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"Arendt" redirects here. For other uses, see Arendt (disambiguation).
Western Philosophers
20th-century philosophy
Name
Hannah Arendt
Birth October 14, 1906 (Hanover (Linden), Germany)
Death December 4, 1975 (New York, United States)
School/tradition Phenomenology
Main interests Politics, Metaphysics, Epistemology, Greek philosophy, technology, Ontology, modernity, philosophy of history
Influenced by Pre-Socratics, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Jesus, Paul, Duns Scotus, Saint Augustine, Machiavelli, Montesquieu, Edmund Burke, Kant, Tocqueville, Marx, Heidegger, Russell, Jaspers, Benjamin
Influenced Jürgen Habermas, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Giorgio Agamben, Seyla Benhabib, Claude Lefort, Elisabeth Young-Bruehl, Michael Jackson (anthropology), Reinhart Koselleck, Hanna Pitkin, Michael Marrus, Quentin Skinner, J. G. A. Pocock, Philip Pettit, Alain Finkielkraut, Julia Kristeva, Richard Sennett

Hannah Arendt (October 14, 1906 – December 4, 1975) was a German-Jewish political theorist. See also [[Analytic philosophy]] and [[Continental philosophy]] The 20th century brought with it upheavals that produced a series of conflicting developments within Philosophy Events 1066 - Norman Conquest: Battle of Hastings - In England on Senlac Hill seven miles from Hastings, the forces Year 1906 ( MCMVI) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting Hanover (i ( haˈnoːfɐ on the river Leine, is the capital of the federal state of Lower Saxony ( Niedersachsen Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. "December 4th" redirects here For the song by Jay-Z, see December 4th (song. Year 1975 ( MCMLXXV) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. New York ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Politics Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions Metaphysics is the branch of Philosophy investigating principles of reality transcending those of any particular science Epistemology (from Greek επιστήμη - episteme, "knowledge" + λόγος, " Logos " or theory of knowledge Ancient Greek philosophy focused on the role of Reason and Inquiry. Technology is a broad concept that deals with a Species ' usage and knowledge of Tools and Crafts and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt In Philosophy, ontology (from the Greek, genitive: of being (part Modernity is a term that refers to the Modern era. It is distinct from Modernism, and in different contexts refers to cultural and intellectual movements of the Philosophy of history or historiosophy is an area of Philosophy concerning the eventual significance if any of human History. The Pre-Socratic Greek philosophers were active before Socrates or contemporaneously but expounding knowledge developed earlier SOCRATES is the European Community action programme in the field of Education. Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Jesus of Nazareth (7–2 BC / BCE —26–36 AD / CE) Paul the apostle (שאול התרסי Šaʾul HaTarsi, meaning " Saul of Tarsus " Σαούλ Saul and Σαῦλος Saulos and Charles-Louis de Secondat baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu (Eng Edmund Burke ( 12 January, 1729 9 July, 1797) was an Irish statesman author orator Political theorist, and Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg Martin Heidegger ( September 26, 1889 &ndash May 26, 1976) (ˈmaɐ̯tiːn ˈhaɪ̯dɛgɐ was an influential German philosopher Bertrand Arthur William Russell 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970 was a British Philosopher, Historian Karl Theodor Jaspers ( February 23, 1883 – February 26, 1969) was a German Psychiatrist and Philosopher who Walter Bendix Schönflies Benjamin ( July 15, 1892 &ndash September 27, 1940) was a German - Jewish Marxist Jürgen Habermas (ˈjʏʁgən ˈhaːbɐmaːs born June 18, 1929 is a German Philosopher and Sociologist in the tradition of Maurice Merleau-Ponty (mɔʁis mɛʁlopɔ̃ti in French March 14, 1908 – May 3, 1961) was a French phenomenological Giorgio Agamben (born 1942 in Rome) is an Italian philosopher who teaches at the Università IUAV di Venezia. Seyla Benhabib (born 1950 Istanbul) is a Turkish Jewish professor of Political science and philosophy at Yale and director of the Claude Lefort (born 1924 is a French philosopher and activist Elisabeth Young-Bruehl (born 3 March 1946 as Elisabeth Young) is an American academic and psychotherapist, currently a practicing Michael D Jackson (born 1940 is a Post-modern New Zealand anthropologist who has taught in the anthropology departments at the University of Copenhagen Hanna Fenichel Pitkin (born July 17, 1931) is a Political theorist. Michael Robert Marrus (born February 3, 1941) is a Canadian historian of France, The Holocaust and Jewish history. Quentin Robert Duthie Skinner (born 26 November 1940) is Regius Professor of Modern History at Cambridge University, and the Barber Beaumont John Greville Agard (JGA Pocock (born March 7[[ 924]] is a world-renowned Historian and expatriate New Zealander noted for his trenchant studies of Republicanism Philip Noel Pettit (born 1945 is an Irish Philosopher and Political theorist. Alain Finkielkraut (born in Paris on June 30 1949) is a French essayist and son of a Jewish Polish artisan manufacturing fine leather goods Julia Kristeva (Юлия Кръстева (born 24 June 1941) is a Bulgarian - French Philosopher, Literary critic, Richard Sennett (born Chicago, 1 January 1943) is the Centennial Professor of Sociology at the London School of Economics Events 1066 - Norman Conquest: Battle of Hastings - In England on Senlac Hill seven miles from Hastings, the forces Year 1906 ( MCMVI) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting "December 4th" redirects here For the song by Jay-Z, see December 4th (song. Year 1975 ( MCMLXXV) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. This is a list of political philosophers, including some who may be better known for their work in other areas of philosophy She has often been described as a philosopher, although she always refused that label on the grounds that philosophy is concerned with "man in the singular. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language " She described herself instead as a political theorist because her work centers on the fact that "men, not Man, live on the earth and inhabit the world. Political philosophy is the study of questions about the City, Government, Politics, Liberty, Justice, Property, Rights "

