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A hill fort is a fortified refuge or defended settlement, located to exploit a rise in elevation for military advantage. Fortifications are Military Constructions and Buildings designed for defense in Warfare Humans have constructed defensive works for The fortification usually follows the contours of the hill, consisting of one or more lines of earthworks, with stockades or defensive walls, and external ditches. In Archaeology, earthworks are artificial changes in land level often known as lumps and bumps. A stockade is an enclosure of Palisades and tall walls made of logs placed side by side vertically with the tops sharpened to provide security See also List of cities with defensive walls A defensive wall is a Fortification used to defend a city or settlement from potential aggressors

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European Bronze Age and Iron Age Hill Forts

Some European hill forts originate in the late Neolithic period, but they are most common during later periods:

Hill forts were in use in many Celtic areas of central and western Europe until the Roman conquest. This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age for the mythological Iron Age see Ages of Man. Celts (ˈkɛlts or /ˈsɛlts/, see Names of the Celts The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Julius Caesar described the large late Iron Age hill forts he encountered during his campaigns in Gaul as oppida. This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age for the mythological Iron Age see Ages of Man. Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western Oppidum (plural oppida) is a Latin word meaning the main settlement in any administrative area of Ancient Rome. By this time the larger ones had become more like cities than fortresses and many were assimilated as Roman towns.

Beyond the simple definition of hill fort, there is a wide variation in types and periods from the Bronze Age to the Middle Ages. Here are some considerations of general appearance and topology, which can be assessed without archaeological excavation:

Some forts were also settlements, while others were only occupied seasonally, or in times of strife. Archaeological excavation reveals more about the dates of occupation and modes of use. Typical features for excavation include:

Hill forts were frequently occupied by conquering armies, but on other occasions the forts were destroyed, the local people forcibly evicted, and the forts left derelict. For example, Solsbury Hill was sacked and deserted during the Belgic invasions of southern Britain in the 1st century BC. This article is about the hill called Solsbury near the city of Bath. The Belgae were a group of tribes living in northern Gaul in the 1st century BC and later also attested in Britain. See also Kingdom of Great Britain Great Britain (Breatainn Mhòr Prydain Fawr Breten Veur Graet Breetain is the larger of the two main islands Abandoned forts were sometimes reoccupied and refortified under renewed threat of foreign invasion, such as the Dukes' Wars in Lithuania, and the successive invasions of Britain by Romans, Saxons and Vikings. Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the This page refers to the conquest begun in AD 43 For other Roman invasions see Caesar's invasions of Britain and Carausian Revolt. The Saxons or Saxon people were a Confederation of Old Germanic tribes. A Viking is one of the Norse ( Scandinavian Explorers Warriors Merchants, and pirates who raided and colonized wide areas

Scandinavia and Russia

Hill fort in Halikko, Finland.
Hill fort in Halikko, Finland. Halikko (ˈhɑlikːo is a municipality of Finland. It is located in the province of Western Finland and is part of the Finland, officially the Republic of Finland ( is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of northern Europe.

In Scandinavia and northern Russia, hill forts are fortifications from the Iron Age which may have had several functions. Terminology and usage As a cultural term "Scandinavia" has no official definition and is subject to usage by those who identify with the culture in question as well Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age for the mythological Iron Age see Ages of Man. They are usually located on the crests of hills and mountains making use of precipices and marshes which worked as natural defenses. In Geography, a marsh, or morass, is a type of Wetland which is subject The crests' more accessible parts were defended with walls of stone and outer walls in the slopes beneath are common. Round and closed, so called, ring forts are common even on flat ground. The walls often have remaining parts of stone, which were probably the support of pales. They often have well delineated gateways, the gates of which were probably of wood. Hill forts with strong walls are often located beside old trading routes and have an offensive character, whereas others are reclusive and were weakly fortified, probably only for hiding during raids. A trade route is a logistical network identified as a series of pathways and stoppages used for the commercial transport of cargo

Many forts, located centrally in densely populated areas, were permanently settled strongholds and can show traces of settlements both inside and outside. Older place names containing the element sten/stein were usually hill forts.

