Hawaiian ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi
Spoken in:	Hawaiʻi: concentrated on Niʻihau and Hawaiʻi, but speakers throughout the Hawaiian Islands and the U.S. mainland
Total speakers:	~200 native[1] ~27,160[2]
Language family:	Austronesian  Malayo-Polynesian (MP)   Nuclear MP    Central Eastern MP     Eastern MP      Oceanic       Central-Eastern Oceanic        Remote Oceanic         Central Pacific          East Fijian-Polynesian           Polynesian            Nuclear Polynesian             Eastern Polynesian              Central E. Polyn.               Marquesic                Hawaiian
Writing system:	Latin
Official status
Official language in:	Hawaiʻi (with English) recognised as minority language in parts of: U.S. Mainland
Regulated by:	no official regulation
Language codes
ISO 639-1:	none
ISO 639-2:	haw
ISO 639-3:	haw
Note: This page may contain IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. The State of Hawaii ( or həˈwaɪʔiː Hawaiian: Mokuāina o Hawaii) is a state in the United States located on an Archipelago in the Niihau ( Hawaiian: Ni‘ihau) is the smallest of the inhabited Hawaiian Islands in the U The Island of Hawaii, also called the Big Island or Hawaii Island, is a volcanic Island in the U The Hawaiian Islands, once known as the Sandwich Islands, form an Archipelago of 19 Islands and Atolls numerous smaller The United States of America —commonly referred to as the List of language familiesA language family is a group of Languages related by descent from a common ancestor called the Proto-language of that family The Malayo-Polynesian languages are a subgroup of the Austronesian languages, with approximately 351 million speakers The Nuclear Malayo-Polynesian languages are a branch of the Austronesian family that are thought to have dispersed from a possible homeland in Sulawesi. The family of Central-Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages is a branch of the Nuclear Malayo-Polynesian languages. The family of Eastern Malayo-Polynesian (EMP languages is a subgroup of the Central Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages. The Oceanic languages are a subgroup of the Austronesian languages, containing approximately 450 languages The over 200 Central-Eastern Oceanic languages form a branch of the Oceanic Language family within the Austronesian languages. The family of Remote Oceanic languages is a subgroup of the Central-Eastern Oceanic languages. The family of Central Pacific or Fijian-Polynesian languages is a branch of the Central-Eastern Oceanic languages. The family of East Fijian-Polynesian languages is a subgroup of the Central Pacific languages. The Polynesian languages are a Language family spoken in the region known as Polynesia. Nuclear Polynesian refers to those languages comprising the Samoic and the Eastern Polynesian branches of the Polynesian group of Austronesian Eastern Polynesian is a language subgroup of the Polynesian languages consisting of 13 languages all spoken on islands in the Pacific Ocean. Central Eastern Polynesian is a subgroup of the Eastern Polynesian languages consisting of 12 languages all spoken on islands in the Pacific Ocean from Hawaii Marquesic Languages are a small but historically important subgroup of Central Eastern Polynesian languages: Marquesan languages of the Marquesas A writing system is a type of Symbolic system used to represent elements or statements expressible in Language. The State of Hawaii ( or həˈwaɪʔiː Hawaiian: Mokuāina o Hawaii) is a state in the United States located on an Archipelago in the The United States of America —commonly referred to as the This is a list of bodies that regulate Standard languages Natural languages Auxiliary languages Interlingua The auxiliary language ISO 639-1 is the first part of the ISO 639 international-standard language-code family ISO 639-2 is the second part of the ISO 639 standard, which lists codes for the representation of the names of languages ISO 639 -3 (ISO 639-32007 is an international standard for Language codes The standard describes three‐letter codes for identifying languages In Computing, Unicode is an Industry standard allowing Computers to consistently represent and manipulate text expressed in most of the world's

The Hawaiian language (Hawaiian: ‘Ōlelo Hawai‘i) is an Austronesian language that takes its name from Hawai'i, the largest island in the tropical North Pacific archipelago where it developed. The Island of Hawaii, also called the Big Island or Hawaii Island, is a volcanic Island in the U An archipelago (ɑrkəˈpɛləgoʊ is a chain or cluster of Islands The word archipelago literally means "chief Sea " from Italian Hawaiian, along with English, is an official language of the State of Hawaii, one of the United States. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States The State of Hawaii ( or həˈwaɪʔiː Hawaiian: Mokuāina o Hawaii) is a state in the United States located on an Archipelago in the The United States of America —commonly referred to as the King Kamehameha III* established the first Hawaiian-language constitutions in 1839 and 1840. Kamehameha III (born Kauikeaouli) ( August 11, 1813 ?&ndash December 15, 1854) was the king of Hawaii from 1824 to 1854 A constitution is a system for government often Codified as a written document that establishes the rules and principles of an autonomous political entity

For various reasons, the number of native speakers of Hawaiian gradually decreased during the period from the 1830s to the 1950s. A first language (also mother tongue, native language, arterial language, or L1) is the language a human being learns from birth Hawaiian was essentially displaced by English on six of the seven inhabited islands. As of 2000, native speakers of Hawaiian amount to under 0. 2000 ( MM) was a Leap year that started on Saturday of the Common Era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. 1% of the statewide population. Linguists are worried about the fate of this and other endangered languages. An endangered language is a Language that it is at risk of falling out of use generally because it has few surviving speakers ^[3].

Nevertheless, from about 1949 to the present, there has been a gradual increase in attention to, and promotion of, the language. Public Hawaiian-language immersion pre-schools called Pūnana Leo were started in 1984; other immersion schools followed soon after. Pūnana Leo ( Hawaiian: "nest of voices" often translated as "language nest" are private, Non-profit Preschools run by families The first students to start in immersion pre-school have now graduated from college and many are fluent Hawaiian speakers.

A type of "local English" spoken in Hawaii is technically called "Hawaiian Creole English", abbreviated "HCE". Hawaii Pidgin English, Hawaii Creole English, HCE, or simply Pidgin, is a Creole language based in part on English It developed from pidgin English and is often called simply "pidgin" (or Hawaiian Pidgin). A pidgin is a simplified language that develops as a means of communication between two or more groups that do not have a language in common in situations such as Trade It should not be mistaken for the Hawaiian language.

