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Nuclear reactors line the riverbank at the Hanford Site along the Columbia River. The N-Reactor is in the foreground, with the twin KE and KW Reactors in the immediate background. The historic B-Reactor, the world's first plutonium production reactor, is visible in the distance.
Nuclear reactors line the riverbank at the Hanford Site along the Columbia River. The Columbia River (known as The N-Reactor is in the foreground, with the twin KE and KW Reactors in the immediate background. The N-Reactor was a graphite- moderated Nuclear reactor constructed during the Cold War and operated by the U The historic B-Reactor, the world's first plutonium production reactor, is visible in the distance.
"Hanford" redirects here. For other uses, see Hanford (disambiguation).

The Hanford Site is a decommissioned nuclear production complex on the Columbia River in south-central Washington operated by the United States government. The Columbia River (known as Washington ( is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The site has been known by many names, including Hanford Works, Hanford Engineer Works, Hanford Nuclear Reservation, and the Hanford Project. Established in 1943 as part of the Manhattan Project, it was home to the B-Reactor, the first full-scale plutonium production reactor in the world. The World War II Manhattan Project developed the first Nuclear weapon (atomic bomb [1] Plutonium manufactured at the site was used in the first nuclear bomb, tested at the Trinity site, and in Fat Man, the bomb detonated over Nagasaki, Japan. A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from Nuclear reactions either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Trinity was the first test of technology for a Nuclear weapon. "Fat Man" is the codename for the Atomic bomb that was detonated over Nagasaki, Japan, by the United States on August 9 The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were nuclear attacks near the end of World War II against the Empire of Japan by the United States at

During the Cold War, the project was expanded to include nine nuclear reactors and five massive plutonium processing complexes, which produced plutonium for most of the 60,000 weapons in the U.S. nuclear arsenal. Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the This article is a subarticle of Nuclear power. A nuclear reactor is a device in which Nuclear chain reactions are initiated controlled Nuclear reprocessing separates components of Spent nuclear fuel such as Reprocessed uranium Plutonium Minor The United States was the first country in the world to develop Nuclear weapons, and is the only country to have used them as actual weapons, [2][3] Nuclear technology developed rapidly during this period, and Hanford scientists produced many notable technological achievements. Nuclear technology is technology that involves the reactions of atomic nuclei. However, many of the early safety procedures and waste disposal practices were inadequate. Government documents have since confirmed that Hanford's operations released significant amounts of radioactive materials to the air and to the Columbia River, which threatened the health of residents and ecosystems. Radioactive contamination is the uncontrolled distribution of radioactive material in a given environment An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants animals and micro-organisms( Biotic factors in an area functioning together with all of the non-living physical ( [4]

The weapons production reactors were decommissioned at the end of the Cold War, but the manufacturing process left behind 53 million U. S. gallons (204,000 m³) of high-level radioactive waste that remains at the site. High level waste (HLW is a type of Nuclear waste that arises from the use of uranium fuel in a Nuclear reactor and Nuclear weapons processing Radioactive wastes are Waste types containing radioactive Chemical elements that do not have a practical purpose [5] This represents two-thirds of the nation's high-level radioactive waste by volume. [6] Today, Hanford is the most contaminated nuclear site in the United States[7][8] and is the focus of the nation's largest environmental cleanup. Generally remediation means providing a Remedy, so environmental remediation deals with the removal of Pollution or Contaminants from environmental [2] While most of the current activity at the site is related to the cleanup project, Hanford also hosts a commercial nuclear power plant, the Columbia Generating Station, and various centers for scientific research and development, such as the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory and the LIGO Hanford Observatory. The Columbia Generating Station, a Nuclear power station, is a Uranium -fueled General Electric Boiling water reactor located on the United The Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL is one of nine United States Department of Energy (DOE multiprogram national laboratories. For the Latvian holiday Ligo see Jāņi. LIGO stands for Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory.