In Sweden, there are 1100 known hill forts with a strong concentration on the northern west coast and in eastern Svealand. "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. Svealand ( or (rarely or historically Sweden Proper is the historical core region of Sweden. Only in Södermanland, there are 300, in Uppland 150, Östergötland 130 and Bohuslän and Gotland 90-100 each. sometimes referred to under its Latin form Sudermannia, is a historical province or landskap on the south eastern coast of Sweden. Uppland ( is a historical province or landskap on the eastern coast of Sweden, just north of Stockholm, the capital Östergötland is a one of the traditional Provinces of Sweden ( landskap in Swedish) in the south of Sweden. is one of the 25 traditional non-administrative Provinces of Sweden ( landskap in Swedish situated on the west coast of the country is a county, province and municipality of Sweden and the largest Island in the Baltic Sea.

In Gotland, ring forts can be from the Pre-Roman Iron Age, but findings from the period 200 AD- 600 AD dominate. is a county, province and municipality of Sweden and the largest Island in the Baltic Sea. The Pre-Roman Iron Age of Northern Europe ( 5th / 4th century BC - 1st century BC) designates the earliest part of the Iron Age in Scandinavia Many were still in use during the Middle Ages.

The Finnish word for hill fort is linnavuori (plural linnavuoret), from linna (English: castle) and vuori (English: mountain). Finnish ( or suomen kieli) is the language spoken by the majority of the population in Finland (92% As of 2006) and by ethnic Finns outside English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States Finnish castles were usually constructed of wood.

Examples

Estonia

The Estonian word for hill fort is linnamägi (plural linnamäed), meaning hillfort or hillburgh. For the Ukrainian military facility see Lyubsha (air base. Lyubsha (Russian Любша is an archaeological site situated on the right Álaborg or Áluborg is the name of a Varangian fort mentioned in the Norse sagas about Halfdan Eysteinsson and Hrolf Ganger. Gnezdovo or Gnyozdovo (Гнёздово is an archeological site located near the village of Gnyozdovo in Smolensk Oblast, Russia Old Castle of Lieto ( Liedon Vanhalinna in Finnish is a formerly fortified hill in Lieto, Finland. Estonian (; ˈeːsti ˈkeːl is the official language of Estonia, spoken by about 1 There are several hundred hill forts or presumed ancient hill fort sites all over Estonia. Some of them - like Toompea in Tallinn or Toomemägi in Tartu are governance centres used since ancient times up until today. Toompea (Domberg or "Cathedral Hill" is a Limestone Hill in the central part of the city of Tallinn, the capital of Estonia. Tartu is the second largest City of Estonia. In contrast to Estonia's political and financial capital Tallinn, Tartu is often considered the intellectual Some other, like Varbola are historical sites nowadays. The Varbola Stronghold ( Castrum Warbole Varbola Jaanilinn was the largest circular rampart Fortress and trading center built in Estonia, Harju County

Most presumably the Estonian hill forts were in pre-christian times administrative, economical and military centres of Estonian tribes. Ancient Estonia refers to a period covering History of Estonia from the middle of the 8th millennium BC until the conquest and subjugation of the Estonian people Although some of them where probably used only during the times of crisis and stood empty in other times (for example Soontagana in Koonga parish, Pärnu county.

Varbola ruins
Varbola ruins

Examples

Varbola

Lithuania

Piliakalnis complex in Kernavė, one of the World Heritage Sites
Piliakalnis complex in Kernavė, one of the World Heritage Sites

The Lithuanian word for hill fort is piliakalnis (plural piliakalniai), from pilis (English: castle) and kalnas (English: mountain, hill). The Varbola Stronghold ( Castrum Warbole Varbola Jaanilinn was the largest circular rampart Fortress and trading center built in Estonia, Harju County Kernavė, a medieval Capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, today is a tourist and archeological village (with A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a site (such as a Forest, Mountain, Lake, Desert, Monument, Building, complex Lithuanian ( lietuvių kalba) is the official state language of Lithuania and is recognised as one of the official languages of the European Union. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States

Lithuania has hill forts dating from the Bronze Age in the 1st millennium BC. Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the The term Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced Metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use included techniques for The 1st millennium BC encompasses the Iron Age and sees the rise of successive empires The earliest examples in present day Lithuania are found in the east of the country. Most forts were built or refortified in the 5-15th centuries, when they were used in the Dukes' Wars for power, and against the invasion of Teutonic Knights from the west. The Teutonic Order is a German Roman Catholic religious order. Most forts were located on the banks of a river, or where two rivers met. The fortifications were typically wooden, although some had stone or brick walls. The hill was often sculpted for defence, with tops flattened for occupation, and natural slopes made steeper for defence.