The ISO language code for Hawaiian is haw. ISO 639 is the set of international standards that lists short codes for Language names

Contents 1 Name 2 Family and origin 2.1 Methods of proving Hawaiian's family relationships 3 History 3.1 1778 to 1820 3.1.1 In Hawaii 3.1.2 Abroad 3.2 1820 to 1887 3.2.1 In Hawaii 3.2.2 Abroad 3.3 1834 to 1948 3.3.1 In Hawaii 3.4 Kaona or Hidden meaning 3.5 "Banning" of Hawaiian 3.6 1949 to present 3.7 Niʻihau 4 Orthography (writing system) 4.1 Origin 4.2 Glottal stop 4.3 Macron 4.4 Pronunciation 5 Phonology 5.1 Consonants 5.2 Vowels 5.2.1 Monophthongs 5.2.2 Diphthongs 6 Grammar 7 References 8 See also 9 Bibliography 10 External links

Name

The Hawaiian language is so named from the name of the largest island, Hawai'i (Hawaiʻi in Hawaiian language), in the tropical North Pacific archipelago where it developed, originally from a Polynesian language of the South Pacific, most likely Marquesan or Tahitian. The island name was first written in English, in 1778 by British explorer James Cook and his crew members. Captain James Cook FRS RN ( – 14 February 1779) was an English Explorer, Navigator and They wrote it as "Owhyhee" or "Owhyee". Explorers Mortimer (1791) and Otto von Kotzebue (1821) used that spelling. Otto von Kotzebue ( Russian Отто Евстафьевич Коцебу Otto Evstaf'evič Kocebu, December 30, 1787 - February 15 ^[4]

The initial "O" in the name is a reflection of the fact that unique identity is predicated in Hawaiian by using a copula form, ʻo, immediately before a proper noun. ^[5] Thus, in Hawaiian, the name of the island is expressed by saying ʻO Hawaiʻi, which means "[This] is Hawaii. "^[6] Note that the Cook expedition also wrote "Otaheite" rather than "Tahiti. "^[7]

The spelling "why" in the name reflects the [ʍ] pronunciation (a voiceless [w]) of wh in 18th century English. Why was pronounced [hwai]. The spelling "hee" or "ee" in the name represents the sounds [hi], [ʔi], or [i]. ^[8]

Putting the parts together, O-why-hee reflects [o-hwai-ʔi], a reasonable approximation of the native pronunciation, [ʔo hʌˈwʌi. ʔi].

American missionaries bound for Hawaii used the phrases "Owhihe Language" and "Owhyhee language", in Boston prior to their departure in October 1819 and during their five-month voyage to Hawaii. ^[9] They still used such phrases as late as February 1822. ^[10] However, by July 1823, they had begun using the phrase "Hawaiian Language. "^[11]

In Hawaiian phrase ʻōlelo Hawaiʻi means "Hawaiian language". (The adjective follows the noun). ^[12]

Family and origin

Hawaiian is a Polynesian member of the Austronesian language family. ^[13] It is closely related to other Polynesian languages (e. The Polynesian languages are a Language family spoken in the region known as Polynesia. g. , Marquesan, Tahitian, Maori, Rapa Nui (the language of Easter Island), Samoan), and distantly related to Fijian and more distantly to Malay, Indonesian, Malagasy, and the indigenous languages of the Philippines (e. Marquesan is a collection of East-Central Polynesian dialects of the Marquesic group spoken in the Marquesas Islands of French Polynesia Tahitian, a Tahitic language, is one of the two official languages of French Polynesia (along with French) The Rapa Nui language (also Rapanui) is an Eastern Polynesian language spoken by the Rapanui, the inhabitants of Easter Island. The Sāmoan or Samoan language is the traditional language of Samoa and American Samoa and is an official language &mdash alongside English Fijian is an Austronesian language of the Malayo-Polynesian family spoken in Fiji. The Malay language ( ISO 639-1 code MS is an Austronesian language spoken by the Malay people and people of other ethnic groups who reside in the Indonesian or Bahasa Indonesia, based on the Riau version of Malay language, was declared the official language with the declaration of This article is about the Malagasy language For the Malagasy ethnic group see Malagasy people. In Philippines there are over 170 languages almost all of them belong to the Austronesian language family. g. , Pangasinan, Tagalog, Ilokano, Visayan) and Taiwan (e. The Pangasinan language (Pangasinan salitan Pangasinan; Spanish: idioma pangasinense, sometimes called Panggalatok belongs to the Malayo-Polynesian Tagalog is one of the major languages used in the Philippines. To view the Ilokano edition of this Wikipedia article select from the in other languages section to the side of this page The Visayan languages of the Philippines, along with Tagalog and Bikol, are part of the Central Philippine language family g. , Paiwan, Rukai, Thao, Babuza, Saaroa, Yami). Paiwan is a native Language of Taiwan, spoken by the Paiwan people, one tribe of the Taiwanese aborigines. Rukai is the mother tongue of the Rukai, a tribe of Indigenous people on Taiwan (see Taiwanese aborigines) Thao is the language of the Thao, a tribe of Taiwanese aborigines in the region of Sun Moon Lake in central Taiwan. Babuzah is an extinct language of Babuza people, a tribe of Indigenous people on Taiwan (see Taiwanese aborigines) Saaroa is the language of the Saaroa a tribe of Indigenous people on Taiwan (see Taiwanese aborigines) The Tao language ( also known as Yami (雅美 is a Batanic language spoken by the Tao people of Taiwan who live on Orchid Island

The Marquesans colonized the archipelago in roughly 300 CE^[14] followed by another wave of Tahitian immigrants around 1000 CE. Their languages, over time, became the Hawaiian language. ^[15]

Continuing back in time, and back up the Austronesian family tree, the language was various stages of Proto-Polynesian. ^[16] Going much further back in history, the language is that of the Philippine Islands. The linguistic evidence, with the methodologies of lexicostatistics and comparative reconstruction applied, takes the language back to Proto Austronesian, spoken in Taiwan (see next section). ^[17][18][19] In recognizing the "Austric dispersal", Li (2001:271–272) states that Reid "firmly established" a genetic relationship between the Austronesian family and the Austroasiatic family, and that Blust proposed that the Austronesian people migrated from mainland China to Taiwan around 4000 BCE. The Hawaiian language (Hawaiian ‘Ōlelo Hawai‘i) is an Austronesian language that takes its name from Hawai'i, the largest island in the tropical

Methods of proving Hawaiian's family relationships

The genetic history of the Hawaiian language is demonstrated primarily through the application of lexicostatistics, and the comparative method. ^[20][21]

Lexicostatistics is a way of quantifying an approximate evaluation of the degree to which any given languages are genetically related to one another. Lexicostatistics is an approach to Comparative linguistics that involves quantitative comparison of lexical Cognates. ^[22][23]. It is mainly based on determining the number of cognates (genetically shared words) that the languages have in a fixed set of vocabulary items which are nearly universal among all languages. Cognates in Linguistics are words that have a common origin They may occur within a language such as shirt and skirt as two English words descended from ^[24] The so-called "basic vocabulary" (or Swadesh list) amounts to about 200 words,^[25] having meanings such as "eye", "hair", "blood", "water", and "and. A Swadesh list is one of several lists of vocabulary with "basic" meanings developed by Morris Swadesh in the 1940-50s which is used in Lexicostatistics "^[26] The measurement of a genetic relationship is expressed as a percentage. ^[27][28] For example, Hawaiian and English have 0 cognates in the 200-word list, so they are 0% genetically related. By contrast, Hawaiian and Tahitian have about 152 cognates in the list, so they are estimated as being 76% genetically related,^[29] according to the lexicostatistical method (152 ÷ 200 = 76).

