressing their human side. Tacitus (c. Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus (ca 56 &ndash ca 117 was a senator and a Historian of the Roman Empire. 56–c. 117) denounces Roman immorality by praising German virtues, elaborating on the topos of the Noble savage. The Germanic peoples are a historical group of Indo-European -speaking peoples originating in Northern Europe and identified by their use of the Germanic In the eighteenth-century cult of " Primitivism " the noble savage, uncorrupted by the influences of civilization was considered more worthy more authentically noble

Early Christian

The growth of Christianity and its increased status in the Roman Empire after Constantine I led to the development of a distinct Christian historiography, influenced by both Christian theology and the nature of the Bible, encompassing new areas of study and views of history. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus (27 February ca. 272 &ndash 22 May 337 commonly known as Constantine I, Constantine the Great, or Saint Constantine The central role of the Bible in Christianity is reflected in the preference Christian historians had for written sources compared to the classical historians' preference for oral sources and in the inclusion of politically unimportant people, development of Religion and society. This can be seen in the extensive inclusion of written sources in Ecclesiastical History written by Eusebius of Caesarea circa 324 and in the subjects it deals with. [3] Christian theology led a view of time as linear, progressing according to God's divine plan. Christian Theology is discourse concerning Christian faith Christian theologians use biblical Exegesis, rational analysis and argument As God's plan encompassed everyone, Christian histories in this period had a universal approach. For example, Christian writers often included summaries of important historical events prior to the start of the period the work was dealing with. [4]

Medieval Europe

A page of Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People
A page of Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People

Writing history was popular among Christian monks and clergy in the Middle Ages. Bede (ˈbiːd (also Saint Bede, the Venerable Bede, or (from Latin Beda (beda (c They wrote about the history of Jesus Christ, the Church and of their patrons, the dynastic history of the local rulers. In the Early Middles Ages historical writing often took the form of annals or chronicles recording events year by year but this style tended to hamper the analysis of events and causes. The Early Middle Ages is a period in the History of Europe following the fall of the Western Roman Empire spanning roughly five centuries from AD 500 Annals ( Latin Annales, from annus, a year are a concise form of historical writing which record events chronologically year by year [5] An example of this type of writing are Anglo-Saxon Chronicles which were the work of several different writers and start during the reign of Alfred the Great in the late 9th century and one copy of which was still being updated in 1154. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is a collection of Annals in Old English chronicling the history of the Anglo-Saxons. Alfred the Great (also Ælfred from the Old English Ælfrēd ˈælfreːd (c Some writers in the period did construct a more narrative form of history including Gregory of Tours and more successfully Bede who wrote both secular and ecclesiastical history and is known for writing Ecclesiastical History of the English People. A narrative or story is a construct created in a suitable format (written spoken poetry prose images song Theater, or Dance) that describes a sequence of Saint Gregory of Tours ( November 30, c 538 &ndash November 17, 594) was a Gallo-Roman historian and bishop of Tours Bede (ˈbiːd (also Saint Bede, the Venerable Bede, or (from Latin Beda (beda (c Secularity ( adjective form secular) is the state of being separate from Religion. Ecclesiology (from Greek grc ἐκκλησίᾱ ekklēsiā, "congregation church" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the The Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (in English: Ecclesiastical History of the English People) is a work in Latin by the [3]

History was written about states or nations during the Renaissance. The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere The study of history changed during the Enlightenment and Romanticism. The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century Romanticism is a complex artistic literary and intellectual movement that originated in the second half of the 18th century in Western Europe, and gained strength during the Voltaire described the history of certain ages that were important according to him, instead of describing events in a chronological order. François-Marie Arouet ( 21 November 1694 30 May 1778) better known by the Pen name Voltaire, was a French History became an independent discipline. It was not called philosophia historiae anymore, but merely history (historia).

China

Main article: Chinese historiography

In China, Sima Qian (around 100 BC) was the first to lay the groundwork for professional historical writing. Chinese Historiography refers to the study of methods and assumptions made in studying Chinese history. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Early life and education Sima Qian was born and grew up in Longmen, near present-day Hancheng Shaanxi. His written work was the Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian), a monumental lifelong achievement in literature. The Records of the Grand Historian, also known in English by the Chinese name 史記 or Shiji, written from 109 BC to 91 BC The Records of the Grand Historian, also known in English by the Chinese name 史記 or Shiji, written from 109 BC to 91 BC Its scope extends as far back as the 16th century BC, including many treatises on specific subjects, along with individual biographies for prominent people, as well as exploring the lives and deeds of commoners found in his own time or in previous eras. His work influenced every subsequent author of history in China, including the prestigious Ban family of the Eastern Han Dynasty era. The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China.