Daubariai piliakalnis in Mažeikiai district municipality
Daubariai piliakalnis in Mažeikiai district municipality

During the early years of Grand Duchy of Lithuania piliakalnis played a major role in fights with the Livonian Order and Teutonic Knights. Mažeikiai district municipality ( Lithuanian: Mažeikių rajono savivaldybė, Samogitian: Mažėikiu rajuona savivaldībė) is in north-west The Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Lietuvos Didžioji Kunigaikštystė old literary Lithuanian Didi Kunigiste Letuvos, Ruthenian: Wialikaje Kniastwa Litowskaje Bishop Albert of Riga founded the Military order of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword (Fratres militiæ Christi Livoniae Schwertbrüderorden in 1202 The Teutonic Order is a German Roman Catholic religious order. During that time the number of piliakalnis decreased, but their fortifications became stronger. Two main defense lines developed: one along the Neman River (against the Teutonic Order) and another along the border with Livonia. "Nieman" and "Niemen" redirects here For other uses see Neman and Nieman (disambiguation. Livonia (Līvõmō Latvian and Livonija Estonian: Liivimaa; Finnish: Liivinmaa; German and Swedish: Livland Two other lines started to form, but did not fully develop. One was protecting Vilnius, the capital, and another one at Samogitia, a major target for both orders since only this slice of land separated them. Samogitia ( Samogitian: Žemaitėjė, Žemaitija literally lowlands) is one of the five Ethnographic Regions of Lithuania.

Most of the castles were wooden and were quite easy to burn. As firearms and cannons developed, piliakalnis and their castles became ineffective. Also, the Livonian Order was defeated in 1236 in the Battle of the Sun. The Battle of Saule (Schlacht von Schaulen Saules kauja Saulės mūšis or Šiaulių mūšis was fought on September 22 1236 between the Livonian The Teutonic Knights suffered a major defeat in 1410 in the Battle of Grunwald and did not pose any further major threat. The Battle of Grunwald (or 1st Battle of Tannenberg) took place on 15 July 1410 with the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, led by

According to the Lietuvos piliakalnių atlasas (English: Atlas of Piliakalnis in Lithuania), there were 826 piliakalnis in Lithuania. Some researchers present a total number of 840 known piliakalnis in 2007; the number is likely to increase as even more of them are discovered every year. Most piliakalnis are located near rivers and are endangered by erosion: many have partly collapsed as the flooded river has washed out the base of the hill. Erosion is the carrying away or displacement of solids ( Sediment, Soil, rock and other particles usually by the agents of currents such as wind Now around 80 percent of piliakalnis are covered by forests and are hardly accessible to visitors.

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Britain

Hill forts in Britain are known from the Bronze Age, but the great period of hill fort construction was during the Iron Age, between 200 BC and the Roman conquest of Britain in 43 AD. Kernavė, a medieval Capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, today is a tourist and archeological village (with Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the Pilėnai was a fortress in Medieval Lithuania. It is well known in the Lithuanian history due to the heroic defense of the castle Kernavė, a medieval Capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, today is a tourist and archeological village (with The Hill of Crosses ( Lithuanian:) is a site of Pilgrimage about 12 km north of the city of Šiauliai, in northern Lithuania. The term Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced Metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use included techniques for This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age for the mythological Iron Age see Ages of Man. This page refers to the conquest begun in AD 43 For other Roman invasions see Caesar's invasions of Britain and Carausian Revolt. The Romans occupied some forts, such as the military garrison at Hod Hill, and the temple at Brean Down, but others were destroyed and abandoned. Hod Hill (or Hodd Hill) is a large Hill fort in the Blackmore Vale, 3  Miles north-west of Blandford Forum, Dorset Brean Down is a promontory off the coast of Somerset standing high and extending into the Bristol Channel between Weston-super-Mare and Burnham on Mass graves at Cadbury Castle indicate it was involved in the Boudiccan revolt in 60-61 AD. For other Cadbury Castles Camps and Hills see Cadbury. Cadbury Castle is an Iron Age Hill fort in the Civil parish Boudica (also spelled Boudicca, formerly known as Boadicea, and known in Welsh culture and legends as "Buddug" (d Many of the place names of these sites bear the suffix "-bury", meaning fort. Some are called Cytian ( cytian'r y gwyddelod, the huts of the Irish). [1][2]

Where Roman influence was less strong, such as uninvaded Ireland and unsubdued northern Scotland, hill forts were still built and used for several more centuries. Ireland (pronounced /ˈaɾlənd/ Éire) is the third largest island in Europe, and the twentieth-largest island in the world Scotland ( Gaelic: Alba) is a Country in northwest Europethat occupies the northern third of the island of Great Britain.