The comparative method is a technique developed by linguists to determine whether or not two or more languages are genetically related, and if they are, the historical nature of the relationships. The comparative method (in Comparative linguistics) is a technique used by linguists to demonstrate genetic relationships between Languages It aims to prove ^[30][31] For a given meaning, the words of the languages are compared. ^[32] Linguists observe:^[33]

1. identical sounds,
2. similar sounds, and
3. dissimilar sounds, in corresponding positions in the words

In this method, the definition of "identical" is clear, but those of "similar" and "dissimilar" are based on phonological criteria which require professional training to fully understand, and which can vary in the contexts of different languages. Basically, a sound's phonetic manner and place of articulation, and its phonological features, are the main factors considered in investigating its status as "similar" or "dissimilar" to other sounds in a particular context. In Linguistics, a distinctive feature is the most basic unit of phonological structure that may be analyzed in phonological theory When linguists find in compared languages that compared words of the same or similar meaning contain sounds which correspond to one another, and find that these same sound correspondences recur regularly in most, or in many, of the comparable words of the languages, then the usual conclusion is that the languages are genetically related. The comparative method (in Comparative linguistics) is a technique used by linguists to demonstrate genetic relationships between Languages It aims to prove ^[34][35]

In both methods, it is very important to exclude loan words from the analysis. A loanword (or loan word) is a word directly taken into one Language from another with little or no translation ^[36]

The following table, Decimal Numbers, provides a limited data set for ten meanings. The Proto-Austronesian (PAN) forms are from Li (2004:4). Vocabulary Numerals Pronouns Nouns The Hawaiian language (Hawaiian ‘Ōlelo Hawai‘i) is an Austronesian language that takes its name from Hawai'i, the largest island in the tropical The asterisk (*) is used to show that these are hypothetical, reconstructed forms. The Tagalog forms are from Ramos (1971), the Tongan from Churchward (1959), and the Hawaiian from Pukui & Elbert (1986). The Hawaiian language (Hawaiian ‘Ōlelo Hawai‘i) is an Austronesian language that takes its name from Hawai'i, the largest island in the tropical The Hawaiian language (Hawaiian ‘Ōlelo Hawai‘i) is an Austronesian language that takes its name from Hawai'i, the largest island in the tropical The Hawaiian language (Hawaiian ‘Ōlelo Hawai‘i) is an Austronesian language that takes its name from Hawai'i, the largest island in the tropical In the table, the year date of the modern forms is rounded off to CE 2000 to emphasize the 6000-year time lapse since the PAN era.

Decimal Numbers	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10
PAN, circa 4000 BCE	*isa	*DuSa	*telu	*Sepat	*lima	*enem	*pitu	*walu	*Siwa	*puluq
Tagalog, CE 2000	isá	dalawá	tatló	ápat	limá	ánim	pitó	waló	siyám	sampu
Ilokano(ilocano), CE 2000	maysa	dua	talló	uppat	limá	innem	pitó	waló	siám	sangpulo
Kapampangan, CE 2000	metung	adwa	atlu	apat	lima	anam	pitu	walu	siyam	apulu
Cebuano, CE 2000	usá	duhá	tuló	upat	limá	unom	pitó	waló	siyám	napulu
Indonesian, CE 2000	satu	dua	tiga	empat	lima	enam	tujuh	delapan	sembilan	sepuluh
Javanese, CE 2000	siji	loro	telu	papat	limo	nem	pitu	wolu	songo	sepuluh
Malagasy, CE 2000	irai(ka)	roa	telo	efatra	dimy	enina	fito	valo	sivy	folo
Māori, CE 2000	tahi	rua	toru	whā	rima	ono	whitu	waru	iwa	tekau
Tongan, CE 2000	taha	ua	tolu	fa:	nima	ono	fitu	valu	hiva	-fulu
Hawaiian, CE 2000	kahi	lua	kolu	ha:	lima	ono	hiku	ʋalu	iʋa	-hulu

Note 1. For the number "10", the Tongan form in the table is part of the word /hoŋo-fulu/ ('ten'). The Hawaiian form is part of the word /ana-hulu/ ('ten days'), however the more common form used in counting and quantifying is /ʔumi/, a different root.

Application of the lexicostatistical method to the data in the table will show the four languages to be related to one another, with Tagalog having 100% cognacy with PAN, while Hawaiian and Tongan have 100% cognacy with each other, but 90% with Tagalog and PAN. This is because the forms for each number are cognates, except the Hawaiian and Tongan words for the number "1", which are cognate with each other, but not with Tagalog and PAN. When the full set of 200 meanings is used, the percentages will be much lower. For example, Elbert found Hawaiian and Tongan to have 49% (98 ÷ 200) shared cognacy. ^[37] This points out the importance of data-set size for this method — less data, cruder result; more data, better result.

Application of the comparative method will show partly different genetic relationships. It will point out sound changes,^[38] such as:

1. the loss of all PAN word-final consonants in Tongan and Hawaiian;
2. lowering of PAN *u to Tagalog [o] in word-final syllables;
3. retention of PAN *t in word-initial and word-medial position in Tagalog and Tongan, but shift to /k/ in Hawaiian;
4. retention of PAN *p in Tagalog, but shift to /f/ in Tongan and /h/ in Hawaiian. Sound change includes any processes of Language change that affect pronunciation ( phonetic change) or sound system structures ( Phonological change

This method will recognize sound change #1 as a shared innovation of Hawaiian and Tongan. The comparative method (in Comparative linguistics) is a technique used by linguists to demonstrate genetic relationships between Languages It aims to prove It will also take the Hawaiian and Tongan cognates for "1" as another shared innovation. Due to these exclusively shared features, Hawaiian and Tongan are found to be more closely related to one another than either is to Tagalog or PAN.

The forms in the table show that the Austronesian vowels tend to be relatively stable, while the consonants are relatively volatile. It is also apparent that the Hawaiian words for "5" and "8" have remained essentially unchanged for 6000 years.

History

Before 1778, see Family and Origin above.

