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The helots (in Classical Greek Εἵλωτες / Heílôtes) were the serfs of Sparta. The Ancient Greek language is the historical stage in the development of the Hellenic language family spanning the Archaic (c The city of Sparta ( Doric Σπάρτα Attic Σπάρτη They should not be confused with the chattel slaves, who were much less common (or nonexistent) in Sparta. As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another The practice of keeping helots also occurred in Thessaly, Crete, and Sicily. Thessalia redirects here For the Butterfly Genus, see Thessalia (butterfly. Crete ( Greek: Κρήτη transliteration: Krētē, modern transliteration Kriti) is the largest of the Greek islands and the Sicily ( Italian and Sicilian: Sicilia) is an autonomous region of Italy.

Contents

Etymology

There are several theories as to the origin of the word. According to Hellanicus, it comes from the village of Helos, in the south of Sparta. Hellanicus of Lesbos (in Ancient Greek) (born in Mytilene on the isle of Lesbos in 490 BC was an ancient Greek logographer who flourished Elos (Greek Έλος is a village and a municipality in Greece near Skala and Vlachioti. Pausanias thus states "Its inhabitants became the first slaves of the Lacedaemonian state, and were the first to be called helots, as in fact Helots they were. Pausanias ( Greek:) was a Greek traveller and Geographer of the 2nd century CE, who lived in the times of Hadrian, Antoninus The slaves afterwards acquired, although they were Dorians of Messenia, also came to be called helots" [1] (III, 20, 6). The Dorians or Dorian Greeks ( Greek:, Dōrieis singular, Dōrieus were Messenia or Messinia (Μεσσηνία is a prefecture in the Peloponnese, a region of Greece.

Linguists have associated the word to the root (linguistics) ϝελ / wel, as in ἁλίσκομαι / halískomai, "to be captured, to be made prisoner". Linguistics is the scientific study of Language, encompassing a number of sub-fields The root is the primary lexical unit of a Word, which carries the most significant aspects of semantic content and cannot be reduced into smaller constituents In fact, some ancient authors did not consider the term to be ethnic, but rather an indication of servitude: Antiochus of Syracuse, in a fragment (fragment 13) preserved by Strabo, writes "those of the Lacedaemonians who did not take part in the expedition were adjudged slaves and were named helots"[2] (VI, 3, 2), while Theopompus (fragment 122) , cited by Athenaeus (VI, 416c), states ". Antiochus of Syracuse, Greek historian flourished about 420 BC Nothing is known of his life but his works of which only fragments remain enjoyed a high reputation because Strabo ( Greek: Στράβων 63/64 BC – ca AD 24 was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher. Theopompus, a Greek Historian and Rhetorician was born on Chios about 380 BC. Athenaeus ( Ancient Greek - Athếnaios Naukratios Latin Athenaeus Naucratita of Naucratis in Egypt Greek rhetorician and grammarian flourished . and the one nation called their slaves helots and the others called them penestae. The penestae (in Greek oι Πενέσται hoi penestai) were a class of unfree labourers tied to the land once inhabiting Thessaly, whose status was . . " [3].

"In all of these texts, the christening of the group as helots is the central and symbolic moment of their reduction to serfhood. By this name they are thus institutionally distinguished from the anonymous douloi (slaves). [4]"

It is certain that one aspect of helotism was the issue of conquest; this was the case of the Messenians, reduced to such in the Messenian Wars of the 8th century BC. The First Messenian War was a war between Messenia and Sparta. The 8th century BC started the first day of 800 BC and ended the last day of 701 BC. Herodotus amongst others refers to helots as Messenians. Herodotus of Halicarnassus ( Greek: Hēródotos Halikarnāsseús) was a Greek Historian who lived in the 5th century BC ( 484 BC&ndash

