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Schools

Samkhya · Yoga · Nyaya · Vaisheshika · Purva Mimamsa · Vedanta (Advaita · Vishishtadvaita · Dvaita · Achintya Bheda Abheda)
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Ancient
Valmiki · Kapila · Patañjali · Gotama · Kanada · Jaimini · Vyasa · Markandeya
Medieval
Adi Shankara · Ramanuja · Madhva · Nimbarka  · Swaminarayan · Vallabha · Madhusudana · Namdeva  · Tukaram · Tulsidas · Kabir · Vasugupta · Chaitanya

Modern
Gandhi · Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan · Vivekananda · Ramana Maharshi · Aurobindo · Nisargadatta Maharaj · Sivananda · Coomaraswamy · Pandurang Shastri Athavale · Prabhupada ·
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In the history of the Indian subcontinent, following the establishment of Vedic culture, the development of philosophical and religious thought over a period of two millennia gave rise to what came to be called the six schools of aastika, or orthodox, Indian philosophy or Hindu philosophy. Sankhya, also Samkhya, ( सांख्य, IAST: sānkhya - 'enumeration' is one of the six schools of classical Indian philosophy. Rāja Yoga ("royal Yoga " "royal union" also known as Classical Yoga or simply Yoga) is one of the six orthodox ( Astika) Nyāya ( Sanskrit ni-āyá, literally "recursion" used in the sense of " Syllogism, inference" is the name given to one of the six orthodox Vaisheshika, or Vaiśeṣika, (Sanskrit वैशॆषिक) is one of the six Hindu schools of Philosophy (orthodox Vedic systems Mīmāṃsā, a Sanskrit word meaning "investigation" (compare Greek ἱστορία) is the name of an Astika ("orthodox" school Vedanta ( Devanagari: sa वेदान्त Vedānta) is a spiritual tradition explained in the Upanishads that is concerned with the Self-realisation Advaita Vedanta ( IAST Advaita Vedānta; Sanskrit अद्वैत वेदान्त əd̪vait̪ə veːd̪ɑːnt̪ə is a sub-school of the VishishtAdvaita Vedanta ( IAST Viśishṭādvaita Vedanta; Sanskrit: विशिष्टाद्वैत is a sub-school of the Vedānta Dvaita ( Kannada: ದ್ವೈತ Devanagari:द्बैत is a dualist school of Vedanta Hindu philosophy. Achintya-Bheda-Abheda ( acintya bhedābheda in IAST) is a school of Vedanta representing the philosophy of inconceivable one-ness and difference Valmiki ( Sanskrit: वाल्मीकि vālmīki) (ca 400 BCE northern India is celebrated as the poet harbinger in Sanskrit literature Patañjali ( Devanāgarī पतञ्जलि (fl 150 BCE or 2nd c For other uses see Gotama Gautama Maharishi ( Hindi: गौतम महर्षि is one of the Saptarishis (Seven Kanada ( Sanskrit: कणाद; also transliterated as Canada as well as other forms was a Hindu sage who founded the philosophical Jaimini was an ancient rishi (sage who was a great philosopher of the Mimansa school of Indian philosophy Vyāsa ( Devanāgarī: व्यास is a central and revered figure in the majority of Hindu traditions Markandeya ( Sanskrit: मार्कण्‍डेय is an ancient Rishi (sage from the Hindu tradition born in the clan of Brigu Rishi Adi Shankara ( Malayalam: ആദി ശങ്കരന്‍ Devanāgarī: आदि शङ्कर Ādi Śaṅkara, aːd̪i ɕaŋkərə (see below Ramanuja ( traditionally 1017&ndash1137 also known as Ramanujacharya, was a Theologian, Philosopher, and Scriptural Exegete. For Madhavacharya the Advaita saint see Madhava Vidyaranya. Shri Madhvacharya (ಶ್ರೀ ಮಧ್ವಾಚಾರ್ಯರು Nimbarka ( Sanskrit: श्री निम्बार्काचार्य Śrī Nimbārkācārya) is known for propagating the Vaishnava Theology Sri Vallabhacharya (1479 &ndash 1531 was a devotional Philosopher, who founded the Pushti sect in India, following the philosophy of Shuddha Madhusūdana Sarasvatī (c1540&ndash1640 was an Indian philosopher in the Advaita Vedānta tradition Nāmdev ( Nām Dev or Sant Nāmdev) (c1270-c1350 CE was a prominent religious poet of Maharashtra, India in the Hindu tradition Tukārām was a prominent Marathi Sant and religious poet in the Hindu tradition in India. Gosvāmī Tulsīdās (1532-1623 Devanāgarī: तुलसीदास may be written as Tulasī Dāsa depending on if the name is transcribed Al-Kabir "the Great" is also one of the 99 names of God in Islam Vasugupta (860&ndash925 was the author of the famous Shiva Sutras of Vasugupta. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (also transliterated Caitanya, IAST caitanya mahāprabhu) ( Bengali চৈতন্য মহাপ্রভূ (1486 - Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi ( Gujarati: મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી moɦən̪d̪äs kəɾəmʧən̪d̪ gän̪d̪ʱi (2 October 1869 – 30 January Sir Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, OM ( Telugu:సర్వేపల్లి రాధాకృష్ణ Tamil:சர்வேபள்ளி Swami Vivekananda (স্বামী বিবেকানন্দ Shami Bibekānondo; स्वामी विवेकानन्द Svāmi Vivekānanda) ( Sri Ramana Maharshi ( December 30, 1879 – April 14, 1950) born Venkataraman Iyer, was an Indian sage Sri Aurobindo (শ্রী অরবিন্দ Sri Ôrobindo) ( August 15, 1872 – December 5, 1950) was an Indian Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj (birth name Maruti Shivrampant Kambli ( April 17, 1897 – September 8, 1981) was an Indian Swami Sivananda Saraswati ( Sep 8, 1887 — Jul 14, 1963) was a Hindu spiritual teacher and a well known Ananda Kentish Coomaraswamy (ஆனந்த குமாரசுவாமி 22 August, 1877, Colombo - 9 September, 1947, Pandurang Shastri Vaijnath Athavale (પાંડુરંગ શાસ્ત્રી આઠવલે पांडुरंग शास्त्री आठवले ( October Abhay Charanaravinda Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada ( Sanskrit:, abhaya-caraṇāravinda bhakti-vedānta svāmī prabhupāda, Bangla: অভয়চরনাবিন্দ This article deals with the geophysical region in Asia For geopolitical treatments see South Asia. The Vedic Period (or Vedic Age) is the period in the History of India during which the Vedas, the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism, were being These schools have come to be synonymous with the greater religion of Hinduism, which was a development of the early Vedic Religion. Hinduism is a religious tradition that originated in the Indian subcontinent. This article discusses the historical religious practices in the Vedic time period see Hinduism and Indian religions for details

