This article is about the elemental isotope. For the record label Helium 3, see Muse or A&E Records. Muse are A&E Records is an United Kingdom -based Record label imprint owned by Warner Music Group, and operates under the WEA International group of labels

Helium-3 Full table
General
Name, symbol	Helium-3,He-3,3He
Neutrons	1
Protons	2
Nuclide data
Natural abundance	0. Template talkIso1 -->The isotope table below shows Isotopes of the Chemical elements including all A table of Chemical elements ordered by Atomic number and color coded according to type of element A table of Chemical elements ordered by Atomic number and color coded according to type of element This article is a discussion of neutrons in general For the specific case of a neutron found outside the nucleus see Free neutron. The proton ( Greek πρῶτον / proton "first" is a Subatomic particle with an Electric charge of one positive In Chemistry, natural abundance (NA refers to the abundance Isotopes of a Chemical element as naturally found on a planet 000137%
Half-life	stable
Parent isotopes	3H (beta decay of tritium)
Isotope mass	3. Half-Life (computer-game page here It's already listed in the disambiguation page In Nuclear physics, a decay product, also known as a daughter product, daughter isotope or daughter nuclide, is a Nuclide Tritium (ˈtɹɪtiəm symbol or, also known as Hydrogen-3) is a radioactive Isotope of Hydrogen. In Nuclear physics, beta decay is a type of Radioactive decay in which a Beta particle (an Electron or a Positron) is emitted The atomic mass (ma is the Mass of an atom most often expressed in unified atomic mass units The atomic mass may be considered to be the total mass 016 u
Spin	1/2+

Helium-3 (He-3) is a light, non-radioactive isotope of helium with two protons and one neutron, rare on Earth, sought for use in nuclear fusion research. The unified atomic mass unit ( u) or Dalton ( Da) or sometimes universal mass unit, is an unit of Mass used to express In Quantum mechanics, spin is a fundamental property of atomic nuclei, Hadrons and Elementary particles For particles with non-zero spin Radioactive decay is the process in which an unstable Atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting ionizing particles and Radiation. Isotopes (Greek isos = "equal" tópos = "site place" are any of the different types of atoms ( Nuclides Helium ( He) is a colorless odorless tasteless non-toxic Inert Monatomic Chemical EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 In Physics and Nuclear chemistry, nuclear fusion is the process by which multiple- like charged atomic nuclei join together to form a heavier nucleus The abundance of helium-3 is thought to be greater on the Moon (embedded in the upper layer of regolith by the solar wind over billions of years) and the solar system's gas giants (left over from the original solar nebula), though still low in quantity (28 ppm of lunar regolith is helium-4 and 0. Regolith ( Greek: "blanket rock" is a layer of loose Heterogeneous material covering solid rock. The solar wind is a Stream of charged particles&mdasha plasma &mdashthat are ejected from the upper atmosphere of the Sun. The Solar System consists of the Sun and those celestial objects bound to it by Gravity. A gas giant (sometimes also known as a Jovian planet after the planet Jupiter, or giant planet) is a large Planet that is not primarily The formation and evolution of the Solar System is estimated to have begun "Parts-per" notation is used especially in Science and Engineering, to denote Ratios (relative proportions in measured quantities particularly 01 ppm is helium-3). ^[1] It is proposed to be used as a second-generation fusion power source.

The helion, the nucleus of a helium-3 atom, consists of two protons but only one neutron, in contrast to two neutrons in ordinary helium. A helion is a short name for the naked nucleus of Helium, a doubly positively charged helium ion. The nucleus of an Atom is the very dense region consisting of Nucleons ( Protons and Neutrons, at the center of an atom The proton ( Greek πρῶτον / proton "first" is a Subatomic particle with an Electric charge of one positive This article is a discussion of neutrons in general For the specific case of a neutron found outside the nucleus see Free neutron. Its existence was first proposed in 1934 by the Australian nuclear physicist Mark Oliphant while based at Cambridge University's Cavendish Laboratory, in an experiment in which fast deuterons were reacted with other deuteron targets (the first demonstration of nuclear fusion). Sir Marcus 'Mark' Laurence Elwin Oliphant AC, KBE ( October 8 1901 &ndash July 14, 2000) was an Australian The University of Cambridge (often Cambridge University) located in Cambridge, England, is the second-oldest university in the The Cavendish Laboratory is the University of Cambridge 's Department of Physics, and is part of the university's School of Physical Sciences Deuterium, also called heavy hydrogen, is a Stable isotope of Hydrogen with a Natural abundance in the Oceans of Earth Helium-3, as an isotope, was postulated to be radioactive, until helions from it were accidentally identified as a trace "contaminant" in a sample of natural helium (which is mostly helium-4) from a gas well, by Luis W. Alvarez and Robert Cornog in a cyclotron experiment at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, in 1939. Luis W Alvarez (June 13 1911 San Francisco California &ndash September 1 1988 was an American physicist and Inventor, who spent nearly Robert Alden Cornog (1912-1998 was a Physicist and Engineer who helped develop the Atomic bomb and missile systems from the Snark to the The Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( LBNL) is a U ^[2]