1778 to 1820

In Hawaii

In 1778, British explorer James Cook made the first reported European discovery of Hawaii, and that marked a new phase in the development and use of Hawaiian. Captain James Cook FRS RN ( – 14 February 1779) was an English Explorer, Navigator and During the next forty years, the sounds of Spanish (1789), Russian (1804), French (1816), and German (1816) arrived in Hawaii via other explorers and businessmen. Hawaiian began to take form as a written language, but largely restricted to isolated names and words, and word lists collected by explorers and travellers. ^[39]

Abroad

The people responsible for "importing" those languages were also responsible for "exporting" the Hawaiian language into new territory, because there were some adventurous native speakers of Hawaiian who opted to do some exploring of their own by leaving Hawaii and sailing off to "see the world" aboard the wooden ships of the Caucasian explorers. ^[40] Although there were not enough of these Hawaiian-speaking explorers (and apparently no females) to establish any viable speech communities abroad, nevertheless, there were a few here and there, in various parts of the world, who may be said to have spread the use of the language, at least a little bit. One of them, a male teenager known as Obookiah (`Ōpūkaha`ia), had a major impact on the future of the language. He sailed to New England, and eventually became a student at the Foreign Mission School in Cornwall, Connecticut. He inspired New Englanders to support a Christian mission to Hawaii, and provided information on the Hawaiian language to the American missionaries there prior to their departure for Hawaii in 1819. ^[41] Some adventurous native speakers of Hawaiian worked aboard American and/or European ships of that period, thereby expanding, albeit slightly, the geographical area in which Hawaiian could be spoken. However, no viable Hawaiian speech communities were ever established abroad.

1820 to 1887

In Hawaii

The arrival of American Protestant missionaries (from New England) in 1820 marked another new phase in the development of the Hawaiian language. Their evangelical mission had been inspired by the presence of several young Hawaiian males, especially Obookiah (ʻŌpūkahaʻia), at the Foreign Mission School in Cornwall, Connecticut. The missionaries wanted to convert all Hawaiians to Christianity. In order to achieve that goal, they needed to learn the Hawaiian language so that they could publish a Hawaiian Bible, preach in Hawaiian, etc. To that end, they developed a successful alphabet for Hawaiian by 1826, taught Hawaiians to read and write the language, published various educational materials in Hawaiian, and eventually finished translating the Bible. Missionaries also influenced King Kamehameha III to establish the first Hawaiian-language constitutions in 1839 and 1840.

Abroad

Adelbert von Chamisso might have consulted with a native speaker of Hawaiian in Berlin, Germany, before publishing his grammar of Hawaiian ("Über die Hawaiische Sprache") in 1837. Adelbert von Chamisso ( January 30 1781 &ndash August 21 1838) was a German Poet and Botanist. ^[42] When Hawaiian King David Kalākaua took a trip around the world, he brought his native language with him. Kalākaua I, born as David Laamea Kamanakapuu Mahinulani Nalaiaehuokalani Lumialani Kalākaua and called The Merrie Monarch ( November 16, 1836 When his wife, Queen Kapiolani, and his sister, Princess (later Queen) Liliuokalani, took a trip across North America and on to the British Islands, in 1887, Liliuokalani's composition Aloha Oe was already a famous song in the U. Liliuokalani ( September 2, 1838 – November 11, 1917) born Lydia Liliu Loloku Walania Wewehi Kamakaeha, was the last S. ^[43]

1834 to 1948

In Hawaii

This is the 115-year period during which Hawaiian-language newspapers were published. Missionaries introduced newspaper publishing in Hawaiian and in English, and played a significant role in publishing a grammar (1854) and dictionary (1865) of Hawaiian. Literacy in Hawaiian was widespread among the local population, especially ethnic Hawaiians. Use of the language among the general population might have peaked around 1881. Even so, some people worried, as early as 1854, that the language was "soon destined to extinction. "^[44] In spite of a huge decline in the use of Hawaiian, compared to the era of its peak, those fears have never been realized.

The increase in human travel to and from Hawaiʻi during the 19th century was the means by which a number of diseases arrived, and potentially fatal ones, such as smallpox, influenza, and leprosy, killed large numbers of native speakers of Hawaiian. Smallpox is an Infectious disease unique to humans caused by either of two virus variants named Variola major and Variola minor. Leprosy (from the Greek lepi (λέπι meaning scales on a fish or Hansen's disease, is a chronic disease caused by the bacterium Meanwhile, native speakers of other languages, especially English, Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, and Ilokano, continued to immigrate to Hawaii. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States is a language spoken by over 130 million people in Japan and in Japanese emigrant communities Portuguese ( or língua portuguesa) is a Romance language that originated in what is now Galicia (Spain and northern Portugal. To view the Ilokano edition of this Wikipedia article select from the in other languages section to the side of this page As a result, the actual number, as well as the percentage, of native speakers of Hawaiian in the local population decreased sharply, and continued to fall.

As the status of Hawaiian dropped, the status of English in Hawaiʻi rose. In 1885, the Prospectus of the Kamehameha Schools announced that "instruction will be given only in English language" (see published opinion of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, Doe v. Kamehameha Schools, case no. 04-15044, page 8928, filed August 2nd 2005).

For a variety of reasons starting around 1900, the number of native speakers of Hawaiian diminished from 37,000 to 1,000; half of these remaining are now in their seventies or eighties (see Ethnologue report below for citations). There has been some controversy over the reasons for this decline.

One school of thought claims that the most important cause for the decline of the Hawaiian language was its voluntary abandonment by the majority of its native speakers. They wanted their own children to speak English, as a way to promote their success in a rapidly changing modern environment, so they refrained from using Hawaiian with their own children. The Hawaiian language schools disappeared as their enrollments dropped: parents preferred English language schools.

Another school of thought insists either that the government made the language illegal, or that schools punished the use of Hawaiian, or that general prejudice against Hawaiians (kanakas) discouraged the use of the language. (See below, "Banning" of Hawaiian)

A new dictionary was published in 1957, a new grammar in 1979, and new second-language textbooks in 1951, 1965, 1977, and 1989. Master's theses and doctoral dissertations on specific facets of Hawaiian appeared in 1951, 1975, 1976, and 1996.

Kaona or Hidden meaning

According to Mary Kawena Pukui and Samuel Elbert in the definitive Dictionary, kaona (pronounced cow-na) is a "Hidden meaning, as in Hawaiian poetry; concealed reference, as to a person, thing, or place; words with double meanings that might bring good or bad fortune. " Pukui lamented, “in spite of years of dedicated work, it is impossible to record any language completely. How true this seems for Hawaiian, with its rich and varied background, its many idioms heretofore undescribed, and its ingenious and sophisticated use of figurative language. ” On page xiii of the 1986 Dictionary she warned: "Hawaiian has more words with multiple meanings than almost any other language. One wishing to name a child, a house, a T-shirt, or a painting, should be careful that the chosen name does not have a naughty or vulgar meaning. The name of a justly respectable children's school, Hana Hau'oli, means happy activity and suggests a missionary author, but among older Hawaiians it has another, less 'innocent' meaning that should not concern little children. A Honolulu street (and formerly the name of a hotel) is Hale Le'a 'joyous house', but le'a also means orgasm. "

Understanding the kaona of the language requires a comprehensive knowledge of Hawaiian legends, history and cosmology.