For the earliest helots, the situation is less clear. According to Theopompus they were the descendants of the initial Achaeans, conquered by the Dorians. The Dorians or Dorian Greeks ( Greek:, Dōrieis singular, Dōrieus were But then, not all Achaeans were reduced to helotism; the village of Amykles, home of the Hyacinthia festival, enjoyed special status, as did others. Ancient Amyklai In the second century AD the traveller Pausanias was informed that the archaic site of Amyklai had its ancient origin as an Achaian stronghold The death of Hyacinthus was celebrated at Amyclae by the second most important of Spartan festivals the Hyacinthia (Ancient Greek / Hyakínthia)in the

Contemporary authors propose alternative theories; according to Antiochus of Syracuse they were the Lacedaemonians who did not participate in the Messenian Wars. For the Laconian dialect see Doric Greek For the Ancient Kingdom see Sparta For the laconic expression see Laconic For Ephorus of Cyme, they were the perioeci ("dwellers in surrounding communities") from Helos, reduced to slavery after a failed revolt. Ephorus or Ephoros ( Ancient Greek:, c 400 - 330 BC) of Cyme in Aeolia, in Asia The perioeci, or perioikoi, were the members of an autonomous group of free but non-citizen inhabitants of Sparta. Modern historiography favours the hypothesis of Antiochus of Syracuse.

The helot system

Status

Helots and klêroi

Helots were assigned to citizens to carry out domestic work or work on their klêroi. Mention is made in various sources of these servants accompanying this or that Spartan. Plutarch (Life of Agesilaus, III, 1) has Timaia, the wife of King Agis II, "being herself forward enough to whisper among her helot maid-servants" that the child she was expecting had been fathered by Alcibiades, and not her husband, indicating a certain level of trust. Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Greek: Μέστριος Πλούταρχος c For other uses of this name see Agis. Agis II ( Gr) (d c 401 BC was the 17th Eurypontid king of Sparta Alcibiades Cleiniou Scambonides (ˌælsɨˈbaɪədiːz (pronunciation Greek:, transliterated Alkibiádēs Kleiníou Skambōnidēs) meaning Alcibiades According to some authors, in the fourth century BC, citizens also used chattel-slaves for domestic purposes. However, this is disputed by others. Some helots were also servants to young Spartans during their agoge, the Spartan education; these were the μόθωνες / móthōnes (see below). The agoge (Άγωγή was a rigorous education and training regime for all Spartan citizens except the sons in the ruling houses Finally, helots, like slaves, could be artisans or tradesmen.

They were required to hand over a predetermined portion of their harvest (ἀποφορά / apophorá), with the helot keeping the surplus. According to Plutarch, this portion was 70 medimnoi of barley for a man, 12 for a woman, as well as a quantity of oil and wine corresponding to an amount reasonable for the needs of a warrior and his family or a widow respectively. The ancient Greek system of weights and measures was built mainly upon the Egyptian, and formed the basis of the later Roman system. The existence of the apophorá is contested by Tyrtaeus, cited by Pausanias; "Secondly, though no fixed tribute was imposed on them, they used to bring the half of all the produce of their fields to Sparta. Tyrtaeus (also Tyrtaios, Greek:) was a Greek elegiac Poet who lived at Sparta about the middle of the 7th century BC . . . Like asses worn by their great burdens, bringing of dire necessity to their masters the half of all the fruits the corn-land bears. " (IV, 14, 4–5). Pausanias is describing the period immediately after the first Messenian War, when conditions were no doubt more severe.

Having paid their tribute, the helots could often live quite well; the lands of Laconia and Messenia were very fertile, and often permitted two crops per year. For the Laconian dialect see Doric Greek For the Ancient Kingdom see Sparta For the laconic expression see Laconic A certain amount of wealth was achievable: in 223 BC, 6,000 helots purchased their freedom for 500 drachmas each, a considerable sum at the time. Events By place Seleucid Empire The Seleucid king Seleucus III is assassinated in Phrygia by members of his army Drachma, pl drachmas or drachmae (δραχμή pl δραχμές or δραχμαί (until 1982 is the name of An ancient currency unit found in many Nevertheless, Spartans did take measures to keep the helots from getting too rich.