Contents

Biography

Hannah Arendt was born into a family of secular Jewish Germans in the city of Linden (now part of Hanover), and grew up in Königsberg and Berlin. PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ Hanover (i ( haˈnoːfɐ on the river Leine, is the capital of the federal state of Lower Saxony ( Niedersachsen Königsberg (Karaliaučius Low German: Königsbarg; Królewiec see also other names) was until 1946 the name of Kaliningrad. Berlin is the capital city and one of sixteen states of Germany.

At the University of Marburg, she studied philosophy with Martin Heidegger, with whom she embarked on a long, stormy and romantic relationship for which she was later criticized because of Heidegger's support for the Nazi party while he was rector of Freiburg University. The University of Marburg (Philipps-Universität Marburg 'Philip's University Marburg' was founded in 1527 by Landgrave Philip I of Hesse (usually Martin Heidegger ( September 26, 1889 &ndash May 26, 1976) (ˈmaɐ̯tiːn ˈhaɪ̯dɛgɐ was an influential German philosopher Nazism, which was a short name for National Socialism (Nationalsozialismus refers primarily to the Ideology and practices of the National Socialist German

In the wake of one of their breakups, Arendt moved to Heidelberg, where she wrote her dissertation on the concept of love in the thought of Saint Augustine, under the existentialist philosopher-psychologist Karl Jaspers. Heidelberg is a city in Baden-Württemberg, Germany. As of 2006 over 140000 people live within the city's area A dissertation (also called thesis or disquisition) is a document that presents the author's Research and findings and is submitted in support of candidature Karl Theodor Jaspers ( February 23, 1883 – February 26, 1969) was a German Psychiatrist and Philosopher who

She married Günther Stern, later known as Günther Anders, in 1929 in Berlin (they divorced in 1937). Günther Anders (born Günther Stern) ( Breslau, 12 July 1902 &ndash Vienna, 17 December 1992) was a German Günther Anders (born Günther Stern) ( Breslau, 12 July 1902 &ndash Vienna, 17 December 1992) was a German

The dissertation was published the same year, but Arendt was prevented from habilitating, a prerequisite for teaching in German universities, because she was Jewish. Habilitation is the highest academic qualification a person can achieve by their own pursuit in certain European and Asian countries She worked for some time researching anti-Semitism before being interrogated by the Gestapo, and thereupon fled Germany for Paris. Antisemitism (alternatively spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism; also rarely known as judeophobia) is the Prejudice against or hostility The ( contraction of ge heime Sta ats' po' lizei: "Secret State Police" was the official Secret police of Nazi Germany Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city Here she met and befriended the literary critic and Marxist philosopher Walter Benjamin, her first husband's cousin. Marxism is the political philosophy and practice derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Walter Bendix Schönflies Benjamin ( July 15, 1892 &ndash September 27, 1940) was a German - Jewish Marxist While in France, Arendt worked to support and aid Jewish refugees. She was imprisoned in Camp Gurs but was able to escape after a couple of weeks. Camp Gurs was an internment and refugee camp constructed by the French government in 1939

However, with the German military occupation of northern France during World War II, and the deportation of Jews to Nazi concentration camps, even by the Vichy collaborator regime in the unoccupied south, Arendt was forced to flee France. The German occupation of France in World War II occurred during the period between May 1940 to December 1944 See also List of Nazi-German concentration camps, Extermination camp Prior to and during World War II, Nazi Germany under Hitler maintained Vichy France, or the Vichy regime are the common terms used to describe the government of France from July 1940 to August 1944 In 1940, she married the German poet and Marxist philosopher Heinrich Blücher, by then a former Communist Party member. Marxism is the political philosophy and practice derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Heinrich Blücher ( 29 January 1899 &ndash 30 October 1970) was a German Poet and Philosopher.