"Banning" of Hawaiian

The law cited as banning the Hawaiian language is identified as Act 57, sec. 30 of the 1896 Laws of the Republic of Hawaiʻi:

The English Language shall be the medium and basis of instruction in all public and private schools, provided that where it is desired that another language shall be taught in addition to the English language, such instruction may be authorized by the Department, either by its rules, the curriculum of the school, or by direct order in any particular instance. Any schools that shall not conform to the provisions of this section shall not be recognized by the Department. [signed] June 8, 1896 Sanford B. Dole, President of the Republic of Hawaiʻi

This law established English as the main medium of instruction for the government-recognized schools, but it did not ban nor make illegal the Hawaiian language in other contexts. Sanford Ballard Dole ( April 23 1844 June 9 1926) was a Politician and Jurist of Hawai{{okina}}i as a kingdom The law specifically provided for teaching languages "in addition to the English language".

Hawaiian-language newspapers were published for over a hundred years, right through the period of the supposed ban. Pukui & Elbert (1986:572) list fourteen Hawaiian newspapers. The Hawaiian language (Hawaiian ‘Ōlelo Hawai‘i) is an Austronesian language that takes its name from Hawai'i, the largest island in the tropical According to them, the newspapers entitled Ka Lama Hawaii and Ke Kumu Hawaii began publishing in 1834, and the one called Ka Hoku o Hawaii ceased publication in 1948. The longest run was that of Ka Nupepa Kuokoa: about 66 years, from 1861 to 1927.

1949 to present

In 1949, the legislature of the Territory of Hawaiʻi commissioned Mary Pukui and Samuel Elbert to write a new dictionary of Hawaiian, either revising the Andrews-Parker work, or starting from scratch. ^[45] Pukui and Elbert took a middle course, using what they could from the Andrews dictionary, but making certain improvements and additions that were more significant than a minor revision. The dictionary they produced, in 1957, introduced an era of gradual increase in attention to the language (and culture).

Efforts to promote the language have increased in recent decades. Hawaiian-language "immersion" schools are now open to children whose families want to introduce Hawaiian language for future generations. ^[46] The local NPR station features a short segment titled "Hawaiian word of the day" and a Hawaiian language news broadcast. Additionally, the Sunday editions of the Honolulu Star-Bulletin, one of Honolulu's two major newspapers, feature a brief article called Kauakukalahale written entirely in Hawaiian by teachers, students, and community members.

Today, on six of the seven permanently inhabited islands, Hawaiian is largely displaced by English, and the number of native speakers of Hawaiian is under 0. 1% of the state-wide population. Native speakers of Hawaiian who live on the island named Niʻihau have remained fairly isolated and have continued to use Hawaiian almost exclusively. ^[47]

Niʻihau

Niʻihau is the only area in the world where Hawaiian is the first language and English is a foreign language. Because of many sufficiently marked variations, Niʻihau people, when visiting or living in Honolulu, substitute the Oʻahu dialect [sic] for their own — apparently easy to do — saying that otherwise people in Honolulu have trouble understanding them. Niʻihau people speak very rapidly; many vowels and entire syllables are dropped or whispered. ^[48]

The island named Niʻihau, aka 'the Forbidden Island' to locals, off the southwest coast of Kauaʻi, is the one island where Hawaiian is still spoken by the entire population as the language of daily life. Niihau ( Hawaiian: Ni‘ihau) is the smallest of the inhabited Hawaiian Islands in the U Kauai (in standard Hawaiian kauˈaʔi in Kauai- Ni{{okina}}ihau dialect; usually spelled Kauai outside the Hawaiian Islands and ˈkaʊɑɪ or /kaʊˈɑɪ/ ^[49] Children are taught Hawaiian as a first language, and learn English at about age eight. Reasons for the persistence include:

• Niʻihau has been privately owned for over 100 years;
• visitation by outsiders has been only rarely allowed;
• the Caucasian owners/managers of the island have favored the Niʻihauans' continuation of their language;
• and, most of all, because the Niʻihau speakers themselves have naturally maintained their own native language, even though they sometimes use English as a second language for school.

Native speakers of Niʻihau Hawaiian have three distinct modes of speaking Hawaiian:

1. an imitation and adaptation to "standard" Hawaiian;
2. a native Niʻihau dialect that is significantly different from "standard" Hawaiian, including extensive use of palatalizations and truncations, and differences in diphthongization, vowel raising, and elision;
3. a manner of speaking among themselves which is so different from "standard" Hawaiian that it is unintelligible to non-Niʻihau speakers of Hawaiian.

The last mode of speaking may be further restricted to a certain subset of Niʻihauans, and is rarely even overheard by non-Niʻihauans. In addition to being able to speak Hawaiian in different ways, most Niʻihauans can speak English too.

Elbert & Pukui (1979:23) states that "[v]ariations in Hawaiian dialects have not been systematically studied", and that "[t]he dialect of Niʻihau is the most aberrant and the one most in need of study". The Hawaiian language (Hawaiian ‘Ōlelo Hawai‘i) is an Austronesian language that takes its name from Hawai'i, the largest island in the tropical They recognized that Niʻihauans can speak Hawaiian in substantially different ways. Their statements are based in part on some specific observations made by Newbrand (1951). The Hawaiian language (Hawaiian ‘Ōlelo Hawai‘i) is an Austronesian language that takes its name from Hawai'i, the largest island in the tropical (See below, Processes, under Phonology. )

Orthography (writing system)

The Hawaiian alphabet, ka pīʻāpā Hawaiʻi, is a variety of the Latin alphabet. Hawaiian words end only in vowels. The Hawaiian alphabetical order has all of the vowels before the consonants,^[50] as in the following chart.