Demography

Helots lived in family units and could contract unions amongst themselves. This was a significant difference from chattel-slaves, amongst whom contracts, marriages, and family relationships were not legally recognized. Helots were thus much less susceptible to having the family unit dispersed. Because of this, in contrast to other slaves in Greek antiquity, helots reproduced. Their numbers, probably not insignificant to begin with, increased; this in spite of the crypteia, other massacres of helots (see below), and losses in war. Krypteia or crypteia in( Gr κρυπτεία / krupteía, from κρυπτός / kruptós, “hidden secret things” was a tradition involving At the same time, the population of citizens continued to decrease.

The absence of a formal census prevents accurately assessing their numbers, though some estimates are possible. According to Herodotus (IX, 28–29), the helots were seven times as numerous as the Spartans during the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC. The Battle of Plataea was the final major Battle of the Greco-Persian Wars in southern Greece. At the time of the conspiracy of Cinadon, at the beginning of the fourth century BC, at the agora only forty peers or citizens could be counted in a crowd of 4000 (Xenophon, Hellenica, III, 3, 5). The Conspiracy of Cinadon was an attempted Coup d'État which took place in Sparta in the 4th century BCE during the first years of the reign of Agesilaus At that point, the total population of helots, including women, is estimated as 170,000 – 224,000. [5].

Given that— unlike chattel slave populations— the helot population could not grow by means of purchase or capture in war, it had to rely on natural growth. Helots were encouraged by the Spartans to impose eugenics similar to that which they practiced themselves. Eugenics is a social Philosophy which advocates the improvement of Human Hereditary traits through various forms of intervention Thus, according to the Greek beliefs of the period, not only genetic but also acquired characteristics were passed along to successive generations. During the crypteia, the strongest and fittest helots were the primary targets of the kryptes; to select soft targets would be a sign of weakness.

What is more, the Spartans used helot women as a means of meeting the state's needs in terms of human resources: the 'bastards' (nothoi) born of Spartan fathers and helot women held an intermediary rank in Lacedaemonian society (cf. In Common law, legitimacy is the status of a Child that is born to parents who are legally married to one another or that is born shortly after the mothakes and mothones below) and swelled the ranks of the citizen army. It is difficult to determine whether these births were the results of voluntary liaisons (at least on the part of the father) or part of a formal state programme. It is likely that girls born of such unions, serving no military purpose, were exposed at birth and left to die [6].

Emancipation

According to Myron of Priene, cited by Athenaeus (The Deipnosophists, VI, 271F), the emancipation of helots was "common" (πολλάκις / pollákis). Myron of Priene was the author of an historical account of the first Messenian war from the taking of Ampheia to the death of Aristodemus. The text suggests that this is normally associated with completion of military service. The first explicit reference to this practice in regards the helots occurs in Thucydides (IV, 26, 5). Thucydides ( C 460 BC &ndash C 395 BC) ( Greek Θουκυδίδης Thoukydídēs) was a Greek This is on the occasion of the events at Sphacteria, when Sparta had to relieve their hoplites, who were besieged on the island by the Athenians:

"The fact was, that the Lacedaemonians had made advertisement for volunteers to carry into the island ground corn, wine, cheese, and any other food useful in a siege; high prices being offered, and freedom promised to any of the helots who should succeed in doing so". The Battle of Sphacteria was a land battle of the Peloponnesian War, fought in 425 BC between Athens and Sparta. Athenian democracy developed in the Greek City-state of Athens [7]

Thucydides reports that the request met with some success, and the helots got supplies through to the besieged island. He does not mention whether or not the Spartans kept their word; it is possible that some of the helots later executed were part of the Sphacterian volunteers.