In 1941, Arendt escaped with her husband and her mother to the United States with the assistance of the American diplomat Hiram Bingham IV, who illegally issued visas to her and around 2500 other Jewish refugees. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Hiram "Harry" Bingham IV ( July 17 1903 &ndash January 12 1988) was an American diplomat She then became active in the German-Jewish community in New York. In 1941-1945, she wrote a column for the German-language Jewish newspaper, Der Aufbau. From 1944, she directed research for the Commission of European Jewish Cultural Reconstruction and traveled frequently to Germany in this capacity. [1]

After World War II she returned to Germany and worked for Youth Aliyah. The Youth Aliyah (Hebrew Aliyat Hano'ar) is a Jewish organization that rescued 22000 Jewish children from the Nazis during the Third Reich, Later she resumed relations with Heidegger, and testified on his behalf in a German denazification hearing. Denazification (Entnazifizierung was an Allied initiative to rid German and Austrian society culture press economy judiciary and politics of any She became a close friend of Jaspers and his Jewish wife,[2] developing a deep intellectual friendship with him and began corresponding with Mary McCarthy. Mary Therese McCarthy ( June 21 1912 – October 25 1989) was an American Author and Critic. [3] In 1950, she became a naturalized citizen of the United States. Naturalization is the acquisition of Citizenship or Nationality by somebody who was not a citizen or national of that country when he or she was born [4] Arendt served as a visiting scholar at the University of California, Berkeley, Princeton University and Northwestern University. The University of California Berkeley (also referred to as Cal, Berkeley and UC Berkeley) is a major research university located in Berkeley Princeton University is a private Coeducational research university located in Princeton, New Jersey. She also served as a professor on the Committee on Social Thought at the University of Chicago, as well as at The New School in New York City, and served as a fellow at Yale University and Wesleyan University. The Committee on Social Thought, one of several PhD -granting committees at the University of Chicago, was started in 1941 by historian John U The University of Chicago is a Private university located principally in the Hyde Park neighborhood of Chicago. This is about the university in New York; for other uses see New School (disambiguation. This article concerns Wesleyan In 1959, she became the first woman appointed to a full professorship at Princeton.

On her death at age 69 in 1975, Arendt was buried at Bard College in Annandale-on-Hudson, New York, where her husband taught for many years. Bard College, founded in 1860 is a small selective four-year liberal arts college located in Annandale-on-Hudson, New York. Annandale-on-Hudson is a hamlet in Dutchess County, New York, USA, in the Hudson Valley in the Town of Red Hook, across

Hannah Arendt's gravestone at the Bard College cemetery in Annandale-on-Hudson, New York
Hannah Arendt's gravestone at the Bard College cemetery in Annandale-on-Hudson, New York

Arendt was instrumental in the creation of Structured Liberal Education (SLE) at Stanford University. Bard College, founded in 1860 is a small selective four-year liberal arts college located in Annandale-on-Hudson, New York. Annandale-on-Hudson is a hamlet in Dutchess County, New York, USA, in the Hudson Valley in the Town of Red Hook, across Structured Liberal Education (SLE (pronounced "slee" is an academically demanding program at Stanford University that offers an alternative three-course sequence Leland Stanford Junior University, commonly known as Stanford University or simply Stanford, is a private Research university located in She wrote a letter to the then president of Stanford University to convince the university to enact Mark Mancall's vision of a residentially-based humanities program.

Works

Arendt's work deals with the nature of power, and the subjects of politics, authority, and totalitarianism. Power is a measure of a person's ability to control the environment around them including the behavior of other people Politics Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions In Politics, authority ( Latin Auctoritas, used in Roman law as opposed to Potestas and Imperium Totalitarianism (or totalitarian rule) is a concept used to describe Political systems where a State regulates nearly every aspect of public and private Much of her work focuses on affirming a conception of freedom which is synonymous with collective political action among equals.