Contents 1 Physical properties 2 Fusion reactions 3 Neutron detection 4 Cryogenics 5 Manufacturing 6 Medical lung imaging 7 Terrestrial occurrence 8 Extraterrestrial supplies 9 Power generation 10 See also 11 References 12 External links

Physical properties

Helium-3's atomic mass of 3. 0160293, being significantly lower than Helium-4's 4. 0026, causes it to have significantly different properties. Helium-3 boils at 3. 19 kelvins compared to helium-4's 4. The kelvin (symbol K) is a unit increment of Temperature and is one of the seven SI base units The Kelvin scale is a thermodynamic 23 K, and its critical point is also lower at 3. In Physical chemistry, Thermodynamics, Chemistry and Condensed matter physics, a critical point, also called a critical state 35 K, compared to helium-4's 5. 19 K. It has less than half the density when liquid at its boiling point: 0. 059 g/ml compared to helium-4's 0. 12473 g/ml at one atmosphere. Its latent heat of vaporization is also considerably lower at 0. 026 kJ/mol compared to helium-4's 0. The joule per mole (symbol J·mol-1 is an SI derived unit of energy per amount of material 0829 kJ/mol. ^[3]

Fusion reactions

Fusion reactions involving Helium-3^{[4][5][6][7][8]}

Reactants		Products	Q
First Generation Fuels
21H + 21H	→	32He + 10n	3. Deuterium, also called heavy hydrogen, is a Stable isotope of Hydrogen with a Natural abundance in the Oceans of Earth Deuterium, also called heavy hydrogen, is a Stable isotope of Hydrogen with a Natural abundance in the Oceans of Earth 268 MeV
21H + 21H	→	31H + 11p	4. Deuterium, also called heavy hydrogen, is a Stable isotope of Hydrogen with a Natural abundance in the Oceans of Earth Deuterium, also called heavy hydrogen, is a Stable isotope of Hydrogen with a Natural abundance in the Oceans of Earth Tritium (ˈtɹɪtiəm symbol or, also known as Hydrogen-3) is a radioactive Isotope of Hydrogen. 032 MeV
21H + 31H	→	42He + 10n	17. Deuterium, also called heavy hydrogen, is a Stable isotope of Hydrogen with a Natural abundance in the Oceans of Earth Tritium (ˈtɹɪtiəm symbol or, also known as Hydrogen-3) is a radioactive Isotope of Hydrogen. Helium-4 ( or) is a non- Radioactive and light Isotope of Helium. 571 MeV
Second Generation Fuel
21H + 32He	→	42He + 11p	18. Deuterium, also called heavy hydrogen, is a Stable isotope of Hydrogen with a Natural abundance in the Oceans of Earth Helium-4 ( or) is a non- Radioactive and light Isotope of Helium. 354 MeV
Third Generation Fuel
32He + 32He	→	42He+ 211p	12. Helium-4 ( or) is a non- Radioactive and light Isotope of Helium. 86 MeV

Some fusion processes produce highly energetic neutrons which render reactor components radioactive with their bombardment, and power generation must occur through thermal means. Radioactive decay is the process in which an unstable Atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting ionizing particles and Radiation. Electricity generation is the process of converting non-electrical Energy to Electricity. However, the appeal of helium-3 fusion stems from the nature of its reaction products. Helium-3 itself is non-radioactive. The lone high-energy proton produced can be contained using electric and magnetic fields, which results in direct electricity generation. The proton ( Greek πρῶτον / proton "first" is a Subatomic particle with an Electric charge of one positive ^[9]