Contents

Darshanas

Hindu philosophy is divided into six orthodox (Sanskrit āstika) schools of thought, or darshanas, listed below. Darśana ( Darshan, दर्शन is a Sanskrit term meaning "sight" (in the sense of an instance of seeing or beholding from a root

Sankhya

Sankhya is the oldest of the orthodox philosophical systems in Hinduism. Sankhya, also Samkhya, ( सांख्य, IAST: sānkhya - 'enumeration' is one of the six schools of classical Indian philosophy. Samkhya postulates that everything in reality stems from purusha (sanskrit: पुरुष,Self or soul) and prakriti (Matter, creative agency, energy). In Hinduism, Purusha ( Sanskrit puruṣa पुरुष "man Cosmic Man " in Sutra literature also called puṃs Prakrti or Prakriti (from Sanskrit language प्रकृ्रति prakṛti is according to Vedanta philosophy the basic matter of which the There are many souls and they possess consciousness, but they are devoid of all qualities. Prakriti/Matter consists of three dispositions: steadiness (sattva), activity (rajas), and dullness (tamas), known as the three gunas, or qualities. In Hindu philosophy, sattva ( Sanskrit sattva "purity" literally "existence reality" adjectival sāttvika "pure" In Samkhya philosophy one of the six schools of Hindu philosophy, rajas (Sanskrit rajas, or rajoguna) is the quality ( Guna) of activity The Sanskrit word guṇa has the basic meaning of "string" or "a single thread or strand of a cord or twine" Because of the intertwined relationship between the soul and these dispositions, an imbalance in disposition causes the world to evolve. Liberation occurs with the realization that the soul and the dispositions are different. Samkhya is a dualistic philosophy, but there are differences between Samkhya and other forms of dualism. In the West, dualism is between the mind and the body, whereas in Samkhya it is between the self and matter. The concept of the self is roughly equivalent to the Western concept of the mind. Samkhya was originally not theistic, but in confluence with Yoga it developed a theistic variant.