The second such call came during the Theban invasion of Laconia. Thebes ( Classic Greek Θῆβαι, Mod Θήβα) is a city in Greece, situated to the north of the Cithaeron range which divides Xenophon in Hellenica (VI, 5, 28) states that the authorities agreed to emancipate all the helots who volunteered. Xenophon (Ancient Greek, Modern Greek "Ξενοφών" "Ξενοφώντας" ca He then estimates that 6,000 heeded the call, leading to some embarrassment for the Spartans

All the same, in 424 BC, the 700 helots who served Brasidas in Chalcidice were emancipated, and they were henceforth known as the "Brasidians". Brasidas ( Greek: Βρασίδας) (d 422 BC was a Spartan officer during the first decade of the Peloponnesian War. Chalkidiki, also Halkidiki or Chalcidice, less often Khalkidiki and rarely Chalkidice (Χαλκιδική xalkʲiðiˈkʲi is one of the It was also possible to purchase freedom, or achieve it by undergoing the traditional Spartan education. Generally, emancipated helots were referred to as "neodamodes" (νεοδαμώδεις / neodamōdeis): those who rejoined the δῆμος / dễmos (Deme) of the Perioeci. The Neodamodes (νεοδαμώδεις neodamōdeis) were Helots freed after passing a time of service as Hoplites in the Spartan Army. Ancient Greece, a deme ( δῆμος) was a subdivision of Attica, the region of Greece surrounding Athens. The perioeci, or perioikoi, were the members of an autonomous group of free but non-citizen inhabitants of Sparta.

Moses Finley underscores that the fact helots could serve as hoplites constituted a grave flaw in the system. Sir Moses I Finley CBE ( May 20, 1912– June 23, 1986 was an American and English classical scholar. In effect, the hoplite system was a strict method of training to ensure that discipline was maintained in the phalanx. The phalanx (Ancient Greek φάλαγξ Modern Greek φάλαγγα phālanga (plural phalanxes or phalanges (Ancient and Modern Greek φάλαγγες The Spartans gained considerable reputation as hoplites, due to tactical capabilities developed through constant training. In addition to this military aspect, to be a hoplite was a key characteristic of Greek citizenship. To introduce helots to this system thus led to inevitable social conflict.

A special case: the mothakes and the mothones

Phylarchus, cited by Athenaeus (VI, 271 E) specifies a class of man at the same time free and non-citizen: the μόθακες / mothakes, had undergone the 'agoge, the Spartan educational system. Phylarchus (in Greek Φυλαρχoς; lived 3rd century BC) was a Greek historical writer whose works have been lost but not before having been Classical historiography recognizes that the helots comprised a large portion of these mothakes. Nevertheless, this category poses a number of problems, firstly that of vocabulary.

The classical authors used a number of terms which appear to evoke similar concepts:

The situation is somewhat complicated by a gloss of Hesychios of Alexandria which attests that mothakes were slave children (δοῦλοι / doũloi) raised at the same time as the children of citizens. Hesychius of Alexandria (῾Ησύχιος ὁ Ἀλεξανδρεύς a Grammarian who flourished probably in the 5th century CE compiled the richest lexicon Philologists resolve this quandary in two ways:

In any case, the conclusion needs to be treated carefully:

Fear and humiliation

"Contempt of helots"

This expression by Jean Ducat expresses another of the great characteristics of helots among the servile populations of Greek antiquity: they were ritually mistreated. Sources for this are abundant, and detailed.

Myron of Priene, cited by Athenaeus (XIV, 657 D), specifies the humiliations they were subjected to: they had to wear hats of dog skin (κυνῆ / kunễ) as well as sheep hides (διφθέρα / diphthéra) to distinguish themselves from others. [8] The canine symbolism was clear to the Greeks: that of a servile and cowardly animal. Each year, the helots were ritually flogged, apparently for no other reason than to affirm their servitude; though it seems that only a small group was actually flogged, symbolically representing the whole helot population.

Plutarch (Life of Lycurgus, 28, 8-10) also indicates that they were forced to drink pure wine (which was considered dangerous - wine usually being cut with water) "…and to lead them in that condition into their public halls, that the children might see what a sight a drunken man is; they made them to dance low dances, and sing ridiculous songs…" during syssitia (obligatory banquets)[9]. Ancient Greek cuisine was characterized by its frugality reflecting agricultural hardship The syssitia (in Classical Greek / ta syssítia) was in Ancient Greece, a common meal for men and youths in social or religious groups especially in Conversely, it was reported in the same source that the Thebans ordered a group of helot prisoners to recite the verses of Alcman and Terpander (national poets of Thebes); the helots refused, on the grounds that it would displease their masters. Alcman (also Alkman Greek) (7th century BC was an Ancient Greek choral lyric poet from Sparta. Terpander (Greek Τέρπανδρος of Antissa in Lesbos, was a Greek Poet and Citharode who lived about the first half of the 7th century