However, since both reactants need to be mixed together to fuse, side reactions (²₁H + ²₁H and ³₂He+ ³₂He) will occur, the first of which is not aneutronic. Deuterium, also called heavy hydrogen, is a Stable isotope of Hydrogen with a Natural abundance in the Oceans of Earth Deuterium, also called heavy hydrogen, is a Stable isotope of Hydrogen with a Natural abundance in the Oceans of Earth Therefore in practice this reaction is unlikely to ever be completely 'clean', thus negating some of its attraction. Also, due to the higher Coulomb barrier, the temperatures required for ²₁H + ³₂He fusion are much higher than those of conventional ²H + ³₁H (deuterium + tritium) fusion. The Coulomb barrier, named after physicist Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (1736&ndash1806 is the energy barrier due to Electrostatic interaction that two nuclei need Deuterium, also called heavy hydrogen, is a Stable isotope of Hydrogen with a Natural abundance in the Oceans of Earth Deuterium, also called heavy hydrogen, is a Stable isotope of Hydrogen with a Natural abundance in the Oceans of Earth Tritium (ˈtɹɪtiəm symbol or, also known as Hydrogen-3) is a radioactive Isotope of Hydrogen. Deuterium, also called heavy hydrogen, is a Stable isotope of Hydrogen with a Natural abundance in the Oceans of Earth Tritium (ˈtɹɪtiəm symbol or, also known as Hydrogen-3) is a radioactive Isotope of Hydrogen.

The amounts of helium-3 needed as a replacement for conventional fuels should not be underestimated. Fossil fuels or mineral fuels are fossil source Fuels that is Hydrocarbons found within the top layer of the Earth’s crust. The total amount of energy produced in the ³He + ²₁H+ reaction is 18. Deuterium, also called heavy hydrogen, is a Stable isotope of Hydrogen with a Natural abundance in the Oceans of Earth 4 MeV, which corresponds to some 493 megawatt-hours (4. 93x10⁸ Wh) per three grams (one mole) of ³He. For other uses of the words gram or gramme see Gram (disambiguation. The mole (symbol mol) is a unit of Amount of substance: it is an SI base unit, and almost the only unit to be used to measure this Even if that total amount of energy could be converted to electrical power with 100% efficiency (a physical impossibility), it would correspond to about 30 minutes of output of a thousand-megawatt electrical plant; a year's production by the same plant would require some 17. 5 kilograms of helium-3.

The amount of fuel needed for large-scale applications can also be put in terms of total consumption: According to the US Energy Information Administration, "Electricity consumption by 107 million U. S. households in 2001 totaled 1,140 billion kWh" (1. 114x10¹⁵ Wh). Again assuming 100% conversion efficiency, 6. 7 tonnes of helium-3 would be required just for that segment of one country's energy demand, 15 to 20 tonnes given a more realistic end-to-end conversion efficiency.

Neutron detection

Helium-3 is a most important isotope in instrumentation for neutron detection. Neutron detection is the effective detection of Neutrons entering a well-positioned Detector. It has a high absorption cross section for thermal neutron beams and is used as a converter gas in neutron detectors. Neutron radiation is a kind of Ionizing radiation which consists of Free neutrons Sources Neutrons may be emitted during either spontaneous The neutron is converted through the nuclear reaction

n + ³He → ³H + ¹H + 0. 764 MeV

into charged particles tritium (T, ³H) and proton (p, ¹H) which then are detected by creating a charge cloud in the stopping gas of a proportional counter or a Geiger-Müller tube. Tritium (ˈtɹɪtiəm symbol or, also known as Hydrogen-3) is a radioactive Isotope of Hydrogen. The proton ( Greek πρῶτον / proton "first" is a Subatomic particle with an Electric charge of one positive A proportional counter is a measurement device to count particles of Ionizing radiation and measure their Energy. A Geiger-Müller tube (or GM tube) is the sensing element of a Geiger counter instrument that can detect a single particle of Ionizing radiation, and typically ^[10]