Aa	Ee	Ii	Oo	Uu	Hh	Kk	Ll	Mm	Nn	Pp	Ww	ʻ
/a/	/e/	/i/	/o/	/u/	/h/	/k/	/l/	/m/	/n/	/p/	/w/	/ʔ/

Origin

This writing system was developed by American Protestant missionaries during 1820–1826. Encoding and displaying the Polynesian glottal Old conventions In plain ASCII the glottal is sometimes represented by the apostrophe character (' ^[51] It was the first thing they ever printed in Hawaii, on January 7, 1822, and it originally included the consonants B, D, R, T, and V, in addition to the current ones (H, K, L, M, N, P, W), and it had F, G, S, Y and Z for "spelling foreign words". Events 1325 - Alfonso IV becomes King of Portugal. 1558 - France takes Calais, the last continental Year 1822 (MDCCCXXII was a Common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting on Sunday of the The initial printing also showed the five vowel letters (A, E, I, O, U) and seven of the short diphthongs (AE, AI, AO, AU, EI, EU, OU). ^[52]

In 1826, the developers voted to eliminate some of the letters which represented functionally redundant allophones (called "interchangeable letters"), enabling the Hawaiian alphabet to approach the ideal state of one-symbol-one-sound, and thereby optimizing the ease with which people could teach and learn the reading and writing of Hawaiian. In Phonetics, an allophone is one of several similar speech sounds ( Phones that belong to the same Phoneme. ^[53] For example, instead of spelling one and the same word as pule, bule, pure, and bure (because of interchangeable p/b and l/r), the word is spelled only as pule.

• Interchangeable B/P. B was dropped, P was kept.
• Interchangeable L/R. L was kept, R was dropped.
• Interchangeable K/T. K was kept, T was dropped.
• Interchangeable V/W. V was dropped, W was kept.

However, hundreds of words were very rapidly borrowed into Hawaiian from English, Greek, Hebrew, Latin, Syrian, and Chaldean. ^[54][55][56] Although these loan words were necessarily Hawaiianized, they often retained some of their "non-Hawaiian letters" in their published forms. For example, Brazil fully Hawaiianized is Palakila, but retaining "foreign letters" it is Barazila. ^[57] Another example is Gibraltar, written as Kipalaleka or Gibaraleta. ^[58] While [z] and [g] are not regarded as Hawaiian sounds, [b], [ɹ], and [t] were represented in the original alphabet, so the letters (b, r, and t) for the latter are not truly "non-Hawaiian" or "foreign", even though their post-1826 use in published matter generally marked words of foreign origin.

Glottal stop

Main article: ʻokina

A modern Hawaiian name for the symbol (a letter) which represents the glottal stop is ʻokina (ʻoki 'cut' plus -na '-ing'). Encoding and displaying the Polynesian glottal Old conventions In plain ASCII the glottal is sometimes represented by the apostrophe character (' This article is about the sound in spoken language For the letter see Glottal stop (letter. ^[59] It was formerly known as ʻuʻina ('snap'^[60][61]). It can be written as ʻ, with the Unicode hex value 02BB (decimal 699), which does not always have the correct appearance because it is not supported in some fonts/browsers. In Computing, Unicode is an Industry standard allowing Computers to consistently represent and manipulate text expressed in most of the world's It is alternatively written as an opening single quote ‘ with the Unicode hex value 2018 (decimal 8216), which appears either as a left-leaning quote or a quote with greater thickness at the bottom than at the top. It can look like a very small "6" with the circle filled in black.

For examples of the okina, consider the Hawaiian words Hawaiʻi and Oʻahu (simply Hawaii and Oahu in English orthography). In Hawaiian, these words can be pronounced [hʌˈwʌi. ʔi] and [oˈʔʌ. hu], and can be written with an okina where the glottal stop is pronounced. ^[62][63]

As early as 1823, the missionaries made some limited use of the apostrophe to represent the glottal stop,^[64] but they did not make it a letter of the alphabet. In publishing the Hawaiian Bible, they used it to distinguish koʻu ('my') from kou ('your'). ^[65]. In 1864, W. D. Alexander published a grammar of Hawaiian in which he made it clear that the glottal stop (calling it "guttural break") is definitely a true consonant of the Hawaiian language. ^[66] He wrote it using an apostrophe. In 1922, the Andrews-Parker dictionary of Hawaiian made limited use of the opening single quote symbol, called "reversed apostrophe" or "inverse comma", to represent the glottal stop. ^[67] Subsequent dictionaries have preferred to use that symbol. Today, many native speakers of Hawaiian do not bother, in general, to write any symbol for the glottal stop. Its use is advocated mainly among students and teachers of Hawaiian as a second language, and among linguists. ^[68]

Macron

A modern Hawaiian name for the symbol (not a letter) which is the macron is kahakō (kaha 'mark' plus kō 'long'). A macron, from Greek el μακρόv ( makrón) meaning "long" is a Diacritic ¯ placed over or under a Vowel which was originally ^[69] It was formerly known as mekona (Hawaiianization of macron). It can be written as a diacritical mark which looks like a hyphen or dash written above a vowel, i. A diacritic ( also called a diacritic or diacritical mark, point, or sign, is a small sign added to a letter to alter pronunciation e. , ā ē ī ō ū, and Ā Ē Ī Ō Ū. It is used to show that the marked vowel is a "double", or "geminate", or "long" vowel, in phonemic terms. ^[70]

As early as 1821, at least one of the missionaries, Hiram Bingham, was using macrons (and breves) in making handwritten transcriptions of Hawaiian vowels. ^[71] The missionaries specifically requested their sponsor in Boston to send them some type (fonts) with accented vowel characters, including vowels with macrons, but the sponsor made only one response and sent the wrong font size (pica instead of small pica). ^[72] Thus, they could not print ā, ē, ī, ō, nor ū (at the right size), even though they wanted to.

Pronunciation

In general, each Hawaiian letter represents the sound value of the same letter in the IPA alphabet. Due to extensive allophony, however, if one were to converse in Hawaiian with only 13 phones, the result would sound definitely foreign to the ear of a native speaker. In Phonetics, an allophone is one of several similar speech sounds ( Phones that belong to the same Phoneme. See Phonology, below, for details on the ranges of actual allophones used.

The letter ʻ, the ʻokina, is not an IPA symbol. The IPA symbol for glottal stop is <ʔ>. ^[73] Since the Hawaiian letter ʻ stands for [ʔ], in effect, the phonetic value of ʻ is [ʔ]. ^[74]

The macron, or kahakō, is not a letter, and its use to indicate allophony is not an IPA convention (the IPA symbol for gemination is ː). The kahakō has no sound of its own, and is not used alone. Although it marks phonemic vowel length in Hawaiian, long vowels are not always pronounced long by native speakers of Hawaiian in actual Hawaiian communication. ^[75] The macron does not represent stress, although under the rules for assigning stress in Hawaiian, a long vowel will always receive stress. In Linguistics, stress is the relative emphasis that may be given to certain Syllables in a word ^[76][77]

Phonology

Main article: Hawaiian phonology

Hawaiian is known for having very few consonant phonemes — eight. See also Hawaiian language This article is a linguistic description of the phonological system of Hawaiian based on documented experiences of In Articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a Speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the upper Vocal tract, the upper vocal It is notable that Hawaiian has free variation of [p] with [b],^[78] [t] with [k],^{[79][80][81][82]}, [l] with [ɹ],^[83] and [w] with [v]. ^[84] The [t]-with-[k] variation is quite unusual among the world's languages, but can be understood when one notes the common transcription of fellow Malayo-Polynesian languages, Indonesian or Malaysian , [ʔ] as k or ' or t in English. The Malayo-Polynesian languages are a subgroup of the Austronesian languages, with approximately 351 million speakers Indonesian or Bahasa Indonesia, based on the Riau version of Malay language, was declared the official language with the declaration of The Malay language ( ISO 639-1 code MS is an Austronesian language spoken by the Malay people and people of other ethnic groups who reside in the English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States The eight Hawaiian consonant phonemes are /p, k, ʔ, h, m, n, l, w/.