Traditionalist Chinese historiography describes history in terms of dynastic cycles. In this view, each new dynasty is founded by a morally righteous founder. Over time, the dynasty becomes morally corrupt and dissolute. Eventually, the dynasty becomes so weak as to allow its replacement by a new dynasty.

First page of the Shiji
First page of the Shiji

Islamic world

Main article: Historiography of early Islam

The first detailed studies on the subject of historiography itself and the first critiques on historical methods appeared in the works of the Arab Muslim historian and historiographer Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406), who wrote historiographical writings in the Muqaddimah (Latinized as Prolegomena) and Kitab al-I'bar (Book of Advice). The Historiography of early Islam refers to the study of the early origins of Islam based on a critical analysis evaluation and examination of authentic Primary The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which Historians use Primary sources and other evidence to research and then to write history The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion Ibn Khaldūn or Ibn Khaldoun (full name أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون,, ( May 27, 1332 AD/732 AH &ndash March 19 The Muqaddimah, or the Muqaddimah of Ibn Khaldun ( Arabic: ar مقدّمة ابن خلدون Amazigh: Tazwarit n Ibn Xldun Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. [6] Among many other things, his Muqaddimah laid the groundwork for the observation of the role of state, communication, propaganda and systematic bias in history,[7] and he discussed the rise and fall of civilizations. A state is a political association with effective Sovereignty over a geographic Area and representing a Population. Communication is the process of conveying information from a sender to a receiver with the use of a medium in which the communicated information is understood the same way Propaganda is a concerted set of messages aimed at influencing the opinions or behaviors of large numbers of people In Metrology, Dynamical systems theory, Computational mechanics, and Statistics, a systematic bias is a Bias of a measurement A Civilization is a society in which large numbers of people share a variety of common elements

Muslim historical writings first began developing earlier from the 7th century with the reconstruction of Muhammad's life in the centuries following his death. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion IMPORTANT PLEASE READ ##### For all questions relating to the addition of (pbuh peace be upon him or other honorifics Due to numerous conflicting narratives regarding Muhammad and his companions from various sources, it was necessary to verify which sources were more reliable. In Islam, the Ṣaḥābah (الصحابة "Companions" were the companions of the Islamic prophet Muḥammad. In order to evaluate these sources, various methodologies were developed, such as the "science of biography", "science of hadith" and "Isnad" (chain of transmission). Ilm al-Rijal ( Arabic) is the "science of People " especially as practiced in Islam, where it was first applied to the Sirah Rasul Allah This is a sub-article of Scientific method and Hadith. The Science of hadith is the process that Muslim scholars use to evaluate hadith A Hadith was originally just an Arabic story As the stories began to be used formally it became common to provide their chain of transmitters (or sanad سند plural These methodologies were later applied to other historical figures in the Islamic civilization. Egyptology began in Arab Egypt from the 9th century, with the first known attempts at deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphs made by Dhul-Nun al-Misri and Ibn Wahshiyya. Egyptology (from Egypt and Greek grc -λογία -logia. علم المصريات مصر شناسی is a major field of Archaeology During the initial Islamic invasion in 639 AD, Egypt was ruled at first by governors acting in the name of the Righteous Caliphs, and then the Ummayad Egyptian hieroglyphs (ˈhaɪərəʊɡlɪf from Greek grc-Grek ἱερογλύφος " sacred carving " also hieroglyphic = grc-Grek Dhul-Nun al-Misri (ذو النون المصري born in 796 in Akhmim, Upper Egypt - 859) was an Egyptian Sufi saint Ibn Wahshiyah (fl 9th century / 10th century) ( أبو بكر أحمد بن وحشية Abu Bakr Ahmed ibn 'Ali ibn Qays al-Wahshiyah al-Kasdani Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari (838-923) is known for writing a detailed and comprehensive chronicle of Mediterranean and Middle Eastern history in his History of the Prophets and Kings in 915. Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari (838-923 أبو جعفر محمد بن جرير الطبري was one of the earliest most prominent and famous Persian Historians The history of the Mediterranean region is the History of the interaction of the cultures and peoples of the lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea See also Timeline of Middle Eastern history This article is a general overview of the history of the Middle East. The History of the Prophets and Kings (Persian تاریخ طبری, Arabic تاريخ الرسل والملوك Tarikh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk, popularly known Tarikh al-Tabari