Yoga

In Indian philosophy, Yoga is the name of one of the six orthodox philosophical schools. The term Indian philosophy (Sanskrit Darshanas) may refer to any of several traditions of philosophical thought that originated in the Indian subcontinent Rāja Yoga ("royal Yoga " "royal union" also known as Classical Yoga or simply Yoga) is one of the six orthodox ( Astika) [1][2] The Yoga philosophical system is closely allied with the Samkhya school. Sankhya, also Samkhya, ( सांख्य, IAST: sānkhya - 'enumeration' is one of the six schools of classical Indian philosophy. [3] The Yoga school as expounded by Patanjali accepts the Samkhya psychology and metaphysics, but is more theistic than the Samkhya, as evidenced by the addition of a divine entity to the Samkhya's twenty-five elements of reality. [4][5] The parallels between Yoga and Samkhya were so close that Max Müller says that "the two philosophies were in popular parlance distinguished from each other as Samkhya with and Samkhya without a Lord. For the Danish Colonel Max Müller see Second War of Schleswig. . . . "[6] The intimate relationship between Samkhya and Yoga is explained by Heinrich Zimmer:

"These two are regarded in India as twins, the two aspects of a single discipline. Heinrich Zimmer (1890 - 1943 was an Indologist and historian of South Asian art Sāṅkhya provides a basic theoretical exposition of human nature, enumerating and defining its elements, analyzing their manner of co-operation in a state of bondage (bandha), and describing their state of disentanglement or separation in release (mokṣa), while Yoga treats specifically of the dynamics of the process for the disentanglement, out outlines practical techniques for the gaining of release, or 'isolation-integration' (kaivalya). "[7]

The foundational text of the Yoga school is the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, who is regarded as the founder of the formal Yoga philosophy. This is an article about the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali For general information on sutras see Sutra. Patañjali ( Devanāgarī पतञ्जलि (fl 150 BCE or 2nd c [8] The Sutras of the Yoga philosophy are ascribed to Patanjali, who may have been, as Max Müller explains, "the author or representative of the Yoga-philosophy without being necessarily the author of the Sutras. "[9]

Nyaya

The Nyaya school is based on the Nyaya Sutras. Nyāya ( Sanskrit ni-āyá, literally "recursion" used in the sense of " Syllogism, inference" is the name given to one of the six orthodox The Nyāya Sūtras is an ancient Indian text on of Philosophy composed by Akṣapāda Gautama (also Gotama; c They were written by Aksapada Gautama, probably in the second century B. C. E. The most important contribution made by this school is its methodology. This methodology is based on a system of logic that has subsequently been adopted by the majority of the Indian schools. In formal logic, a formal system (also called a logical system, a logistic system, or simply a logic Formal systems in mathematics consist This is comparable to the relationship between Western science and philosophy, which was derived largely from Aristotelian logic.