Furthermore, the absorption process is strongly spin-dependent, which allows a spin-polarized helium-3 volume to transmit neutrons with one spin component while absorbing the other. In Quantum mechanics, spin is a fundamental property of atomic nuclei, Hadrons and Elementary particles For particles with non-zero spin Spin polarization is the degree to which the spin, ie the intrinsic Angular momentum of elementary particles is aligned with a given direction This effect is employed in neutron polarization analysis, a technique which probes for magnetic properties of matter. ^{[11] [12]}

Cryogenics

A helium-3 refrigerator uses helium-3 to achieve temperatures of 0. A helium-3 refrigerator is a simple device used in experimental Physics for obtaining Temperatures down to about 0 2 to 0. 3 kelvin. The kelvin (symbol K) is a unit increment of Temperature and is one of the seven SI base units The Kelvin scale is a thermodynamic A dilution refrigerator uses a mixture of helium-3 and helium-4 to reach cryogenic temperatures as low as a few thousandths of a kelvin. A dilution refrigerator is a cryogenic device first proposed by Heinz London. Cryogenics is often used incorrectly to refer to Cryonics, cryopreserving humans or animals The kelvin (symbol K) is a unit increment of Temperature and is one of the seven SI base units The Kelvin scale is a thermodynamic ^[13]

An important property of helium-3, which distinguishes it from the more common helium-4, is that its nucleus is a fermion since it contains an odd number of spin 1/2 particles. In Particle physics, fermions are particles which obey Fermi-Dirac statistics; they are named after Enrico Fermi. Helium-4 nuclei are bosons, containing an even number of spin 1/2 particles. In Particle physics, bosons are particles which obey Bose-Einstein statistics; they are named after Satyendra Nath Bose and Albert Einstein This is a direct result of the addition rules for quantized angular momentum. The Azimuthal quantum number (or orbital angular momentum quantum number, second quantum number) symbolized as l (lower-case L is a Quantum number At low temperatures (about 2. 17 K), helium-4 undergoes a phase transition: A fraction of it enters a superfluid phase that can be roughly understood as a type of Bose-Einstein condensate. In Thermodynamics, phase transition or phase change is the transformation of a thermodynamic system from one phase to another Superfluidity is a phase of matter or description of Heat capacity in which unusual effects are observed when Liquids, typically of Helium-4 In the Physical sciences a phase is a Set of states of a macroscopic physical system that have relatively uniform chemical composition and physical properties A Bose–Einstein condensate (BEC is a State of matter of Bosons confined in an external Potential and cooled to Temperatures very near to Such a mechanism is not available for helium-3 atoms, which are fermions. However, it was widely speculated that helium-3 could also become a superfluid at much lower temperatures, if the atoms formed into pairs analogous to Cooper pairs in the BCS theory of superconductivity. In Condensed matter physics, a Cooper pair is the name given to electrons that are bound together at low temperatures in a certain manner first described in 1956 by Superconductivity is a phenomenon occurring in certain Materials generally at very low Temperatures characterized by exactly zero electrical resistance Each Cooper pair, having integer spin, can be thought of as a boson. During the 1970s, David Morris Lee, Douglas Osheroff and Robert Coleman Richardson discovered two phase transitions along the melting curve, which was soon realized to be the two superfluid phases of helium-3. This article is about the Decade 1970-1979 For the Year 1970 see 1970. David Morris Lee (born January 20, 1931) is a physicist whose work on low-temperature Helium-3 won him the Nobel Prize in 1996 Douglas Dean Osheroff (born August 1, 1945) is an American physicist Robert Coleman Richardson (born June 26, 1937 in Washington D ^[14][15] The transition to a superfluid occurs at 2. 491 millikelvins on the melting curve. They were awarded the 1996 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery. Year 1996 ( MCMXCVI) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display full 1996 Gregorian calendar) The Nobel Prize in Physics (Nobelpriset i fysik is awarded once a year by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Tony Leggett won the 2003 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on refining understanding of the superfluid phase of helium-3. Sir Anthony James Leggett, KBE, FRS, (born March 26, 1938, Camberwell, London) is John D Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ^[16]