Hawaiian has either 5 or 25 vowel phonemes, depending on how the long vowels and diphthongs are treated. In Phonetics, a vowel is a Sound in spoken Language, such as English ah! or oh!, pronounced with an open Vocal tract In Linguistics, vowel length is the perceived duration of a Vowel sound In Phonetics, a diphthong (also gliding vowel) (from Greek grc δίφθογγος "diphthongos" literally "with two sounds" or "with ^[85] If the long vowels and diphthongs are treated as two-phoneme sequences, then the total of vowel phonemes is five. But if the long vowels and diphthongs are treated as separate, unit phonemes, then the total of vowel phonemes is 25. The short vowel phonemes are /u, i, o, e, a/. If long vowels are counted separately, they are /uː, iː, oː, eː, aː/. If diphthongs are counted separately, they are /iu, ou, oi, eu, ei, au, ai, ao, ae, oːu, eːi, aːu, aːi, aːo, aːe/. There is some allophonic variation of the vowels, but it is nowhere near as dramatic as that of the consonants. See also Hawaiian language This article is a linguistic description of the phonological system of Hawaiian based on documented experiences of

Hawaiian syllable structure is (C)V . See also Hawaiian language This article is a linguistic description of the phonological system of Hawaiian based on documented experiences of All CV syllables occur except for wū;^[86] wu occurs only in two words borrowed from English. ^[87][88] As shown by Schütz,^[89][90][91] Hawaiian word-stress is predictable in words of one to four syllables, but not in words of five or more syllables. See also Hawaiian language This article is a linguistic description of the phonological system of Hawaiian based on documented experiences of Hawaiian phonological processes include palatalization and deletion of consonants, as well as raising, diphthongization, deletion, and compensatory lengthening of vowels. See also Hawaiian language This article is a linguistic description of the phonological system of Hawaiian based on documented experiences of ^[92][93] Phonological reduction (or "decay") of consonant phonemes during the historical development of the language has resulted in the phonemic glottal stop. ^[94][95] Ultimate loss (deletion) of intervocalic consonant phonemes has resulted in Hawaiian long vowels and diphthongs. ^{[96][97][98][99]}

Consonants

Consonants

	Labial	Alveolar	Velar	Glottal
Nasal	m	n
Plosive	p		k	ʔ
Fricative				h
Lateral		l
Approximant	w

Vowels

Monophthongs

Monophthongs

	Short		Long
	Front	Back	Front	Back
Close	i	u	iː	uː
Mid	e	o	eː	oː
Open	a		aː

Diphthongs

Short Diphthongs 

	Ending with /u/	Ending with /i/	Ending with /o/	Ending with /e/
Starting with /i/	iu
Starting with /o/	ou	oi
Starting with /e/	eu	ei
Starting with /a/	au	ai	ao	ae

Long Diphthongs 

	Ending with /u/	Ending with /i/	Ending with /o/	Ending with /e/
Starting with /o/	oːu
Starting with /e/		eːi
Starting with /a/	aːu	aːi	aːo	aːe

Grammar

Main article: Hawaiian grammar

Hawaiian is an analytic language. Labials are consonants articulated either with both lips ( bilabial articulation or with the lower lip and the upper teeth ( labiodental articulation Alveolar consonants are articulated with the tongue against or close to the superior Alveolar ridge, which is called that because it contains the alveoli (the sockets Glottal consonants are Consonants articulated with the Glottis. A nasal consonant (also called nasal stop or nasal continuant) is produced with a lowered velum in the mouth allowing air to escape freely through the A stop, plosive, or occlusive is a Consonant sound produced by stopping the airflow in the Vocal tract. Fricatives are Consonants produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together Laterals are "L"-like Consonants pronounced with an occlusion made somewhere along the axis of the tongue while air from the lungs escapes at one side or both Approximants are speech sounds ( Phonemes) that could be regarded as intermediate between Vowels and typical Consonants In the articulation of approximants A monophthong ( Greek μονόφθογγος "monophthongos" = single note) is a "pure" Vowel sound one whose articulation at In Linguistics, vowel length is the perceived duration of a Vowel sound In Linguistics, vowel length is the perceived duration of a Vowel sound A front vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The defining characteristic of a front vowel is that the tongue is positioned as far forward A back vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The defining characteristic of a back vowel is that the tongue is positioned as far back as A close vowel is a type of Vowel sound used in many spoken Languages The defining characteristic of a close vowel is that the tongue is positioned as close as A mid vowel is a Vowel sound used in some spoken Languages The defining characteristic of a mid vowel is that the tongue is positioned mid-way between an An open vowel is a Vowel sound of a type used in most spoken Languages The defining characteristic of an open vowel is that the tongue is positioned as far as In Phonetics, a diphthong (also gliding vowel) (from Greek grc δίφθογγος "diphthongos" literally "with two sounds" or "with This article provides a brief sketch of grammar in the Hawaiian language. In morphological typology (in linguistics an isolating language (also analytic language) is any Language in which words are composed of There is no use of inflection. In Grammar, inflection or inflexion is the way language handles grammatical relations and relational categories such as tense, mood, voice Instead the grammatical meaning of words is marked by adjacent particles (short words) and their relative positions. In Linguistics, the term particle is a word lacking a strict definition but has the function of changing the relation of the parts of the sentence to one another and is therefore Hawaiian is a VSO language. Verb Subject Object ( VSO) is a term in Linguistic typology. It represents one type of languages when classifying languages according to the sequence of these

Some example verb phrase patterns:

• ua verb perfective
• e verb ana imperfective
• ke verb nei present progressive
• e verb imperative
• mai verb negative imperative

Nouns can be marked with articles:

• ka honu the turtle
• nā honu the turtles
• ka hale the house
• ke kanaka the person

ka and ke are singular definite articles. In Grammar, the perfective aspect is an aspect that exists in many languages The imperfective aspect is a Grammatical aspect. It refers to an action that is viewed from a particular viewpoint as ongoing habitual repeated or generally containing internal The continuous and progressive aspects are Grammatical aspects that express incomplete action in progress at a specific time they are non-habitual imperfective The imperative mood is a Grammatical mood that expresses direct commands or requests ke is used before words beginning with a-, e-, o- and k-, and with some words beginning ʻ- and p-. ka is used in all other cases. nā is the plural definite article.