What is more, when the Ephors took office, they routinely declared war on the helots, (Aristotle cited by Plutarch, Life of Lycurgus 28, 7), thereby allowing Spartans to kill them without repercussion. An ephor ( Classical Greek) (from the Greek, epi, "on" or "over" and, horaō, "to see" i Most of the time, this was done by kryptes, graduates of the difficult agoge who took part in the Crypteia. Krypteia or crypteia in( Gr κρυπτεία / krupteía, from κρυπτός / kruptós, “hidden secret things” was a tradition involving In 425 BC, 2,000 helots were also massacred in a carefully staged event. Events By place Persian Empire Artaxerxes I, Achaemenid king of Persia, is succeeded by his son Xerxes II Thucydides (IV, 80, 4) states:

"The helots were invited by a proclamation to pick out those of their number who claimed to have most distinguished themselves against the enemy, in order that they might receive their freedom; the object being to test them, as it was thought that the first to claim their freedom would be the most high spirited and the most apt to rebel. As many as two thousand were selected accordingly, who crowned themselves and went round the temples, rejoicing in their new freedom. The Spartans, however, soon afterwards did away with them, and no one ever knew how each of them perished. " [7]

Myron of Priene also indicates that helots who became too fat were put to death, with their masters fined for letting them get fat. The obligation of masters to prevent fatness amongst their helots appears somewhat incongruous: as the Homoioi lived separately, how could dietary intake be rigorously controlled? Additionally, as manual labour was an important function of the Helots (for example, being used to carry their master's arms and armour on campaign), it would make sense to keep the helots well nourished. From Thucydides (IV, 6, 1) we know of the rations afforded by the Spartans to their besieged hoplites on Sphacteria: two khoinikes of barley flour, two kotyloi of wine and an unquantified portion of meat. Sphacteria is a small island at the entrance to the bay of Pylos in the Peloponnese, Greece. Barley ( Hordeum vulgare) is an annual Cereal Grain, which serves as a major animal Feed crop, with smaller amounts used for The helots were on half-rations. An Attic koinix is 698 gr. which, according to calculations[10], was far from miserable: it corresponds to 81% of daily nutritional needs for a moderately active man, according to FAO standards. Complemented with the wine and meat, it can be considered as close to normal, given that the fighting had subsided and that the said helots were only attending to their domestic duties[11]. Last but not least, the very penalty exacted for letting the helots get fat implies helots could get fat[12].

Security measures

This hatred of the Spartans towards the helots originates in fear: given the relatively small number of Spartans in comparison with the servile population, the natural fear that helots would attempt to destroy them contributed to their mistreatment. According to tradition, the Equals always carried their spears, undid the straps of their bucklers only when at home lest the helots seize them, and locked themselves in their homes. Spartiates were the males of Sparta with full citizenship They were the elite warrior class of the rigidly hierarchical Spartan society Thucydides condenses this in a celebrated phrase:

"the Lacedaemonians… policy at all times having been governed by the necessity of taking precautions against them. [7]" (IV, 80, 3)

Helot revolts

In spite of the brutality of their existence, helots seldom revolted. The few citations which have been associated with helot revolt are discussed below.

The Pausanias plot

The first helot attempt at revolt which is historically reported is that provoked by general Pausanias in the 5th century BC. Pausanias (Greek = Παυσανίας (d c 470 BC was a Spartan general of the 5th century BC The 5th century BC started the first day of 500 BC and ended the last day of 401 BC. Thucydides (I, 132, 4) reports:

"Besides, they were informed that he was even intriguing with the helots; and such indeed was the fact, for he promised them freedom and citizenship if they would join him in insurrection, and would help him to carry out his plans to the end. [7]"

These intrigues do not however lead to a helot uprising; Thucydides indeed implies that Pausanias was turned in by the helots (I, 132, 5 - . . . the evidence even of the helots themselves. ) There is little doubt that the promises made by Pausanias were too generous to be credible; not even Brasidas, when he emancipated his helot volunteers, offered full citizenship.