Nevertheless, Nyaya was seen by its followers as more than logical in its own right. They believed that obtaining valid knowledge was the only way to gain release from suffering, and they took great pains to identify valid sources of knowledge and distinguish these from mere false opinions. According to Nyaya, there are exactly four sources of knowledge: perception, inference, comparison, and testimony. Knowledge obtained through each of these is either valid or invalid. Nyaya developed several criteria of validity. In this sense, Nyaya is probably the closest Indian equivalent to analytic philosophy. The later Naiyanikas gave logical proofs for the existence and uniqueness of Ishvara in response to Buddhism, which, at that time, was fundamentally non-theistic. Ishvara ( Sanskrit: Īśvara sa ईश्वर Malay: Iswara, Thai: Phra Isuan) is a philosophical concept in Hinduism An important later development in Nyaya was the system of Navya-Nyāya.

Vaisheshika

The Vaisheshika school was founded by Kanada and postulates an atomic pluralism. Vaisheshika, or Vaiśeṣika, (Sanskrit वैशॆषिक) is one of the six Hindu schools of Philosophy (orthodox Vedic systems All objects in the physical universe are reducible to certain types of atoms, and Brahman is regarded as the fundamental force that causes consciousness in these atoms.

Although the Vaisheshika school developed independently from the Nyaya, the two eventually merged because of their closely related metaphysical theories. In its classical form, however, the Vaisheshika school differed from the Nyaya in one crucial respect: where Nyaya accepted four sources of valid knowledge, the Vaisheshika accepted only two—–perception and inference.

Purva Mimamsa

The main objective of the Purva Mimamsa school was to establish the authority of the Vedas. Mīmāṃsā, a Sanskrit word meaning "investigation" (compare Greek ἱστορία) is the name of an Astika ("orthodox" school Consequently, this school's most valuable contribution to Hinduism was its formulation of the rules of Vedic interpretation. Its adherents believe that one must have unquestionable faith in the Vedas and perform the yajñas, or fire-sacrifices, regularly. They believe in the power of the mantras and yajñas to sustain all the activity of the universe. In keeping with this belief, they place great emphasis on dharma, which consists of the performance of Vedic rituals.

The Mimamsa accepted the logical and philosophical teachings of the other schools, but felt they did not sufficiently emphasize attention to right action. They believed that the other schools of thought that aimed for release (moksha) did not allow for complete freedom from desire and selfishness, because the very striving for liberation stemmed from a simple desire to be free. In Indian religions, Moksha ( Sanskrit: sa मोक्ष mokṣa) or Mukti ( Sanskrit: sa मुक्ति literally "release" According to Mimamsa thought, only by acting in accordance with the prescriptions of the Vedas may one attain salvation.

The Mimamsa school later shifted its views and began to teach the doctrines of Brahman and freedom. Its adherents then advocated the release or escape of the soul from its constraints through enlightened activity. Although Mimamsa does not receive much scholarly attention, its influence can be felt in the life of the practising Hindu, because all Hindu ritual, ceremony, and law is influenced by this school.

Vedanta

The Vedanta, or later Mimamsa school, concentrates on the philosophical teachings of the Upanishads rather than the ritualistic injunctions of the Brahmanas. Vedanta ( Devanagari: sa वेदान्त Vedānta) is a spiritual tradition explained in the Upanishads that is concerned with the Self-realisation The Upanishads ( Devanagari: उपनिषद् IAST: upaniṣad also spelled "Upanisad" are Hindu scriptures that constitute the core teachings The Brāhmaṇa s ( Devanagari: sa ब्राह्मणं are part of the Hindu śruti literature

While the traditional Vedic rituals continued to be practised as meditative and propitiatory rites, a more knowledge-centered understanding began to emerge. These were mystical aspects of Vedic religion that focused on meditation, self-discipline, and spiritual connectivity, more than traditional ritualism.

The more abstruse Vedanta is the essence of the Vedas, as encapsulated in the Upanishads. Vedantic thought drew on Vedic cosmology, hymns and philosophy. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is believed to have appeared as far back as 3,000 years ago. The Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upanishad ( Sanskrit: बृहदारण्यक उपनिषद् is one of the older "primary" ( Mukhya While thirteen or so Upanishads are accepted as principal, over a hundred exist. The most significant contribution of Vedantic thought is the idea that self-consciousness is continuous with and indistinguishable from consciousness of Brahman.