Dunadd hill fort near Kilmartin in Argyll, similar to ring-forts in Ireland and Iberian castros
Dunadd hill fort near Kilmartin in Argyll, similar to ring-forts in Ireland and Iberian castros

Some forts were reoccupied following the end of Roman rule, to defend against pirate raids, and the Anglo-Saxon invasions. Roman Britain refers to those parts of the island of Great Britain controlled by the Roman Empire between AD 43 and 410 For their language see Anglo-Saxon language. Anglo-Saxon is the term usually used to describe the invading Tribes in the south The cemetery outside Poundbury Hill contains east-west Christian burials of the 4th century AD. Poundbury Hill Hill fort ( is the site of a Middle Bronze Age enclosure The Wansdyke was a new linear earthwork connected to the existing hill fort at Maes Knoll, which defined the Celtic-Saxon border in south-west England during the period 577-652 AD. Wansdyke (from Woden 's Dyke) is an early medieval series of defensive linear earthworks in the West Country of England, Maes Knoll (sometimes Maes Tump) is an Iron Age Hillfort located south of the English city of Bristol, near the village of

Some hill forts were reoccupied by the Anglo-Saxons during the period of Viking raids. For their language see Anglo-Saxon language. Anglo-Saxon is the term usually used to describe the invading Tribes in the south A Viking is one of the Norse ( Scandinavian Explorers Warriors Merchants, and pirates who raided and colonized wide areas King Alfred established a network of coastal hill forts and lookout posts in Wessex, linked by a Herepath, or military road, which enabled his armies to cover Viking movements at sea. Alfred the Great (also Ælfred from the Old English Ælfrēd ˈælfreːd (c West Saxon redirects here For other meanings of Wessex or West Saxon see Wessex (disambiguation. Herepath, a military road (literally an army path in use in southern England in the ninth century CE. For example, see Daw's Castle and Cannington Hill. Daw's Castle (or Dart's Castle or Dane's Castle) is a sea cliff Hill fort just west of Watchet, a harbour town in Somerset, The Battle of Cannington, in 878, took place at the fort of Cynwit, now recognised as being on Cannington Hill, near Cannington, Bridgwater

After careful archaeological excavation, it has been found that many so-called hill forts were just used to pen in cattle, horses, or other domesticated animals. The large sprawling examples at Bindon Hill and Bathampton Down are more than 20 ha. Bindon Hill is an extensive Iron Age earthwork enclosing a coastal area near Lulworth Cove in Dorset, England. Bathampton Down, is an early Medieval earthwork just east of Bath in Somerset, England. Explanation The hectare is commonly used in most countries around the world especially in domains concerned with land planning and management such as Agriculture, Even those that were defensive settlements in the Iron Age, were sometimes used for coralling animals in later periods. For example, see Coney's Castle, Dolebury Warren and Pilsdon Pen. Coney's Castle is an Iron Age Hill fort in Dorset, England. The name Coney is from the Old English for rabbit (Latin Dolebury Warren ( is a 906 Hectare Biological Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI near the village of Churchill in North Somerset Pilsdon Pen is a 277 metre (909 ft hill in West Dorset, England.

Examples

References

Ireland

A Bronze-age and Iron-age type of defended settlement from prehistoric Ireland is the hill-fort: a large circular type between 1 and 40 acres (more usually 5-10acres) enclosed by a stone wall or earthen rampart or both. Sir Barrington Windsor Cunliffe CBE (b) known as Barry Cunliffe, was Professor of European Archaeology at the University of Oxford from 1972 Sir Barrington Windsor Cunliffe CBE (b) known as Barry Cunliffe, was Professor of European Archaeology at the University of Oxford from 1972 These hill-forts are strategically located on top of large stand alone hills if possible to ensure maximum defence against raids from neighbouring enemies. These would have been tribally important centres where the Chief or King of the area would live with his extended family. They lived by farming and renting cattle to their underlings.