Until the 10th century, history most often meant political and military history, but this was not so with Persian historian Biruni (973-1048). layout and formatting it should ensure no clashes with the top of the infobox In his Kitab fi Tahqiq ma l'il-Hind (Researches on India), he did not record political and military history in any detail, but wrote more on India's cultural, scientific, social and religious history. The culture of India has been shaped by the long History of India, its unique geography and the absorption of customs traditions and ideas from some of its neighbors For information on only the Major religions in India see Major religions in India. He also discussed more on his idea of history in another work The Chronology of the Ancient Nations. [8] Biruni is considered the father of Indology for his detailed studies on Indian history. Indology refers to the academic study of the languages texts History and Cultures of the Indian subcontinent, and as such a subset of Asian studies This article is about the history of South Asia prior to the Partition of British India in 1947 [9] Other famous Muslim historians included Urwah (d. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Urwah Ibn Al-Zubayr (d 713 was among the seven fuqahaa (jurists who 712), Wahb ibn Munabbih (d. Wahb ibn Munabbih ( Arabic, وهب بن منبه)was a Muslim traditionist of Dhimar (two days' journey from Sanaa) in Yemen 728), Ibn Ishaq (d. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Muhammad ibn Ishaq ibn Yasar (محمد بن إسحاق بن يسار or simply Ibn 761), al-Waqidi (745-822), Ibn Hisham (d. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu `Abdullah Muhammad Ibn ‘Omar Ibn Waqid al-Aslami ( Arabic ar ' أبو TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu Muhammad 'Abd al-Malik bin Hisham (أبو محمد عبدالمالك بن هشام or Ibn Hisham 834), and Ibn Hajar (1372-1449), among others. For other uses see Ibn Hajar. Al-Haafidh Shihabuddin Abu'l-Fadl Ahmad ibn Ali ibn Muhammad, better known as Ibn Hajar due to a fame of

Franz Rosenthal wrote in the History of Muslim Historiography:

"Muslim historiography has at all times been united by the closest ties with the general development of scholarship in Islam, and the position of historical knowledge in Muslim education has exercised a decisive influence upon the intellectual level of historical writing. Franz Rosenthal ( August 31, 1914 – April 8, 2003) was the Louis M . . . The Muslims achieved a definite advance beyond previous historical writing in the sociological understanding of history and the systematisation of historiography. Sociology (from Latin: socius "companion" and the suffix -ology "the study of" from Greek λόγος lógos "knowledge" History is the study of the past particularly the written record Those who study history as a Profession are called Historians Etymology The development of modern historical writing seems to have gained considerably in speed and substance through the utilization of a Muslim Literature which enabled western historians, from the seventeenth century on, to see a large section of the world through foreign eyes. Islamic literature refers to literature written with an Islamic perspective in any language The Muslim historiography helped indirectly and modestly to shape present day historical thinking. "[10]

Modern era

Modern historiography began with Ranke in the 19th century, who was very critical on the sources used in history. Leopold von Ranke ( December 21, 1795 – May 23, 1886) was a German Historian of the 19th century and frequently considered He was opposed to analyses and rationalizations. His adagium was writing history the way it was. He wanted eyewitness accounts and wanted an emphasis on the point of view of the eyewitness. Textual criticism (or lower criticism) is a branch of Literary criticism that is concerned with the identification and removal of Transcription errors in Hegel and Marx introduced the change of society in history. Former historians had focused on cyclical events of the rise and decline of rulers and nations. A new discipline, sociology, emerged in the late nineteenth century that analyzed and compared these perspectives on a larger scale. Sociology (from Latin: socius "companion" and the suffix -ology "the study of" from Greek λόγος lógos "knowledge"

The French Annales School radically changed history during the 20th century. The Annales School (aˈnal(ə in French is a style of Historiography developed by French Historians in the 20th century Fernand Braudel wanted history to become more scientific by demanding more mathematical evidence in history, in order to make the history discipline less subjective. Fernand Braudel ( August 24 1902 &ndash November 27 1985) was the foremost French historian of the postwar era Furthermore, he added a social-economic and geographic framework to answer historical questions. Other French historians, like Philippe Ariès and Michel Foucault described history of daily life topics such as death and sexuality. Philippe Ariès ( 21 July 1914, Blois &ndash 8 February 1984, Paris was an important French Medievalist and Historian Michel Foucault ( (15 October 1926 – 25 June 1984 was a French philosopher, Historian, Intellectual, Critic and Sociologist. They wanted history to be written about all topics and that all questions should be asked.

Foundation of important historical journals

The idea of the historical journal, a forum where academic historians could exchange ideas, came into being in the nineteenth century. The early journals were similar to those used in the physical sciences, and were seen as a means by which history could be professionalised. Journals also helped historians to establish various historiographical approaches, the most notable example of which was Annales. Économies. Sociétés. Civilisations. a publication instrumental in establishing the Annales School. The Annales School (aˈnal(ə in French is a style of Historiography developed by French Historians in the 20th century

Approaches to history

The question of how a historian approaches historical events is one of the most important questions within historiography. It is commonly recognised by historians that, in themselves, individual historical facts are not particularly meaningful. Such facts will only become useful when assembled with other historical evidence, and the process of assembling this evidence is understood as a particular historiographical approach.