In zero magnetic field, there are two distinct superfluid phases of ³He, the A-phase and the B-phase. The B-phase is the low-temperature, low-pressure phase which has an isotropic energy gap. The A-phase is the higher temperature, higher pressure phase that is further stabilized by a magnetic field and has two point nodes in its gap. The presence of two phases is a clear indication that ³He is an unconventional superfluid (superconductor), since the presence of two phases requires an additional symmetry, other than gauge symmetry, to be broken. In fact, it is a p-wave superfluid, with spin one, S=1, and angular momentum one, L=1. The ground state corresponds to total angular momentum zero, J=S+L=0 (vector addition). Excited states are possible with non-zero total angular momentum, J>0, which are excited pair collective modes. Because of the extreme purity of superfluid ³He (since all materials except ⁴He have solidified and sunk to the bottom of the liquid ³He and any ⁴He has phase separated entirely, this is the most pure condensed matter state), these collective modes have been studied with much greater precision than in any other unconventional pairing system.

Manufacturing

Due to the rarity of helium-3 on Earth, it is typically manufactured instead of recovered from natural deposits. Helium-3 is a byproduct of tritium decay, and tritium can be produced through neutron bombardment of lithium, boron, or nitrogen targets. Tritium (ˈtɹɪtiəm symbol or, also known as Hydrogen-3) is a radioactive Isotope of Hydrogen. Lithium (ˈlɪθiəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Li and Atomic number 3 Boron (ˈbɔərɒn is a Chemical element with Atomic number 5 and the chemical symbol B. Nitrogen (ˈnaɪtɹəʤɪn is a Chemical element that has the symbol N and Atomic number 7 and Atomic weight 14 Current supplies of helium-3 come, in part, from the dismantling of nuclear weapons where it accumulates^[17]; approximately 150 kilograms of it have resulted from decay of US tritium production since 1955, most of which was for warheads^[18]. However, the production and storage of huge amounts of the gas tritium is probably uneconomical, as roughly eighteen tons of tritium stock are required for each ton of helium-3 produced annually by decay (production rate dN/dt from number of moles or other unit mass of tritium N is N γ = N * [ln2/t_½] where the value of t_½/(ln2) is about 18 years; see radioactive decay). Radioactive decay is the process in which an unstable Atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting ionizing particles and Radiation. If commercial fusion reactors were to use helium-3 as a fuel, they would require tens of tons of helium-3 each year to produce a fraction of the world's power. ^[19] Breeding tritium with lithium-6 consumes the neutron, while breeding with lithium-7 produces a low energy neutron as a replacement for the consumed fast neutron. Note that any breeding of tritium on Earth requires the use of a high neutron flux, which proponents of helium-3 nuclear reactors hope to avoid.

Medical lung imaging

Polarized helium-3 may be produced directly with lasers of the appropriate power, and with a thin layer of protective Cs metal on the inside of cylinders, the magnetized gas may be stored at pressures of 10 atm for up to 100 hours. When inhaled, mixtures containing the gas can be imaged with an MRI-like scanner which produces breath by breath images of lung ventilation, in real-time. Applications of this experimental technique are just beginning to be explored^[20].

Terrestrial occurrence

Main article: isotope geochemistry

³He is a primordial substance in the Earth's mantle, considered to have become entrapped within the Earth during planetary formation. Isotope geochemistry is an aspect of Geology based upon study of the relative and absolute concentrations of the elements and their Isotopes in the The mantle is a part of an Astronomical object. The interior of the Earth, similar to the other Terrestrial planets, is Chemically divided The ratio of ³He to ⁴He within the Earth's crust and mantle is less than that for assumptions of solar disk composition as obtained from meteorite and lunar samples, with terrestrial materials generally containing lower ³He/⁴He ratios due to ingrowth of ⁴He from radioactive decay.

³He is present within the mantle, in the ratio of 200-300 parts of ³He to a million parts of ⁴He. Ratios of ³He/⁴He in excess of atmospheric are indicative of a contribution of ³He from the mantle. Crustal sources are dominated by the ⁴He which is produced by the decay of radioactive elements in the crust and mantle. Helium-4 ( or) is a non- Radioactive and light Isotope of Helium.

³He is also present in the Earth's atmosphere. Temperature and layers The temperature of the Earth's atmosphere varies with altitude the mathematical relationship between temperature and altitude varies among five The natural abundance of ³He in naturally occurring helium gas is 1. 38×10^-6. The partial pressure of helium in the Earth's atmosphere is about 4 millitorr, and thus 5. 2 parts per million of helium. It has been proven that the Earth's atmosphere contains approximately 4000 tons of ³He.

