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For other uses, see Hedonism (disambiguation).

Hedonism is the philosophy that pleasure is of ultimate importance, the most important pursuit. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Pleasure is commonly conceptualized as a positive experience Happiness, Entertainment, Enjoyment, ecstasy, and euphoria, but is hard Intrinsic value is an ethical and philosophic property. It is the ethical or Philosophic value that an object has "in itself" or "for its The name derives from the Greek word for "delight" (ἡδονισμός hēdonismos from ἡδονή hēdonē "pleasure" + suffix ισμός ismos "ism"). Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly

Contents

Basic concepts

The basic idea behind hedonistic thought is that pleasure is the only thing that is good for a person. This is often used as a justification for evaluating actions in terms of how much pleasure and how little pain (i. e. suffering) they produce. Suffering, or pain, is an individual's basic Affective experience of unpleasantness and aversion associated with harm or threat of harm In very simple terms, a hedonist strives to maximise this total pleasure (pleasure minus pain). The nineteenth-century British philosophers John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham defended the ethical theory of Utilitarianism, according to which we should perform whichever action is best for everyone. John Stuart Mill (20 May 1806 &ndash 8 May 1873 British Philosopher, political economist, civil servant and Member of Parliament, was an influential Jeremy Bentham ( IPA: or) (15 February 1748&ndash6 June 1832 was an English Jurist, Philosopher, and legal and Social reformer Utilitarianism is the idea that the moral worth of an action is solely determined by its contribution to overall Utility, that is its contribution to happiness Conjoining hedonism, as a view as to what is good for people, to utilitarianism has the result that all action should be directed toward achieving the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of people. Though consistent in their pursuit of happiness, Bentham and Mill’s versions of hedonism differ. There are two somewhat basic schools of thought on hedonism:[1]

Critics of the quantitative approach assert that, generally, "pleasures" do not necessarily share common traits besides the fact that they can be seen as "pleasurable. " Critics of the qualitative approach argue that whether one pleasure is higher than another depends on factors other than how pleasurable it is. For example, the pleasure of sadism is a more base pleasure because it is morally unpalatable, and not because it is lacking in pleasure.

While some maintain that there is no standard for what constitutes pleasurable activities (for example, those with an interest in sadomasochism), most contemporary hedonists believe that pleasure and pain are easily distinguished and pursue the former. Sadism refers to Sexual or non-sexual gratification in the infliction of Pain or humiliation upon or by another person

In the medical sciences, the inability to derive pleasure from experiences that are typically considered pleasurable is referred to as anhedonia. In Psychology, anhedonia ( Greek αν- an- without + ηδονή hēdonē pleasure) is an inability to experience

Modern beliefs

Modern day hedonists strive firstly, as their predecessors, for pleasure. But also, hedonists feel that people should be equal, and that the way to achieve that is through allowing much more personal freedom. Hedonists, in the words of an organization known as Hedonist International, "want joyful togetherness, anarchy, epicurean ideas, multifaceted joy, sensuality, diversion, friendship, justice, tolerance, freedom, sexual freedom, sustainability, peace, free access to information, the arts, a cosmopolitan existence, and a world without borders or discrimination, and everything else that is wonderful but not a reality today. Friendship is a term used to denote co-operative and supportive behavior between two or more beings JUSTICE is a Human rights and law reform organisation based in the United Kingdom. "(Hedonist Manifesto)[2]

Predecessors

Democritus seems to be the earliest philosopher on record to have categorically embraced a hedonistic philosophy; he called the supreme goal of life "contentment" or "cheerfulness", claiming that "joy and sorrow are the distinguishing mark of things beneficial and harmful" (DK 68 B 188). Democritus ( Greek:) was a pre-Socratic Greek Materialist Philosopher (born at Abdera in Thrace ca Hermann Alexander Diels ( May 18, 1848 - June 4, 1922) was a German classical scholar [3]