Arendt theorizes freedom as public and associative, drawing on examples from the Greek "polis", American townships, the Paris Commune, and the civil rights movements of the 1960s (among others) to illustrate this conception of freedom. A polis ( πόλις, pronunciation, in English-- plural poleis ( πόλεις, pronunciation, in English --is a City, a A township in the United States refers to a small geographic area The Paris Commune (La Commune de Paris was a Government that briefly ruled Paris from 18 March (more formally from 26 March) to 28 May See also Protests of 1968 Historically the civil rights movement was a concentrated period of time around the world of approximately twenty years (1960-1980 in

Another key concept in her work is "natality", the capacity to bring something new into the world, such as the founding of a government that endures.

Her first major book was The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951), which traced the roots of Stalinist Communism and Nazism in both anti-Semitism and imperialism. The Origins of Totalitarianism is a book by Hannah Arendt which classed Nazism and Stalinism as Totalitarian movements Stalinism is the political regime named after Joseph Stalin, leader of the Soviet Union from 1929–1953 Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based Nazism, which was a short name for National Socialism (Nationalsozialismus refers primarily to the Ideology and practices of the National Socialist German Antisemitism (alternatively spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism; also rarely known as judeophobia) is the Prejudice against or hostility Imperialism has two meanings one describing an action and the other describing an attitude The book was controversial because it suggested an essential identity between the two phenomena, which can be considered as completely separated in both origins and nature.

Arguably her most influential work, The Human Condition (1958) distinguishes between labour, work, and action, and explores the implications of these distinctions. The Human Condition, published in 1958 is one of the central theoretical works of the philosopher Hannah Arendt. Her theory of political action is extensively developed in this work.

Another of her important books is the collection of essays " Men in Dark Times". These intellectual biographies provide insight into the lives of some of the creative and moral figures of the twentieth - century among whom are: Walter Benjamin, Karl Jaspers, Hermann Broch, Pope John XXIII, Isak Dinesen. Walter Bendix Schönflies Benjamin ( July 15, 1892 &ndash September 27, 1940) was a German - Jewish Marxist Karl Theodor Jaspers ( February 23, 1883 – February 26, 1969) was a German Psychiatrist and Philosopher who Hermann Broch ( November 1, 1886 – May 30, 1951) was a 20th century Austrian writer considered one of the major Modernists Pope John (numberingBlessed Baroness Karen von Blixen-Finecke ( April 17, 1885 &ndash September 7, 1962) Née Karen Dinesen, was a

In her reporting of the Eichmann trial for The New Yorker, which evolved into Eichmann in Jerusalem (1963), she coined the phrase "the banality of evil" to describe Eichmann. The New Yorker is an American Magazine that publishes reportage commentary criticism essays fiction satire cartoons and poetry Eichmann in Jerusalem A Report on the Banality of Evil is a book written by political theorist Hannah Arendt, originally published in 1963 The Banality of Evil is a phrase coined in 1963 by Hannah Arendt in her work Eichmann in Jerusalem. She raised the question of whether evil is radical or simply a function of banality - the tendency of ordinary people to obey orders and conform to mass opinion without critically thinking about the results of their action or inaction. Evil, in many cultures is used to describe acts or thoughts which are contrary to some particular religion The Banality of Evil is a phrase coined in 1963 by Hannah Arendt in her work Eichmann in Jerusalem. Arendt was extremely critical of the way that Israel conducted the trial. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. She was also critical of the way that many Jewish leaders acted during the Holocaust, which caused an enormous controversy and resulted in a great deal of animosity directed toward Arendt within the Jewish community. The Holocaust (from the Greek el ''ὁλόκαυστον'' (el-Latn holókauston holos, "completely" and kaustos, "burnt" also known as Her friend Gershom Scholem, a major scholar of Jewish Mysticism, broke off relations with her. Gerschom Scholem ( December 5, 1897 &ndash February 21, 1982) also known as Gerhard Scholem, was a Jewish philosopher and Kabbalah (קַבָּלָה lit "receiving" is a discipline and school of thought discussing the mystical aspect of Judaism. She was criticized by many Jewish public figures for her coldness and lack of sympathy for the victims of the Shoah. Her book has only recently been translated into Hebrew. Arendt ended the book by endorsing the execution of Eichmann, writing: "Just as you supported and carried out a policy of not wanting to share the earth with the Jewish people and the people of a number of other nations - as though you and your superiors had any right to determine who should and who should not inhabit the world - we find that no one, that is, no member of the human race, can be expected to want to share the earth with you. This is the reason, and the only reason, you must hang. "