³He is produced on Earth from three sources: lithium spallation, cosmic rays, and decay of tritium (³H). In general spallation is a process in which fragments of material ( Spall) are ejected from a body due to impact or stress For the 1962 Bruce Conner film see Cosmic Ray (film Cosmic rays are energetic particles originating from space that impinge on The contribution from cosmic rays is negligible within all except the oldest regolith materials, and lithium spallation reactions are a lesser contributor than the production of ⁴He by alpha particle emissions. Alpha particles (named after and denoted by the first letter in the Greek alphabet, α consist of two Protons and two Neutrons bound together into a

The total amount of helium-3 in the mantle may be in the range of 100 thousand to a million tonnes. This article is about the tonne or metric ton For other tons see Ton. However, this mantle helium is not directly accessible. Some of it leaks up through deep-sourced hotspot volcanoes such as those of the Hawaiian islands, but only 300 grams per year is emitted to the atmosphere. In Geology, a hotspot is a location on the Earth's surface that has experienced active volcanism for a long period of time The State of Hawaii ( or həˈwaɪʔiː Hawaiian: Mokuāina o Hawaii) is a state in the United States located on an Archipelago in the Mid-ocean ridges emit another 3 kilogram per year. A mid-ocean ridge or mid-oceanic ridge is an underwater Mountain range typically having a valley known as a Rift running along its axis formed by Around subduction zones, various sources produce helium-3 in natural gas deposits which possibly contain a thousand tonnes of helium-3 (although there may be 25 thousand tonnes if all ancient subduction zones have such deposits). In Geology, a subduction zone is an area on Earth where two tectonic plates meet and move towards one another with one sliding underneath the other Natural gas is a Gaseous Fossil fuel consisting primarily of Methane but including significant quantities of Ethane, Propane, Crustal natural gas sources may have only half a tonne total. There may be another four thousand tonnes in interplanetary dust particles on the ocean floors. Extracting helium-3 from these sources consumes more energy than fusion would release. Extraction from the most efficient source, natural gas, consumes ten times the energy available from fusion reactions. ^[19]

Extraterrestrial supplies

The Moon's surface contains helium-3 at concentrations on the order of 0. 01 ppm. "Parts-per" notation is used especially in Science and Engineering, to denote Ratios (relative proportions in measured quantities particularly ^[21][22] A number of people, starting with Gerald Kulcinski in 1986,^[23] have proposed to explore the moon, mine lunar regolith and using the helium-3 for fusion. The physical exploration of the Moon began when Luna 2, a Space probe launched by the Soviet Union, impacted the surface of the Moon on Regolith ( Greek: "blanket rock" is a layer of loose Heterogeneous material covering solid rock. In Physics and Nuclear chemistry, nuclear fusion is the process by which multiple- like charged atomic nuclei join together to form a heavier nucleus Because of the low concentrations of helium-3, any mining equipment would need to process large amounts of regolith,^[24] and some proposals have suggested that helium-3 extraction be piggybacked onto a larger mining and development operation.

Cosmochemist and geochemist Ouyang Ziyuan from the Chinese Academy of Sciences who is now in charge of the Chinese Lunar Exploration Program has already stated on many occasions that one of the main goals of the program would be the mining of helium-3, from where "each year three space shuttle missions could bring enough fuel for all human beings across the world. Cosmochemistry is concerned with the origin and development of the elements and their Isotopes primarily within the Solar System. The field of geochemistry involves study of the chemical composition of the Earth and other Planets chemical processes and reactions that govern the composition The Chinese Academy of Sciences ( CAS) ( formerly known as Academia Sinica (not to be confused with the Republic of China 's (Taiwan Academia Chinese Lunar Exploration Program ( CLEP) ( is a program of robotic explorations and human missions to the Moon undertaken by China National Space Administration "^[25]

In January 2006 the Russian space company RKK Energiya announced that it considers lunar helium-3 a potential economic resource to be mined by 2020,^[26] if funding can be found. SP Korolev Rocket and Space Corporation Energia ( Russian: ru Ракетно-космическая корпорация "Энергия" им ^[27][28]