Contents

Geography

A map shows the main areas of the Hanford site, as well as the buffer zone that was turned over to the Hanford Reach National Monument in 2000. (See also this virtual tour of the site.)
A map shows the main areas of the Hanford site, as well as the buffer zone that was turned over to the Hanford Reach National Monument in 2000. The Hanford Reach National Monument is a national monument in the U (See also this virtual tour of the site. )

The Hanford Site occupies 586 square miles (1,518 km²) in Benton County, Washington (centered on 46°30′00″N 119°30′00″W / 46.5, -119.5 (Hanford Site)Coordinates: 46°30′00″N 119°30′00″W / 46.5, -119.5 (Hanford Site)), roughly equivalent to half the total area of Rhode Island. Benton County is a County located in the south-central portion of the U A geographic coordinate system enables every location on the Earth to be specified in three coordinates using mainly a spherical coordinate system. Rhode Island ( officially named the State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, is a state in the New England region of the United States [2] This land is currently uninhabited and is closed to the general public. It is a semi-desert environment, covered mostly by shrub-steppe vegetation. A Semi-arid climate or steppe climate generally describes climatic regions that receive low annual Rainfall (250-500 mm or 10-20 in Shrub-steppe is a type of low rainfall natural Grassland. Shrub-steppes are distinguishable from deserts which are too dry to support a noticeable cover of perennial grasses The Columbia River flows along the site for approximately 50 miles (80 km), forming its northern and eastern boundary. [9] The original site was 670 square miles (1,735 km²) and included buffer areas across the river in Grant and Franklin counties. Grant County is a County located in the US state of Washington. Franklin County is a County located in the US state of Washington. [10] Some of this land has been returned to private use and is now covered with orchards and irrigated fields. In 2000, large portions of the site were turned over to the Hanford Reach National Monument. The Hanford Reach National Monument is a national monument in the U [11] The site is divided by function into three main areas. The nuclear reactors were located along the river in an area designated as the 100 Area; the chemical separations complexes were located inland in the Central Plateau, designated as the 200 Area; and various support facilities were located in the southeast corner of the site, designated as the 300 Area. [12]

The site is bordered on the southeast by the Tri-Cities, a metropolitan area composed of Richland, Kennewick, Pasco, and smaller communities, and home to nearly 200,000 residents. The Tri-Cities is a metropolitan area in the southeastern part of the U Richland is a city in Benton County in the southeastern part of the U Kennewick is a city in Benton County in the southeastern part of the U Pasco (ˈpæskoʊ is a city in and the County seat of Franklin County, Washington, United States. Hanford is the primary economic base for these cities. [13]

Early history

The confluence of the Yakima, Snake, and Columbia Rivers has been a meeting place for native peoples for centuries. The Yakima River is a tributary of the Columbia River in south central and eastern Washington State named for the indigenous Yakama people The Snake River is a major Tributary of the Columbia River in the U The archaeological record of Native American habitation of this area stretches back over ten thousand years. Native Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples from the regions of North America now encompassed by the continental United States Tribes and nations including the Yakama, Nez Perce, and Umatilla used the area for hunting, fishing, and gathering plant foods. The Confederated Tribes and Bands of the Yakama Nation, or simply Yakama Nation (formerly Yakima) is a Native American group with nearly 10000 enrolled The Nez Perce (ˌnɛzˈpɝs are a Tribe of Native Americans who live in the Pacific Northwest region ( Columbia River Plateau) of the United The Umatilla are a Sahaptin -speaking Native American group living on the Umatilla Indian Reservation, who traditionally inhabited the Columbia Plateau [14] Hanford archaeologists have identified numerous Native American sites, including "pit house villages, open campsites, fishing sites, hunting/kill sites, game drive complexes, quarries, and spirit quest sites",[15] and two archaeological sites were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1976. The National Register of Historic Places (NRHP is the United States government's official list of districts sites buildings structures and objects deemed worthy of [16] Native American use of the area continued into the 20th century, even as the tribes were relocated to reservations. An Indian reservation is an area of land managed by a Native American Tribe under the United States Department of the Interior's Bureau The Wanapum people were never forced onto a reservation, and they lived along the Columbia River in the Priest Rapids Valley until 1943. The Wanapum tribe of Native Americans formerly lived along the Columbia River from above Priest Rapids down to the mouth of the Snake River in Priest Rapids was a narrow fast-flowing stretch of the Columbia River, located in the central region of the U [17] Euro-Americans began to settle the region in the 1860s, initially along the Columbia River south of Priest Rapids. They established farms and orchards supported by small-scale irrigation projects and railroad transportation, with small town centers at Hanford, White Bluffs, and Richland. Hanford was a small agricultural community in Benton County Washington. White Bluffs was an agricultural Town in Benton County Washington. Richland is a city in Benton County in the southeastern part of the U [18]