Some of the more common historiographical approaches are:

References

  1. ^ (The Methods and Skills of History: A Practical Guide, 1988, p. The Annales School (aˈnal(ə in French is a style of Historiography developed by French Historians in the 20th century Big History examines History on a large scale across long Time frames through a multi-disciplinary approach Cliometrics refers to the systematic application of economic theory Econometric techniques and other formal/mathematical methods to the study of history (especially social Comparative history is the comparison between different societies at a given time or sharing similar cultural conditions Critical historiography is used by various scholars in recent decades to emphasize the ambiguous relationship between history writing and Historiography. The term cultural history (from the German term) refers both to an Academic discipline and to its subject matter Deconstruction is a term used in Philosophy, Literary criticism, and the Social sciences, popularised through its usage by Jacques Derrida in Political history is the narrative and analysis of political events ideas movements and leaders Economic history is the study of how economic phenomena evolved in the past Family history is the systematic narrative and research of past events relating to a specific Family, or specific families Gender history is a sub-field of History and Gender studies, which looks at the past from the perspective of Gender. The Great man theory is a Theory held by some that aims to explain history by the impact of "Great men" or Heroes highly influential individuals Historical materialism is the methodological approach to the study of society economics and history which was first articulated by Karl Marx ( 1818 - 1883 History from below is a concept of historical narrative in Social history, which focuses on the perspectives of ordinary people rather than political and other leaders The history of ideas is a field of Research in History that deals with the expression preservation and change of human Ideas over time Marxist or historical materialist historiography is a school of Historiography influenced by Marxism. Metahistory The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth-Century Europe is a Historiography book by Hayden White first published in 1974 Microhistory is a branch of the study of History. First developed in the 1970s microhistory is the study of the past on a very small scale Military history is a Humanities discipline within the scope of general historical recording of armed conflict in the history of humanity Numismatics (numisma nomisma "coin" from the νομίζειν nomízein, "to use according to law" is the study or collection of Currency Oral history can be defined as the recording preservation and interpretation of historical information, based on the personal experiences and opinions of the speaker Palaeography, palæography ( British) or paleography ( American) (from the Greek grc παλαιός palaiós, Political history is the narrative and analysis of political events ideas movements and leaders Post-structuralism encompasses the intellectual developments of continental philosophers and critical theorists who wrote with tendencies of twentieth-century In historical studies, prosopography is an investigation of the common characteristics of an historical group whose individual biographies may be largely untraceable by means Psychohistory is the study of the psychological motivations of historical events Quantitative History is an approach to historical research that makes use of quantitative, statistical and computer tools For the denial and distortion of well-established historical facts see Historical revisionism (negationism. Social history is an area of historical study considered by some to be a Social science that attempts to view historical evidence from the point of view of developing Whig history or Whiggish historiography presents the past as an inevitable progression towards ever greater liberty and enlightenment culminating in modern forms of liberal World History is a field of historical study that emerged as a distinct academic field in the 1980s. 223, ISBN 0-88295-982-4)
  2. ^ Livy's History of Rome: Book 9
  3. ^ a b Historiography, Concordia University Wisconsin , retrieved on 02 November 2007
  4. ^ Warren, John (1998). Events 1570 - A Tidal wave in the North Sea devastates the coast from Holland to Jutland, killing more than 1000 Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. The past and its presenters: an introduction to issues in historiography, Hodder & Stoughton, ISBN 0-340-67934-4, p. 67-68.
  5. ^ Warren, John (1998). The past and its presenters: an introduction to issues in historiography, Hodder & Stoughton, ISBN 0-340-67934-4, p. 78-79.
  6. ^ S. Ahmed (1999). A Dictionary of Muslim Names. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 1850653569.
  7. ^ H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", Cooperation South Journal 1.
  8. ^ M. S. Khan (1976). "al-Biruni and the Political History of India", Oriens 25, p. 86-115.
  9. ^ Zafarul-Islam Khan, At The Threshhold (sic) Of A New Millennium – II, The Milli Gazette.
  10. ^ Historiography. The Islamic Scholar.

Bibliography

Theory and philosophy

Histories of historical writing

Feminist historiography

Thematic and regional

Journals

See also

External links

Dictionary

historiography

-noun

  1. the writing of history; a written history
  2. the study of the discipline and practice of history and the writings of past historians
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