References

See also

• The list of Hawaiian words and list of words of Hawaiian origin at Wiktionary, the free dictionary and Wikipedia's sibling project
• Languages in the United States
• Pūnana Leo
• Hawaiian name

Bibliography

• Carter, Gregory Lee (1996). The Hawaiian language (Hawaiian ‘Ōlelo Hawai‘i) is an Austronesian language that takes its name from Hawai'i, the largest island in the tropical The Hawaiian language (Hawaiian ‘Ōlelo Hawai‘i) is an Austronesian language that takes its name from Hawai'i, the largest island in the tropical The Hawaiian language (Hawaiian ‘Ōlelo Hawai‘i) is an Austronesian language that takes its name from Hawai'i, the largest island in the tropical The Hawaiian language (Hawaiian ‘Ōlelo Hawai‘i) is an Austronesian language that takes its name from Hawai'i, the largest island in the tropical The Hawaiian language (Hawaiian ‘Ōlelo Hawai‘i) is an Austronesian language that takes its name from Hawai'i, the largest island in the tropical The Hawaiian language (Hawaiian ‘Ōlelo Hawai‘i) is an Austronesian language that takes its name from Hawai'i, the largest island in the tropical The Hawaiian language (Hawaiian ‘Ōlelo Hawai‘i) is an Austronesian language that takes its name from Hawai'i, the largest island in the tropical Robert Louis Balfour Stevenson (13 November 1850–3 December 1894 was a Scottish novelist poet and travel writer, and a representative of Neo-romanticism in The Hawaiian language (Hawaiian ‘Ōlelo Hawai‘i) is an Austronesian language that takes its name from Hawai'i, the largest island in the tropical The Hawaiian language (Hawaiian ‘Ōlelo Hawai‘i) is an Austronesian language that takes its name from Hawai'i, the largest island in the tropical The Hawaiian language (Hawaiian ‘Ōlelo Hawai‘i) is an Austronesian language that takes its name from Hawai'i, the largest island in the tropical The Hawaiian language (Hawaiian ‘Ōlelo Hawai‘i) is an Austronesian language that takes its name from Hawai'i, the largest island in the tropical The Hawaiian language (Hawaiian ‘Ōlelo Hawai‘i) is an Austronesian language that takes its name from Hawai'i, the largest island in the tropical The Hawaiian language (Hawaiian ‘Ōlelo Hawai‘i) is an Austronesian language that takes its name from Hawai'i, the largest island in the tropical Wiktionary (a Portmanteau of Wiki and Dictionary) is a multilingual, Web -based project to create a Free The United States does not have an Official language; however the majority of the population speaks English as a native language (about 82% Pūnana Leo ( Hawaiian: "nest of voices" often translated as "language nest" are private, Non-profit Preschools run by families The Hawaiian Copula Verbs He, ʻO, and I, as Used in the Publications of Native Writers of Hawaiian: A Study in Hawaiian Language and Literature. Ann Arbor: U. M. I. University of Hawaiʻi Ph. D. dissertation.
• Churchward, C. Maxwell (1959). Tongan Dictionary. Tonga: Government Printing Office.
• Dyen, Isidore (1965). A Lexicostatistical Classification of the Austronesian Languages. Indiana University Publications in Anthropology and Linguistics. Memoir 19 of the International Journal of American Linguistics.
• Elbert, Samuel H. & Pukui, Mary Kawena (1979). Hawaiian Grammar. Honolulu: The University Press of Hawaii. ISBN 0-8248-0494-5
• Hinton, Leanne & Hale, Kenneth (2001). The Green Book of Language Revitalization in Practice. Academic Press
• Kinney, Ruby Kawena (1956). A Non-purist View of Morphomorphemic Variations in Hawaiian Speech. Journal of the Polynesian Society 65. 3:282-286.
• Li, Paul Jen-kuei (2001). The Dispersal of The Formosan Aborigines in Taiwan (PDF). Languages and Linguistics 2. 1:271-278.
• Li, Paul Jen-kuei. (2004). Numerals in Formosan Languages. Taipei: Academia Sinica
• Lyovin, Anatole V. (1997). An Introduction to the Languages of the World. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc. . ISBN 0-19-508116-1
• Newbrand, Helene L. (1951). A Phonemic Analysis of Hawaiian. University of Hawaiʻi M. A. thesis.
• Pukui, Mary Kawena & Elbert, Samuel H. (1986). Hawaiian Dictionary. Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press. ISBN 0-8248-0703-0
• Ramos, Teresita V. (1971). Tagalog Dictionary. Honolulu: The University Press of Hawaii. ISBN 0-87022-676-2
• Schütz, Albert J. (1994). The Voices of Eden: A History of Hawaiian Language Studies. Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press. ISBN 0-8248-1637-4
• Warner, Sam L. (1996). I Ola ka ʻŌlelo i nā Keiki: Ka ʻApo ʻia ʻana o ka ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi e nā Keiki ma ke Kula Kaiapuni. [That the Language Live through the Children: The Acquisition of the Hawaiian Language by the Children in the Immersion School. ]. Ann Arbor: U. M. I. University of Hawaiʻi Ph. D. dissertation.
• U. S. Census (2005). U.S. Census Press Releases. Public Information Offce.
• Wilson, William H. (1976). The O and A Possessive Markers in Hawaiian. University of Hawaiʻi M. A. thesis.

External links

• Ulukau - the Hawaiian electronic library, includes English to/from Hawaiian dictionary
• Ka Haka ʻUla O Keʻelikōlani, College of Hawaiian Language
• Kulaiwi — learn Hawaiian through distance learning courses
• Was Hawaiian outlawed?
• Examples of published claims that Hawaiian was outlawed
• Hawaiian language at Ethnologue
• Hawaiian and Indonesian with Japanese translation incl. Ethnologue Languages of the World is a web and print publication of SIL International (formerly known as the Summer Institute of Linguistics a Christian sound file
• Traditional and Neo Hawaiian: The Emergence of a New Form of Hawaiian Language as a Result of Hawaiian Language Regeneration
• "Hale Pa'i" Article about Hawaiian language newspapers printed at Lahainaluna on Maui. Lahainaluna High School is a grade 9-12 school located in Lahaina (on the island of Maui) Hawaii. The Island of Maui is the second-largest of the Hawaiian Islands at 727 Maui No Ka 'Oi Magazine Vol. Maui Nō Ka ʻOi Magazine is a Bi-monthly regional Magazine published by the Haynes Publishing Group in Wailuku Hawaii. 12 No. 3 (May 2008).

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