Massacre at Taenarus

The massacre of Cape Taenarus, at the tip of Taygetus, is also reported by Thucydides (I, 128, 1):

"The Lacedaemonians had once raised up some helot suppliants from the temple of Poseidon at Taenarus, led them away and slain them; for which they believe the great earthquake at Sparta to have been a retribution. Geographical features Kouakiou river Rintomo gorge * Viros gorge Places on the Taygetus [7]"

This affair, recalled by the Athenians in responding to a Spartan request to exile the Alcmaeonidae Pericles, is not dated. The Alcmaeonidae or Alcmaeonids (Ἀλκμαιωνίδαι were a powerful noble family of ancient Athens, a branch of the Neleides who claimed descent Pericles (also spelled Perikles) (c 495 – 429 BC Greek:, meaning "surrounded by glory" was a prominent and influential Statesman, orator We know only that it happened before the disastrous earthquake of 464 BC. Events By place Greece Sparta suffers the effects of a severe earthquake leading to a large loss of life Thucydides here is the only one to implicate the helots: Pausanias (IV, 24, 5) speaks rather about Lacedaemonians who had been condemned to death. Nor does the text allow us to conclude that this was a failed uprising of helots, only that there was an attempt at escape. Additionally, a helot revolt in Laconia is unlikely, and Messenians would not likely be refugees near Cape Taenarus.

Earthquake

The uprising coincident with the earthquake of 464 BC is soundly attested to; although Greek historians do not agree on the interpretation of this event. Events By place Greece Sparta suffers the effects of a severe earthquake leading to a large loss of life

According to Thucydides (I, 101, 2), the helots and perioeci of Thouria and Aithaia took advantage of the earthquake to revolt and establish a position on Ithome. The perioeci, or perioikoi, were the members of an autonomous group of free but non-citizen inhabitants of Sparta. Mount Ithome ( Greek: Ἰθώμη is a mountain in Messenia, Greece. He adds that most of the rebels were of Messenian ancestry; confirming the appeal of Ithome as a historical place of Messenian resistance, and focuses attention on the perioeci of Thouria, a city on the Messianian coast. Conversely, we can deduce that a minority of the helots were Laconian; thus making this the one and only revolt of their history. Commentators such as Stephanus of Byzantium suggest that this Aithaia was in Laconia, thus indicating a large scale uprising in the region. Stephanus of Byzantium, also known as Stephanus Byzantinus ( Greek:; fl The version of events given by Pausanius is similar.

Diodorus Siculus (XI, 63,4 – 64,1), probably influenced by Ephorus of Cyme, attributed the uprising equally to the Messenians and the helots. This version of events is supported by Plutarch (Life of Lycurgus, 28, 12).

Finally, some authors place responsibility for the uprising with the helots of Laconia. This is the case of Plutarch in his Life of Cimon(17, 8): the helots of the Eurotas River valley want to use the earthquake to attack the Spartans whom they think are disarmed. The Eurotas or Evrotas (Greek Ευρώτας is a river in the Peloponnese in southern Greece. The intervention of Archidamus II, who calls the Lacedaemonians to arms, simultaneously saves them from the earthquake and the helot attack. Archidamus II' was a king of Sparta who reigned from approximately 476 BC to 427 BC The helots fold, but revert to open warfare joined by the Messenians.

It is difficult to reconcile these versions. It is nevertheless clear that in any case the revolt of 464 represented a major traumatic event for the Spartans. Plutarch indicates that the Crypteia and other poor treatments of the helots were instituted after this revolt. If there is any doubt in these affirmations, they at least underscore the immediate Spartan reaction: allies are gathered and war ensues with the same Athens that would be faced later in the Peloponnesian War.