The aphorisms of the Vedanta sutras are presented in a cryptic, poetic style, which allows for a variety of interpretations. Consequently, the Vedanta separated into six sub-schools, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own series of sub-commentaries. Four of them are given here.

Advaita

Advaita is probably the best-known of all Vedanta schools. Advaita Vedanta ( IAST Advaita Vedānta; Sanskrit अद्वैत वेदान्त əd̪vait̪ə veːd̪ɑːnt̪ə is a sub-school of the Advaita literally means "non duality. " Its first great consolidator was Adi Shankaracharya (788-820), who continued the line of thought of some of the Upanishadic teachers, and that of his teacher's teacher Gaudapada. Adi Shankara ( Malayalam: ആദി ശങ്കരന്‍ Devanāgarī: आदि शङ्कर Ādi Śaṅkara, aːd̪i ɕaŋkərə (see below By analysing the three states of experience—–waking, dreaming, and deep sleep—–he established the singular reality of Brahman, in which the soul and Brahman are one and the same. Ishvara is the manifestation of Brahman to human minds under the influence of an illusionary power called Avidya.

Visishtadvaita

Main article: Visishtadvaita

Ramanujacharya (1040-1137) was the foremost proponent of the concept of the Supreme Being having a definite form, name, and attributes. VishishtAdvaita Vedanta ( IAST Viśishṭādvaita Vedanta; Sanskrit: विशिष्टाद्वैत is a sub-school of the Vedānta Ramanuja ( traditionally 1017&ndash1137 also known as Ramanujacharya, was a Theologian, Philosopher, and Scriptural Exegete. He saw this form as that of Vishnu, and taught that reality has three aspects: Vishnu, soul (jiva), and matter (prakrti). For other meanings see Vishnu (disambiguation. Vishnu ( IAST viṣṇu Devanagari विष्णु (honorific In Hinduism and Jainism, a jiva (जीव jīva alternate spelling jiwa) is a living being or more specifically the immortal essence of a living being Prakrti or Prakriti (from Sanskrit language प्रकृ्रति prakṛti is according to Vedanta philosophy the basic matter of which the Vishnu is the only independent reality, while souls and matter are dependent on Vishnu for their existence. Thus, Ramanuja's system is known as qualified non-dualism.

Dvaita

Like Ramanuja, Madhvacharya (1238-1317) identified Brahman with Vishnu, but his view of reality was pluralistic. For Madhavacharya the Advaita saint see Madhava Vidyaranya. Shri Madhvacharya (ಶ್ರೀ ಮಧ್ವಾಚಾರ್ಯರು According to Dvaita, there are three ultimate realities: Vishnu, soul, and matter. Dvaita ( Kannada: ದ್ವೈತ Devanagari:द्बैत is a dualist school of Vedanta Hindu philosophy. Five distinctions are made: (1) Vishnu is distinct from souls; (2) Vishnu is distinct from matter; (3) Souls are distinct from matter; (4) A soul is distinct from another soul, and (5) Matter is distinct from other matter. Souls are eternal and are dependent upon the will of Vishnu. This theology attempts to addresses the problem of evil with the idea that souls are not created.

Dvaitadvaita (Bhedabheda)

Dvaitadvaita was proposed by Nimbarka, a 13th century Vaishnava Philosopher from the Andhra region. Dvaitadvaita was proposed by Nimbarka, a Vaishnava Philosopher who hailed from Andhra Region Nimbarka ( Sanskrit: श्री निम्बार्काचार्य Śrī Nimbārkācārya) is known for propagating the Vaishnava Theology According to this philosophy there are three categories of existence: Brahman, soul, and matter. Soul and matter are different from Brahman in that they have attributes and capacities different from Brahman. Brahman exists independently, while soul and matter are dependent. Thus soul and matter have an existence that is separate yet dependent. Further, Brahman is a controller, the soul is the enjoyer, and matter the thing enjoyed. Also, the highest object of worship is Krishna and his consort Radha, attended by thousands of gopis, or cowherdesses; of the celestial Vrindavana; and devotion consists in self-surrender.