Manhattan Project

Main article: Manhattan Project

During World War II, the Uranium Committee of the federal Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD) sponsored an intensive research project on plutonium. The World War II Manhattan Project developed the first Nuclear weapon (atomic bomb World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including The S-1 Uranium Committee was a Committee of the National Defense Research Committee that superseded the Briggs Advisory Committee on Uranium and later evolved into The Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD was an agency of the United States federal government created to coordinate scientific research for military purposes The research contract was awarded to scientists at the University of Chicago Metallurgical Laboratory (Met Lab). The Metallurgical Laboratory or "Met Lab" at the University of Chicago was part of the World War II –era Manhattan Project, created by the At the time, plutonium was a rare element that had only recently been isolated in a University of California laboratory. The University of California ( UC) is a Public university system in the state of California. The Met Lab researchers worked on producing chain-reacting "piles" of uranium to convert it to plutonium and finding ways to separate plutonium from uranium. Uranium (jʊˈreɪniəm is a silvery-gray Metallic Chemical element in the The program was accelerated in 1942, as the United States government became concerned that scientists in Nazi Germany were developing a nuclear weapons program. Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers [19]

Site selection

Hanford High School, shown before residents were displaced by the creation of the Hanford site
Hanford High School, shown before residents were displaced by the creation of the Hanford site
Hanford High after abandonment
Hanford High after abandonment

In September 1942, the Army Corps of Engineers placed the newly formed Manhattan Project under the command of General Leslie R. Groves, charging him with the construction of industrial-size plants for manufacturing plutonium and uranium. The United States Army Corps of Engineers ( USACE) is a federal agency and a major Army command made up of some 34600 Civilian and 650 Military personnel Lieutenant General Leslie Richard Groves ( August 17, 1896 &ndash July 13, 1970) was a United States Army Engineer [20] Groves recruited the DuPont Company to be the prime contractor for the construction of the plutonium production complex. E I du Pont de Nemours and Company (,) is an American chemical company that was founded in July 1802 as a Gunpowder mill by Eleuthère Irénée DuPont recommended that it be located far away from the existing uranium production facility at Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Oak Ridge is an incorporated City in Anderson and Roane Counties in East Tennessee, USA, about 25 miles northwest of The ideal site was described by these criteria:[21]

In December 1942, Groves dispatched his assistant Colonel Franklin T. Matthias and DuPont engineers to scout potential sites. Franklin T Matthias (1908-1993 was an American Engineer who directed construction of the Hanford nuclear site, a key facility of the Manhattan Project Matthias reported that Hanford was "ideal in virtually all respects," except for the farming towns of White Bluffs and Hanford. White Bluffs was an agricultural Town in Benton County Washington. Hanford was a small agricultural community in Benton County Washington. [22] General Groves visited the site in January and established the Hanford Engineer Works, codenamed "Site W". The federal government quickly acquired the land under its eminent domain authority and forcefully removed some 1,500 residents of Hanford, White Bluffs, and nearby settlements, as well as the Wanapum and other tribes using the area. Eminent domain ( United States) compulsory purchase ( United Kingdom, New Zealand, Ireland) resumption/compulsory acquisition [23]

Construction begins

B-Reactor construction (1944)
B-Reactor construction (1944)

The Hanford Engineer Works (HEW) broke ground in March 1943 and immediately launched a massive and technically challenging construction project. [24] Nearly 50,000 workers lived in a construction camp near the old Hanford townsite, while administrators and engineers lived in the government town established at Richland Village. [25] Construction of the nuclear facilities proceeded rapidly. Before the end of the war in August 1945, the HEW built 554 buildings at Hanford, including three nuclear reactors (105-B, 105-D, and 105-F) and three plutonium processing canyons (221-T, 221-B, and 221-U), each 250 metres (820 ft) long.