Athenian outposts

During the same war and after the capitulation of the Spartans besieged in Sphacteria, the Athenians installed a garrison in Pylos composed of Messenians from Naupactus. This article is about the Greek geographical feature and town Naupactus or Nafpaktos (Ναύπακτος rarely Έπαχτος Naupactus or Naupactos İnebahtı Italian Spanish and Portuguese Lepanto is the second largest town Thucydides (IV, 41, 2–3) underlines that they had hoped to exploit the patriotism of the latter in order to pacify the region. Though the Messenians may not have triggered full-blown guerrilla warfare, they nevertheless pillaged the area and encouraged helot desertion. Guerrilla warfare is the unconventional warfare and combat with which a small group of combatants use mobile tactics (ambushes raids etc Sparta was forced to dedicate a garrison to controlling this activity; this was the first of the ἔπιτειχισμόι / épiteikhismoi ("ramparts"), outposts planted by the Athenians in enemy territory.

The second such outpost was at Kythera. Kythira (Κύθηρα Cythera, Kythera, Cerigo is an Island of Greece, historically part of the Ionian Islands. This time, the Athenians set their sights on the helots of Laconia. Again, pillaging and desertion did occur, but not on the scale hoped for by the Athenians or feared by the Spartans: there was no uprising like that which accompanied the earthquake.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Pausanius, Description of Greece. Trans W. H. S. Jones and H. A. Ormerod 1918. Online at Perseus. accessed 11 June 2006.
  2. ^ Strabo. Geography. ed H. L. Jones 1924. accessed 11 Jun 2006
  3. ^ Athenaeus of Naucratis. Yonge, C. D. , Editor. The Deipnosophists, or Banquet of the Learned, of Athenæus. accessed 11 June 2006.
  4. ^ (French) J. Ducat, Les Hilotes, p.  7.
  5. ^ P. Cartledge, Agesilaos and the Crisis of Sparta, Johns Hopkins University, London, 1994, p. Paul Cartledge is a Professor of Greek History at Cambridge University, and a fellow of Clare College. 174.
  6. ^ (French) J. Tregaro, "Les bâtards spartiates" ("Spartan Bastards"), in Mélanges Pierre Lévêque, 1993. Infanticide through exposure to the elements of unwanted children is historically more common than most of us like to admit.
  7. ^ a b c d e Thucydides. The Peloponnesian War. London, J. M. Dent; New York, E. P. Dutton. 1910. Online at the Perseus project. accessed 11 June 2006
  8. ^ The dipthera (literally, "leather") was the general attire of the poor peasant class and was worn as well by freemen in Athens (Ducat, op. Athens (ˈæθənz Αθήνα Athina,) the Capital and largest city of Greece, dominates the Attica periphery as one of the world's cit. , p. 114; Lévy, op. cit. , p. 122. ) As such, in Aristophanes' The Clouds this is the attire of the character Strepsiades. Aristophanes (Ἀριστοφάνης ˌærɪˈstɒfəniːz in English ca The Clouds (Νεφέλαι / Nephelai) is a comedy written by the Ancient Greek playwright Aristophanes lampooning the Sophists In a similar fashion, the word κυνῆ / kunễ is used in Greek literature, especially by Homer in the Iliad, to mean a helmet. Homer ( Ancient Greek:, Homēros) is a legendary ancient Greek epic Poet, traditionally said to be the author of the epic poems the The Iliad ( Greek: Ἰλιάς (Ancient Ιλιάδα (Modern is together with the Odyssey, one of two ancient In Athens, and in the Odyssey (XXIV, 231), it also means a leather or skin hat. The Odyssey ( Greek: Ὀδύσσεια or Odússeia) is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer.
  9. ^ Plutarch. Life of Lycurgus. accessed 12 June 2006
  10. ^ L. Events 1381 - Peasants' Revolt: in England, rebels arrive at Blackheath. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Foxhall and H.  A. Forbes, "Sitometria: The Role of Grain as a Staple Food in Classical Antiquity" in Chiron Number 12 (1982), p.  41–90.
  11. ^ Ducat [1990], p. 120.
  12. ^ Lévy, op. cit. , p. 122.

Bibliography

External links

Dictionary

helots

-noun

  1. Plural form of helot.
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