Shuddhadvaita

Shuddhadvaita was proposed by Vallabhacharya (1479 - 1531), who came from the Andhra region but eventually settled in Gujarat. Shuddadvaita ( Sanskrit: śuddhādvaita pure non-dualism) also known as the Vallabhā sampradāya ( tradition of Vallabh) or Puśtimārg ( Sri Vallabhacharya (1479 &ndash 1531 was a devotional Philosopher, who founded the Pushti sect in India, following the philosophy of Shuddha

Acintya Bheda Abheda

Main article: Achintya Bheda Abheda

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486-1534), a devotee of Krishna, proposed a synthesis between the monist and dualist philosophies by stating that the soul is both distinct and non-distinct from God, whom he identified as Krishna, and that this, although unthinkable, may be experienced through a process of loving devotion (bhakti). Achintya-Bheda-Abheda ( acintya bhedābheda in IAST) is a school of Vedanta representing the philosophy of inconceivable one-ness and difference Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (also transliterated Caitanya, IAST caitanya mahāprabhu) ( Bengali চৈতন্য মহাপ্রভূ (1486 - Krishna (कृष्ण in Devanagari kṛṣṇa in IAST, ˈkr̩ʂɳə in classical Sanskrit is a deity worshiped across many traditions of Hinduism Bhakti ( Devanāgarī: भक्ति) is a word of Sanskrit origin meaning devotion. [10] This philosophy of "inconceivable oneness and difference" is followed by a number of modern Gaudiya Vaishnava movements, including ISKCON, sometimes called the Hare Krishna movement. Gaudiya Vaishnavism (also known as Chaitanya Vaishnavism) is a Vaishnava religious movement founded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486-1534 in India The International Society for Krishna Consciousness ( ISKCON) also known as 'the Hare Krishna ' movement is one of several Vaishnava groups The Hare Krishna Mantra, also referred to reverentially as the Maha Mantra ("Great Mantra" is a sixteen-word Vaishnava mantra made well ISKCON has recently participated in bringing the academic study of Krishna-related philosophies into Western academia through the theological discourse on Krishnology. Krishnology (also spelled Krishnaology) is an academic Neologism.

Further information: Svayam bhagavan

See also

Notes

  1. ^ For an overview of the six orthodox schools, with detail on the grouping of schools, see: Radhakrishnan and Moore, "Contents", and pp. This article is about a Hindu philosophical concept the original or absolute manifestation of God The term Indian philosophy (Sanskrit Darshanas) may refer to any of several traditions of philosophical thought that originated in the Indian subcontinent There are currents of Idealism in classical Hindu philosophy. Cārvāka is a system of Indian philosophy that assumed various forms of philosophical skepticism and religious indifference Buddhist philosophy deals extensively with problems in Metaphysics, phenomenology, Ethics, and Epistemology. Buddhism and Hinduism are two closely related religions that are in some ways parallel each other and in other ways are divergent in theory and practice See also Shaivism Among the various Hindu philosophies, Kaśmir Śaivism is a school of Śaivism categorized by various scholars as Monistic 453-487.
  2. ^ For a brief overview of the Yoga school of philosophy see: Chatterjee and Datta, p. 43.
  3. ^ For close connection between Yoga philosophy and Samkhya, see: Chatterjee and Datta, p. 43.
  4. ^ For Yoga acceptance of Samkhya concepts, but with addition of a category for God, see: Radhakrishnan and Moore, p. 453.
  5. ^ For Yoga as accepting the 25 principles of Samkhya with the addition of God, see: Chatterjee and Datta, p. 43.
  6. ^ Müller (1899), Chapter 7, "Yoga Philosophy", p. 104.
  7. ^ Zimmer (1951), p. 280.
  8. ^ For Patanjali as the founder of the philosophical system called Yoga see: Chatterjee and Datta, p. 42.
  9. ^ Müeller (1899), Chapter 7, "Yoga Philosophy", pp. 97-98.
  10. ^ Lord Chaitanya (krishna. com) "This is called acintya-bheda-abheda-tattva, inconceivable, simultaneous oneness and difference. "

References

Further reading

External links

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