Cyrenaicism (4th and 3rd centuries B. The Cyrenaics were an ultra- Hedonist Greek school of philosophy founded in the 4th century BC supposedly by Aristippus of Cyrene, although many of the principles C. ), founded by Aristippus of Cyrene, was one of the earliest Socratic schools, and emphasized one side only of the Socratic teaching. Aristippus (Ἀρίστιππος of Cyrene, (c 435-c 356 BCE was the founder of the Cyrenaic school of Philosophy Taking Socrates' assertion that happiness is one of the ends of moral action, Aristippus maintained that pleasure was the supreme good. He found bodily gratifications, which he considered more intense, preferable to mental pleasures. They also denied that we should defer immediate gratification for the sake of long-term gain. In these respects they differ from the Epicureans. [4][5]

Epicureanism is considered by some to be a form of ancient hedonism. Epicurus identified pleasure with tranquillity and emphasized the reduction of desire over the immediate acquisition of pleasure. Meaning In the Pali Canon, several discourses explicitly refer to three types of craving * craving for "sensuality" or "sensual pleasures" In this way, Epicureanism escapes the preceding objection: while pleasure and the highest good are equated, Epicurus claimed that the highest pleasure consists of a simple, moderate life spent with friends and in philosophical discussion. Summum bonum ( Latin for the highest good) is an expression used in Philosophy, particularly in Medieval philosophy, to describe the Ultimate He stressed that it was not good to do something that made one feel good if, by experiencing it, one would belittle later experiences and make them no longer feel good. For example, too much sex might later decrease interest in sex, which may cause one to be dissatisfied with one's sexual partner leading to unhappiness. Sexual intercourse, in its biological sense is the act in which the male reproductive organ (in humans and other higher animals enters the female reproductive tract

Hedonism and egoism

Hedonism can be conjoined with psychological egoism - the theory that humans are motivated only by their self interest - to make psychological hedonism: a purely descriptive claim which states that agents naturally seek pleasure. Psychological egoism is the view that humans are always motivated by Self-interest, even in what seem to be acts of Altruism. Psychological egoism is the view that humans are always motivated by Self-interest, even in what seem to be acts of Altruism. In Linguistics, a grammatical agent is the Participant of a situation that carries out the action in this situation Hedonism can also be combined with ethical egoism - the claim that individuals should seek their own good - to make ethical hedonism the claim that we should act so as to produce our own pleasure. Ethical egoism is the normative ethical position that Moral agents ought to do what is in their Self-interest.

However, hedonism is not necessarily related to egoism. The Utilitarianism of John Stuart Mill is sometimes classified as a type of hedonism, as it judges the morality of actions by their consequent contributions to the greater good and happiness of all. Utilitarianism is the idea that the moral worth of an action is solely determined by its contribution to overall Utility, that is its contribution to happiness John Stuart Mill (20 May 1806 &ndash 8 May 1873 British Philosopher, political economist, civil servant and Member of Parliament, was an influential Happiness is an Emotion associated with feelings ranging from contentment and satisfaction to Bliss and intense Joy. Note that this is altruistic hedonism. Altruism is selfless concern for the welfare of others It is a traditional Virtue in many cultures and central to many religious traditions Whereas some hedonistic doctrines propose doing whatever makes an individual happiest (over the long run), Mill promotes actions which make everyone happy. Compare individualism and collectivism. Collectivism is a term used to describe any moral political or social outlook that stresses human Interdependence and the importance of a Collective, rather than

It is true that Epicurus recommends for us to pursue our own pleasure, but he never suggests we should live a selfish life which impedes others from getting to that same objective.