There are around 40 Hill-forts known in Ireland. There are about 12 multivallate forts, as distinguished by multiple ramparts, or a large counterscarp (outer bank). A scarp and a counterscarp are the inner and outer sides of a ditch used in fortifications The imposing example at Mooghaun is defended by multiple stone walls.

One must be careful to not confuse a hill-fort with a 'ringfort' a medieval settlement a common archaeological feature across the whole island of Ireland, over 40,000 examples are known.

Some hill-forts have cairns inside their boundaries and there are many speculations about this phenonmena, the theories range from being a strange cult religion to just co-incidence the same kind of area as they both like (hill tops with commanding views of the local viscinity), the excavation at Freestone Hill in Co. Kilkenny has shown that there was indeed a ditch cut out around the cairn, evidence that they had repect for the feature no matter what they belived about it.


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Spain and Portugal

In Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria and Northern Portugal a castro is a fortified pre-Roman Iron Age Celtic village, usually located on a hill or some naturally easy defendable place. Galicia (occasionally Galiza) is an autonomous community in northwest Spain. The Principality of Asturias ( Spanish: Principado de Asturias, Asturian: Principáu d'Asturies or Asturies) is an Cantabria is a Spanish province and Autonomous community with Santander as its capital city Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age for the mythological Iron Age see Ages of Man. Celts (ˈkɛlts or /ˈsɛlts/, see Names of the Celts A village is a clustered human settlement or community, larger than a hamlet, but smaller than a Town or City. [1]The larger castros are called citanias or cividades (English: cities).

Castro de Baroña, Galicia, Spain.
Castro de Baroña, Galicia, Spain. Galicia (occasionally Galiza) is an autonomous community in northwest Spain. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula.

Castros were located on hilltops, which allowed tactical control over the surrounding countryside and provided natural defenses. Military tactics ( Greek: Taktikē, the art of organizing an army are the techniques for using weapons or military units in combination for engaging and defeating They invariably had a spring or small creek to provide water; some even had large reservoirs to use during sieges. A spring is a point where Groundwater flows out of the ground and is thus where the Aquifer surface meets the ground surface A stream is a body of Water with a current, confined within a bed and stream-banks A reservoir is most broadly a place or hollow vessel where Fluid is kept in Reserve, for later use Typically, a castro has a triple loose stone and earth wall, which complements the natural defenses of the hill. A wall is a usually solid structure that defines and sometimes protects an area The houses inside are about 3. 5–5 m long. The metre or meter is a unit of Length. It is the basic unit of Length in the Metric system and in the International Most of the houses are circular in shape, although some are rectangular and they are made out of stone with thatch roofs that rest on a wood column in the centre of the building. Their streets are somewhat regular, suggesting some form of central organization. Castros vary in diameter from dozens of metres to several hundred.

Castros were mostly places of refuge during the frequent Celtic tribal wars, although many, including all the citanias, were continuously inhabited, as well.

Many castros were already inhabited during the Bronze Age, long before the Celtic invasions, and it is thought that the Iberian culture of these settlements largely survived the Celtic influx, with which it blended, adopting the Celtic Language as a lingua franca with their commercial contacts along the Atlantic Coast. The term Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced Metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use included techniques for The Iberians were a set of peoples that Greek and Roman sources (among others Hecataeus of Miletus, Avienus, Herodot and Strabo A lingua franca (from Italian, literally meaning Frankish language, see etymology under Sabir and Italian below is any Language widely

Many of the megaliths from the Bronze Age such as menhirs and dolmens, which are frequently located near the castros, also predate the Celts in Portugal, Asturias and Galicia as well as in Atlantic France, Britain and Ireland. A menhir is a large upright Standing stone. Menhirs may be found singly as Monoliths or as part of a group of similar stones A dolmen (also known as cromlech, anta, Hünengrab, Hunebed, Goindol, quoit, and portal dolmen) is a type of Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. The Principality of Asturias ( Spanish: Principado de Asturias, Asturian: Principáu d'Asturies or Asturies) is an Galicia (occasionally Galiza) is an autonomous community in northwest Spain. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Ireland (pronounced /ˈaɾlənd/ Éire) is the third largest island in Europe, and the twentieth-largest island in the world These megaliths were probably reused in syncretic rituals by the Celtic Druids. A druid was a member of the priestly and learned class in the ancient Celtic societies

Although many castros were destroyed by the Romans, others were expanded into proper cities.