Mining gas giants for helium-3 has also been proposed. A gas giant (sometimes also known as a Jovian planet after the planet Jupiter, or giant planet) is a large Planet that is not primarily ^[29] The British Interplanetary Society's hypothetical Project Daedalus interstellar probe design was fueled by helium-3 mines on the planet Jupiter, for example. The British Interplanetary Society (BIS founded in 1933 by Mr Project Daedalus was a study conducted between 1973 and 1978 by the British Interplanetary Society to design a plausible interstellar Unmanned spacecraft Jupiter's high gravity makes this a less energetically favorable operation than extracting helium-3 from the other gas giants of the solar system, however.

Power generation

A second-generation approach to controlled fusion power involves combining helium-3 (³₂He) and deuterium (²₁H). In Physics and Nuclear chemistry, nuclear fusion is the process by which multiple- like charged atomic nuclei join together to form a heavier nucleus Deuterium, also called heavy hydrogen, is a Stable isotope of Hydrogen with a Natural abundance in the Oceans of Earth Deuterium, also called heavy hydrogen, is a Stable isotope of Hydrogen with a Natural abundance in the Oceans of Earth This reaction produces an helium-4 ion (⁴₂He) (like an alpha particle, but of different origin) and a high-energy proton (positively charged hydrogen ion) (¹₁p). Helium-4 ( or) is a non- Radioactive and light Isotope of Helium. Helium-4 ( or) is a non- Radioactive and light Isotope of Helium. Alpha particles (named after and denoted by the first letter in the Greek alphabet, α consist of two Protons and two Neutrons bound together into a The proton ( Greek πρῶτον / proton "first" is a Subatomic particle with an Electric charge of one positive The most important potential advantage of this fusion reaction for power production as well as other applications lies in its compatibility with the use of electrostatic fields to control fuel ions and the fusion protons. Electrostatics is the branch of Science that deals with the Phenomena arising from what seems to be stationary Electric charges Since Classical An ion is an Atom or Molecule which has lost or gained one or more Valence electrons giving it a positive or negative electrical charge Protons, as positively charged particles, can be converted directly into electricity, through use of solid-state conversion materials as well as other techniques. Potential conversion efficiencies of 70 percent may be possible, as there is no need to convert proton energy to heat in order to drive turbine-powered generators. A turbine is a rotary Engine that extracts Energy from a Fluid flow

There have been many claims about the capabilities of Helium-3 power plants. According to proponents, fusion power plants operating on deuterium and helium-3 would offer lower capital and operating costs than their competitors due to less technical complexity, higher conversion efficiency, smaller size, the absence of radioactive fuel, no air or water pollution, and only low-level radioactive waste disposal requirements. Deuterium, also called heavy hydrogen, is a Stable isotope of Hydrogen with a Natural abundance in the Oceans of Earth operating cost are the recurring expenses which are related to the operation of a business or to the operation of a device component piece of equipment or facility Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability disorder harm or discomfort to the physical systems or living organisms they are in Radioactive decay is the process in which an unstable Atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting ionizing particles and Radiation. Recent estimates suggest that about $6 billion in investment capital will be required to develop and construct the first helium-3 fusion power plant. Investment or investing is a term with several closely-related meanings in Business management, Finance and Economics, related to saving In Economics, capital or capital Goods or real capital refers to items of extensive value A power station (also referred to as generating station, power plant or powerhouse) is an industrial facility for the generation of Financial breakeven at today's wholesale electricity prices (5 cents per kilowatt-hour) would occur after five 1000-megawatt plants were on line, replacing old conventional plants or meeting new demand. The watt (symbol W) is the SI derived unit of power, equal to one Joule of energy per Second. ^[30]