Arendt published another book in the same year that was controversial in its own right: On Revolution, a study of the two most famous revolutions of the 18th century. A revolution (from the Latin revolutio, "a turnaround" is a fundamental change in power or organizational structures that takes place in a relatively Arendt went against the grain of Marxist and leftist thought by contending that the American Revolution was a successful revolution while the French Revolution was not. Marxism is the political philosophy and practice derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. In this article the inhabitants of the thirteen colonies that supported the American Revolution are primarily referred to as "Americans" with occasional references to "Patriots" The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an Some saw in this argument a post-Holocaust anti-French sentiment. Nevertheless, it echoed that of Edmund Burke. Edmund Burke ( 12 January, 1729 9 July, 1797) was an Irish statesman author orator Political theorist, and Arendt also argued that the revolutionary spirit had not been preserved in America because the majority of people had no role to play in politics other than voting. She admired Thomas Jefferson's idea of dividing the counties into townships, similar to the soviets that appeared during the Russian Revolution. Thomas Jefferson (April 13 1743 – July 4 1826 was the third President of the United States (1801–1809 the principal author of the Declaration of Independence A soviet (сове́т, "council" originally was a workers' local council in late Imperial Russia. See also Russian Revolution (1905 The Russian Revolution of 1916 refers to a series of popular revolutions in Russia, and the events surrounding them Arendt's interest in such a "council system", which she saw as the only alternative to the state, continued all her life.

Her posthumous book, The Life of the Mind (1978, edited by Mary McCarthy), was incomplete at her death. Mary Therese McCarthy ( June 21 1912 – October 25 1989) was an American Author and Critic. Stemming from her Gifford Lectures at the University of Aberdeen in Scotland, this book focuses on the mental faculties of thinking and willing (in a sense moving beyond her previous work concerning the vita activa). The Gifford Lectures were established by the will of Adam Lord Gifford (died 1887) The University of Aberdeen is an Ancient university founded in 1495, in Old Aberdeen, Scotland. In her discussion of thinking, she focuses mainly on Socrates and his notion of thinking as a solitary dialogue between me and myself. SOCRATES is the European Community action programme in the field of Education. This appropriation of Socrates leads her to introduce novel concepts of conscience (which gives no positive prescriptions, but instead tells me what I cannot do if I would remain friends with myself when I re-enter the two-in-one of thought where I must render an account of my actions to myself) and morality (an entirely negative enterprise concerned with non-participation in certain actions for the sake of remaining friends with one's self). In her volume on Willing, Arendt, relying heavily on Augustine's notion of the will, discusses the will as an absolutely free mental faculty that makes new beginnings possible. In the third volume, Arendt was planning to engage the faculty of judgment by appropriating Kant's Critique of Judgment, however she did not live to write it. Nevertheless, although we will never fully understand her notion of judging, Arendt did leave us with manuscripts ("Thinking and Moral Considerations", "Some Questions on Moral Philosophy,") and lectures (Lectures on Kant's Political Philosophy ) concerning her thoughts on this mental faculty. The first two articles were edited and published by Jerome Kohn, who was an assistant of Arendt and is a director of Hannah Arendt Library, and the last was edited and published by Ronald Beiner, who was taught by Arendt and is a professor of political science at the University of Toronto. Her papers were deposited at Bard College at the Stevenson Library in 1976, and comprise approximately 4,000 books, ephemera, and pamphlets from Arendt's last apartment. The college has begun digitally archiving some of the collection, available at http://www.bard.edu/arendtcollection/

Commemoration

German stamp issued in 1988 in the Women in German history series
German stamp issued in 1988 in the Women in German history series

Selected works

Further reading

Notes

  1. ^ Human, citizen, Jew - Haaretz - Israel News
  2. ^ Hannah Arendt & Karl Jaspers (1992) Correspondence 1926-1969, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, ISBN 0-15-107887-4
  3. ^ Hannah Arendt & Mary McCarthy (1995) Between Friends: The Correspondence of Hannah Arendt and Mary McCarthy 1949-1975, Secker & Warburg, ISBN 0-436-20251-4
  4. ^ Dear Hannah - Haaretz - Israel News
  5. ^ All aboard the Arendt express, Haaretz, 4 May 2007

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Persondata
NAME Arendt, Hannah
ALTERNATIVE NAMES
SHORT DESCRIPTION Jewish-American political theorist
DATE OF BIRTH October 14, 1906
PLACE OF BIRTH Linden, Germany
DATE OF DEATH December 4, 1975
PLACE OF DEATH New York, United States

Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut The United States of America —commonly referred to as the This is a list of political philosophers, including some who may be better known for their work in other areas of philosophy Events 1066 - Norman Conquest: Battle of Hastings - In England on Senlac Hill seven miles from Hastings, the forces Year 1906 ( MCMVI) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. "December 4th" redirects here For the song by Jay-Z, see December 4th (song. Year 1975 ( MCMLXXV) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. New York ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous The United States of America —commonly referred to as the
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