The Celtiberian people occupied an inland region in central northern Spain, straddling the upper valleys of the Ebro, Douro and Tajo. The Ebro ( Ebre) is Spain 's most voluminous river Its source is in Fontibre ( Cantabria) The Douro or Duero ( Latin: Durius, Spanish: Duero, Portuguese: Douro, pron. The Tagus ( Latin Tagus, Spanish Tajo, Portuguese Tejo, pron. They built hillforts, fortified hilltop towns and oppida, including Numantia. Oppidum (plural oppida) is a Latin word meaning the main settlement in any administrative area of Ancient Rome. Numantia ( Numancia in Spanish was a town in Hispania (modern-day Spain) which for a long time resisted conquest by Romans

Examples

Astur hill fort of Coaña, Asturias, Spain
Astur hill fort of Coaña, Asturias, Spain

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France

The Gaulish hero Vercingetorix was famously besieged by Julius Caesar in the hill fort of Alesia. The Astures were the original Indo-European inhabitants of the northwest area of Hispania that now comprises almost the entire modern Autonomous community The Principality of Asturias ( Spanish: Principado de Asturias, Asturian: Principáu d'Asturies or Asturies) is an The Principality of Asturias ( Spanish: Principado de Asturias, Asturian: Principáu d'Asturies or Asturies) is an Numantia ( Numancia in Spanish was a town in Hispania (modern-day Spain) which for a long time resisted conquest by Romans History Paços de Ferreira was incorporated in 1993. Sports associations F Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. Castro culture ( cultura castreja in Portuguese, cultura castrexa in Galician and cultura castreña in Spanish, Cividade de Terroso was an important city of the Castro culture in North-western Iberian Peninsula, located in Póvoa de Varzim, Portugal. Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western Vercingetorix (werkiŋˈɡetoriks in Latin) born around 82 BC died 46 BC was chieftain of the Arverni, originating from the Arvernian city of The predominant form of rampart construction was murus gallicus. Murus Gallicus or Gallic Wall is a method of construction of Defensive walls used to protect Iron Age Hillforts and oppida of

Examples

Central Europe

The Hallstatt and La Tene cultures originated in what is now southern Germany, Switzerland, Austria and the Czech Republic. Bibracte, a Gaulish Oppidum or fortified city was the capital of the Aedui and one of the most important Saint Odile (or Odilia and or Ottilia) is the name of two saints venerated in the Roman Catholic Church, both patronesses of good eyesight Saint Odilia Huelgoat (An Uhelgoad is a commune in Finistère department in Bretagne in northwestern France. The Hallstatt culture was the predominant The La Tène culture was a European Iron Age culture named after the archaeological site Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich The Czech Republic ( ˈt͡ʃɛskaː ˈrɛpuˌblɪka short form in Česko ˈt͡ʃɛskɔ also called Czechia,

The predominant form of rampart construction is pfostenschlitzmauer, or Kelheim-style. Pfostenschlitzmauer (meaning post-slot wall in German) is a method of constructing Defensive walls protecting Iron Age Hillforts The murus gallicus defenses at Manching were later earlier rebuilt and extended in the pfostenschlitzmauer style. The Oppidum of Manching (Oppidum von Manching was a large Celtic proto-urban or city-like settlement at modern-day Manching (near Ingolstadt)

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New Zealand Māori Hill Forts

Main article Pā (Māori)