Some of Sigmund Freud's theories of human motivation have been called psychological hedonism; his "life instinct" is essentially the observation that people will pursue pleasure. Sigmund Freud (ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt born Sigismund Shlomo Freud (May 6 1856 &ndash September 23 1939 was an Austrian Psychiatrist who founded However, he introduces extra complexities with various other mechanisms, such as the "death instinct". In classical Freudian Psychoanalytic theory, the death drive is the drive towards death destruction and non-existence The death instinct, Thanatos, can be equated to the desire for silence and peace, for calm and darkness, which causes them another form of happiness. Silence is a relative or total lack of audible Sound you can not hear a thing it is quiet Peace, in the modern usage is a concept defined by the ideal state of relationship as absence of hostility at the international level that of a War. It is also a death instinct, thus it can also be the desire for death. The fact that he leaves out the instinct to survive as a primary motivator, and that his hypotheses are notoriously invalidated by objective testing, casts doubt on this theory. Objective tests are Psychological tests that measure an individual's characteristics in a way that is independent of rater bias or the individual's own beliefs

Ayn Rand, one of the biggest modern proponents of Egoism, rejected hedonism in a literal sense as a comprehensive ethical system:

To take "whatever makes one happy" as a guide to action means: to be guided by nothing but one's emotional whims. Ayn Rand (ˈaɪn ˈrænd &ndash March 6 1982 born Alisa Zinov'yevna Rosenbaum (Алиса Зиновьевна Розенбаум was a Russian born American Emotions are not tools of cognition. . . . This is the fallacy inherent in hedonism--in any variant of ethical hedonism, personal or social, individual or collective. "Happiness" can properly be the purpose of ethics, but not the standard. The task of ethics is to define man's proper code of values and thus to give him the means of achieving happiness. To declare, as the ethical hedonists do, that "the proper value is whatever gives you pleasure" is to declare that "the proper value is whatever you happen to value"--which is an act of intellectual and philosophical abdication, an act which merely proclaims the futility of ethics and invites all men to play it deuces wild. [6]

A modern proponent of hedonism with an ethical touch is the Swedish philosopher Torbjörn Tännsjö[7]. "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. Torbjörn Tännsjö is a Swedish professor of Philosophy who was born in 1946.

The Christian view

Main article: Christian Hedonism

Christian hedonism is a controversial Christian doctrine current in some evangelical circles, particularly those of the Reformed tradition. Christian hedonism is a controversial Christian doctrine current in some evangelical circles particularly those of the Reformed tradition Christian Theology is discourse concerning Christian faith Christian theologians use biblical Exegesis, rational analysis and argument Evangelicalism is a theological movement tradition and system of beliefs most closely associated with Protestant Christianity, which identifies with the Gospel Calvinism (sometimes called the Reformed tradition, the Reformed faith, or Reformed theology) is a theological system and an approach to the The term was coined by Reformed Baptist pastor John Piper in his 1986 book Desiring God. The name Reformed Baptist refers both to a distinct Christian denomination, and to a description of theological leaning John Stephen Piper (born January 11, 1946, Chattanooga, Tennessee) is a Reformed and Baptist Theologian Year 1986 ( MCMLXXXVI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link displays 1986 Gregorian calendar) Piper summarises this philosophy of the Christian life as "God is most glorified in us when we are most satisfied in Him. "

Doctrine

The Westminster Shorter Catechism summarizes the "chief end of man" as "to glorify God and enjoy Him forever. The Westminster Shorter Catechism (also known simply as the Shorter Catechism hereinafter referred to as the WSC) was written in the 1640s " Piper has suggested that this would be more correct as "to glorify God by enjoying Him forever. " Many Christian hedonists point to figures such as Blaise Pascal, Jonathan Edwards, and C. S. Lewis as exemplars of Christian hedonism from the past, before the term was current. Blaise Pascal (blɛz paskal (June 19 1623 &ndash August 19 1662 was a French Mathematician, Physicist, and religious Philosopher This article is about the theologian (b 1703 for other uses of Jonathan Edwards see Jonathan Edwards. Clive Staples Lewis (29 November 1898 – 22 November 1963 Jeremy Taylor once said that "God threatens terrible things if we will not be happy. Jeremy Taylor ( 1613 - 13 August, 1667) was a Clergyman in the Church of England who achieved fame as an author during The Protectorate "

Christian hedonism was developed in opposition to the deontology of Immanuel Kant and the Objectivism of Ayn Rand. Deontological ethics or deontology (from Greek grc δέον deon, "obligation duty" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg Ayn Rand (ˈaɪn ˈrænd &ndash March 6 1982 born Alisa Zinov'yevna Rosenbaum (Алиса Зиновьевна Розенбаум was a Russian born American Piper himself supported Rand's attack on Kantian altruism:

An action is moral, said Kant, only if one has no desire to perform it, but performs it out of a sense of duty and derives no benefit from it of any sort, neither material nor spiritual. Altruism is selfless concern for the welfare of others It is a traditional Virtue in many cultures and central to many religious traditions A benefit destroys the moral value of an action. (Thus if one has no desire to be evil, one cannot be good; if one has, one can. )

Lewis, in an oft-quoted passage in his short piece "The Weight of Glory," likewise objects to Kantian ethics:

If there lurks in most modern minds the notion that to desire our own good and to earnestly hope for the enjoyment of it is a bad thing, I suggest that this notion has crept in from Kant and the Stoics and is no part of the Christian faith. Indeed, if we consider the unblushing promises of reward and the staggering nature of the rewards promised in the Gospels, it would seem that our Lord finds our desires, not too strong, but too weak. We are half-hearted creatures, fooling around with drink and sex and ambition when infinite joy is offered us, like an ignorant child who wants to go on making mud pies in a slum because he cannot imagine what is meant by the offer of a holiday at the sea. We are far too easily pleased. [8]

Piper later disagrees with Randian Objectivism and argues:

But not only is disinterested morality (doing good "for its own sake") impossible; it is undesirable. Objectivism is a Philosophy developed by Ayn Rand in the 20th century that encompasses positions on Metaphysics, Epistemology, That is, it is unbiblical; because it would mean that the better a man became the harder it would be for him to act morally. The closer he came to true goodness the more naturally and happily he would do what is good. A good man in Scripture is not the man who dislikes doing good but toughs it out for the sake of duty. A good man loves kindness (Micah 6:8) and delights in the law of the Lord (Psalm 1:2), and the will of the Lord (Psalm 40:8). But how shall such a man do an act of kindness disinterestedly? The better the man, the more joy in obedience.

More recently, the term Christian Hedonism has been used by the French atheist philosopher Michel Onfray to qualify the various heretic movements from the Middle Ages to Montaigne. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Atheism Michel Onfray (born January 1 1959 in Argentan, Orne, France) is a French Philosopher. Michel Eyquem de Montaigne (French miʃɛl ekɛm də mɔ̃tɛɲ ( February 28 1533 &ndash September 13 1592) was one of the most influential writers

References and notes

  1. ^ "Hedonism. " Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 20 Apr. 2004. 4 Nov. 2007 <http://plato.stanford.edu/>.
  2. ^ "Hedonist Manifesto. " Hedonist International. Hedonist International. 4 Nov. 2007 http://www.hedonist-international.org .
  3. ^ p. 125, C. C. W. Taylor, "Democritus", in C. Rowe & M. Schofield (eds. ), Greek and Roman Political Thought, Cambridge 2005.
  4. ^ "Cyrenaics. " Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The University of Tennessee At Martin. 4 Nov. 2007 <http://www.iep.utm.edu/>.
  5. ^ "The Cyrenaics and the Origin of Hedonism. " Hedonism. org. BLTC. 4 Nov. 2007 <http://www.hedonism.org>.
  6. ^ Ayn Rand, The Virtue of Selfishness, "The Objectivist Ethics".
  7. ^ Torbjörn Tännsjö; Hedonistic Utilitarianism (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press (1998).
  8. ^ Lewis, 1–2.

See also

External links

In Psychology and Cognitive science, hedonistic relevance is an observer's tendency to attribute a Behavior to a person's Disposition (rather Raëlism or Raëlian Church consists of the practitioners of a UFO religion founded by a former French sports-car journalist and test driver named Claude

Dictionary

hedonism

-noun

  1. (ethics) The belief that pleasure or happiness is the highest good in life. Some hedonists, such as the Epicureans, have insisted that pleasure of the entire mind, not just pleasure of the senses, is the highest good.
  2. A general devotion to the pursuit of pleasure.
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