The reality is not so clean-cut. The most advanced fusion programs in the world are inertial confinement fusion (such as National Ignition Facility) and magnetic confinement fusion (such as ITER and other tokamaks). Inertial confinement fusion ( ICF) is a process where Nuclear fusion reactions are initiated by heating and compressing a fuel target typically in the form of The National Ignition Facility, or NIF, is a Laser -based Inertial confinement fusion (ICF research device under construction at the Lawrence Magnetic confinement fusion is an approach to generating Fusion energy that uses Magnetic fields to confine the fusion fuel in the form of a plasma. ITER is an international Tokamak ( Magnetic confinement fusion) research/engineering proposal for an experimental project that will help to make the transition from A tokamak is a machine producing a toroidal Magnetic field for confining a plasma. In the case of the former, there is no solid roadmap to power generation. In the case of the latter, commercial power generation is not expected until around 2050^[31]. 2050 ( MML) will be a Common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. In both cases, the type of fusion discussed is the simplest: D-T fusion. The reason for this is the very low Coulomb barrier for this reaction; for D+He3, the barrier is much higher, and He3-He3 higher still. The Coulomb barrier, named after physicist Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (1736&ndash1806 is the energy barrier due to Electrostatic interaction that two nuclei need The immense cost of reactors like ITER and National Ignition Facility are largely due to their immense size, yet to scale up to higher plasma temperatures would require reactors far larger still. ITER is an international Tokamak ( Magnetic confinement fusion) research/engineering proposal for an experimental project that will help to make the transition from The National Ignition Facility, or NIF, is a Laser -based Inertial confinement fusion (ICF research device under construction at the Lawrence The 14. 7 MeV proton and 3. 6 MeV alpha particle from D-He3 fusion, plus the higher conversion efficiency, means that more electricity is obtained per kilogram than with D-T fusion (17. 6 MeV), but not that much more. As a further downside, the rates of reaction for He3 fusion reactions are not particularly high, requiring a reactor that is larger still or more reactors to produce the same amount of electricity. Aneutronic fusion is any form of Fusion power where no more than 1% of the total energy released is carried by Neutrons Since the most-studied fusion reactions

To attempt to work around this problem of massively large power plants that may not even be economical with D-T fusion, let alone the far more challenging D-He3 fusion, a number of other reactors have been proposed -- the Fusor, Polywell, Focus fusion, and many more. The Farnsworth–Hirsch Fusor, or simply fusor, is an apparatus designed by Philo T The polywell is a plasma confinement concept that combines elements of Inertial electrostatic confinement and Magnetic confinement fusion, intended Eric J Lerner is a Popular science writer independent plasma researcher and an advocate of Plasma cosmology, a Nonstandard cosmology. These generally attempt to achieve fusion in thermal disequilibrium, something that could potentially prove impossible^[32], and consequently, these long-shot programs tend to have trouble garnering funding despite their low budgets. Unlike the "big", "hot" fusion systems, however, if such systems were to work, they could scale to the higher barrier "aneutronic" fuels. Aneutronic fusion is any form of Fusion power where no more than 1% of the total energy released is carried by Neutrons Since the most-studied fusion reactions However, these systems would scale well enough that their proponents tend to promote p-B fusion, which requires no exotic fuels like He-3. Aneutronic fusion is any form of Fusion power where no more than 1% of the total energy released is carried by Neutrons Since the most-studied fusion reactions

See also

• Moon

References

External links

• The Nobel Prize in Physics 2003, presentation speech
• Moon for Sale: A BBC Horizon Documentary on the possibility of Lunar mining for Helium-3

Diproton	Isotopes of Helium	Helium-4
Produced from: Lithium-4 (p) Hydrogen-3 (β−)	Decay chain	Decays to: Stable

A diproton is a hypothetical type of Helium nucleus consisting of two Protons and no Neutrons Diprotons are not stable this is due to spin-spin interactions Although there are eight known Isotopes of Helium ( He) (standard atomic mass 4 Helium ( He) is a colorless odorless tasteless non-toxic Inert Monatomic Chemical Helium-4 ( or) is a non- Radioactive and light Isotope of Helium. Naturally occurring Lithium ( Li) (standard atomic mass 6941(2 u) is composed of two stable Isotopes ( and, the latter being the more abundant Proton emission (also known as proton radioactivity is a type of radioactive decay in which a Proton is ejected from a nucleus. Tritium (ˈtɹɪtiəm symbol or, also known as Hydrogen-3) is a radioactive Isotope of Hydrogen. In Nuclear physics, beta decay is a type of Radioactive decay in which a Beta particle (an Electron or a Positron) is emitted In Nuclear science, the decay chain refers to the Radioactive decay of different discrete radioactive decay products as a chained series of transformations

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