The Māori people built hill forts, mostly in the country's North Island, during the Classic period (AD 1350-1800). The Heuneburg is a prehistoric Hillfort by the upper Danube. It is located in Hundersingen near Herbertingen, between Ulm Württemberg, formerly known as Wirtemberg, is an area and a former state in Swabia, a region in southwestern Germany. Mount Ipf is a Hill fort near Bopfingen, Ostalbkreis, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Baden-Württemberg is one of the 16 states ( Bundesländer) of the Federal Republic of Germany. Alcimoennis (aka Alkimoennis) was a Celtic Oppidum, or Hill fort, located on the Michelsberg hill, dominating Bavaria ( German:, with an area of 70553 Km² (27241 square miles and almost 12 The Oppidum of Manching (Oppidum von Manching was a large Celtic proto-urban or city-like settlement at modern-day Manching (near Ingolstadt) Bavaria ( German:, with an area of 70553 Km² (27241 square miles and almost 12 Moravia (Morava; Morawy Moravie Moravia is a historical region in central Europe in the east of the Czech Republic, one of the former Czech lands. Bohemia (Čechy; Bohemia Czechy is a historical region in central Europe, occupying the western two-thirds of the traditional Czech Lands, currently the Bohemia (Čechy; Bohemia Czechy is a historical region in central Europe, occupying the western two-thirds of the traditional Czech Lands, currently the Oppidum (plural oppida) is a Latin word meaning the main settlement in any administrative area of Ancient Rome. Sir Barrington Windsor Cunliffe CBE (b) known as Barry Cunliffe, was Professor of European Archaeology at the University of Oxford from 1972 The word pā (pronounced pah refers to a Māori Village, generally one from the 19th century or earlier that was fortified for defence This article discusses the Māori people of New Zealand For their language see Māori language, and for other meanings see Māori (disambiguation. The North Island is one of the two main islands of New Zealand, the other being the South Island. Known as pa, the fortresses were sometimes sited atop extinct volcanoes and consisted of a settlement, sometimes even with cultivation plots, surrounded by ditches and banks. The word pā (pronounced pah refers to a Māori Village, generally one from the 19th century or earlier that was fortified for defence Wooden palisade fences ran atop the banks along with raised fighting platforms. palisade is a steel or wooden Fence or wall of variable height usually used as a defensive structure During the New Zealand land wars, the design was gradually modified, with more below ground entrenchments, thick earthern ramparts and camouflage, to successfully resist British artillery, for example at Gate Pa in 1864. The New Zealand Wars, sometimes called the Land Wars and also once called the Māori Wars, were a series of conflicts that took place in New Zealand Trench warfare is a form of warfare where both combatants have fortified positions and fighting lines are static See also List of cities with defensive walls A defensive wall is a Fortification used to defend a city or settlement from potential aggressors Camouflage is a method of cryptic or concealing coloration that allows an otherwise visible Organism Artillery (from French artillerie) is a military Combat Arm which employs any apparātus machine Gate Pā is the name given to provocative fortress the Māori built in 1864 only 5km (3 miles from the main British base of Camp Te Papa at Tauranga during

Examples

Indian Hill Forts

India has a large number of hill forts, especially in the state of Maharashtra and Rajasthan. Mount Wellington is a peak and a suburb in Auckland City, New Zealand The peak Mount Wellington is a 137 metre volcanic peak New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island Gate Pā is the name given to provocative fortress the Māori built in 1864 only 5km (3 miles from the main British base of Camp Te Papa at Tauranga during India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Maharashtra ( Marathi: mahārāṣṭra, IPA) is a state located on the western coast of India. Rājasthān ( Devanāgarī: राजस्थान raːdʒəst̪ʰaːn is the largest state of the Republic of India in terms of area Maratha rulers like Chatrapati Shivaji formed a very complex and robust defense mechanism using hill forts against raids from Mughul rulers. The Marāthās ( Marathi: mr मराठा also Mahrattas) form an Indo Aryan group of Hindu Warriors hailing mostly from the present-day Shivaji Bhosle, also known as Chhatrapati Shivaji Raje Bhosle ( Marathi: छत्रपती शिवाजीराजे भोसले (Born February The Mughal Empire ( Persian and self-designation گورکانی; مغلیہ سلطنت) was an Islamic imperial power which ruled most The Maratha king Chatrapati Shivaji is credited to building and maintaining numerous hill forts in western Maharashtra. The Marāthās ( Marathi: mr मराठा also Mahrattas) form an Indo Aryan group of Hindu Warriors hailing mostly from the present-day Shivaji Bhosle, also known as Chhatrapati Shivaji Raje Bhosle ( Marathi: छत्रपती शिवाजीराजे भोसले (Born February Maharashtra ( Marathi: mahārāṣṭra, IPA) is a state located on the western coast of India.

Examples

WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Chittorgarh (also Chittor, Chittaur, or Chittaurgarh) is an ancient town in Jaigarh Fort, located around 15 km from Jaipur, is one of the most spectacular forts in India with almost all its original facilities intact Lohagad ("the Iron fort" is one of the many Hill forts of Chatrapati Shivaji. Mehrangarh Fort, located in Jodhpur city in Rajasthan state is one of the largest forts in India WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Panhala is a scenic hill station (3177 feet above sea level 18 km northwest of Kolhapur, in Kolhapur Sinhagad or Sinhgad ( Devanagari, Marathi सिंहगड meaning Lion Fort, is located near the city of Pune, India, situated
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