To receive the radioactive wastes from the chemical separations process, the HEW built "tank farms" consisting of 64 single-shell underground waste tanks (241-B, 241-C, 241-T, and 241-U). [26] The project required 386 miles (621 km) of roads, 158 miles (254 km) of railway, and four electrical substations. The HEW used 780,000 cubic yards (600,000 m³) of concrete and 40,000 short tons (36,300 MT) of structural steel and consumed $230 million between 1943 and 1946. This article is about the tonne or metric ton For other tons see Ton. [27]

Plutonium production

Further information: B-Reactor

The B-Reactor (105-B) at Hanford was the first large-scale plutonium production reactor in the world. It was designed and built by DuPont based on an experimental design by Enrico Fermi, and originally operated at 250 megawatts. The watt (symbol W) is the SI derived unit of power, equal to one Joule of energy per Second. The reactor was graphite moderated and water cooled. The Mineral graphite, as with Diamond and Fullerene, is one of the Allotropes of carbon. It consisted of a 28- by 36-foot (8. 5- by 11-meter), 1,200-ton graphite cylinder lying on its side, penetrated through its entire length horizontally by 2,004 aluminum tubes. WikipediaNaming [28] Two hundred short tons (181 MT) of uranium slugs the size of rolls of quarters and sealed in aluminum cans went into the tubes. Cooling water was pumped through the aluminum tubes around the uranium slugs at the rate of 30,000 US gallons (110,000 L) per minute. Water cooling is a method of Heat removal from components As opposed to Air cooling, Water is used as the heat transmitter The litre or liter (see spelling differences) is a unit of Volume. [28]

Front face of the B-Reactor
Front face of the B-Reactor

Construction on the B-Reactor began in August 1943 and was completed just over a year later, on September 13, 1944. Events 509 BC - The Temple of Jupiter on Rome 's Capitoline Hill is dedicated on the ides of September Year 1944 ( MCMXLIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The reactor went critical in late September and, after overcoming nuclear poisoning, produced its first plutonium on November 6, 1944. A critical mass is the smallest amount of Fissile material needed for a sustained Nuclear chain reaction. A nuclear poison, also called a neutron poison is a substance with a large neutron absorption cross-section in applications such as Nuclear reactors Events 355 - Roman Emperor Constantius II promotes his cousin Julian to the rank of Caesar, entrusting him with Year 1944 ( MCMXLIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [29] Plutonium was produced in the Hanford reactors when a Uranium-238 atom in a fuel slug absorbed a neutron to form Uranium-239. Uranium-238 (U-238 is the most common isotope of Uranium found in nature This article is a discussion of neutrons in general For the specific case of a neutron found outside the nucleus see Free neutron. Uranium-239 is an isotope of uranium. It is usually produced by exposing Uranium-238 to Neutron Radiation in a nuclear reactor U-239 rapidly undergoes beta decay to form Neptunium-239, which rapidly undergoes a second beta decay to form Plutonium-239. In Nuclear physics, beta decay is a type of Radioactive decay in which a Beta particle (an Electron or a Positron) is emitted Neptunium ( Np) has no stable isotopes A standard atomic mass cannot be given Plutonium-239 is an Isotope of Plutonium. Plutonium-239 is the primary Fissile isotope used for the production of Nuclear weapons although The irradiated fuel slugs were transported by rail to three huge remotely operated chemical separation plants called "canyons" that were located about 10 miles (16 km) away. A series of chemical processing steps separated the small amount of plutonium that was produced from the remaining uranium and the fission waste products. This first batch of plutonium was refined in the 221-T plant from December 26, 1944, to February 2, 1945, and delivered to the Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico on February 5, 1945. Events 1481 - Battle of Westbrook - Holland defeats troops of Utrecht. Year 1944 ( MCMXLIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 962 - Translatio imperii: Pope John XII crowns Otto I Holy Roman Emperor, the first Holy Roman Emperor Year 1945 ( MCMXLV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL (previously known at various times as Site Y, Los Alamos Laboratory, and Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory) is a New Mexico ( is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States of America. Events 1576 - Henry of Navarre converts to Roman Catholicism in order to ensure his right to the throne of France. Year 1945 ( MCMXLV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar [30]

Two identical reactors, the D-Reactor and the F-reactor, came online in December 1944 and February 1945, respectively. By April 1945, shipments of plutonium were headed to Los Alamos every five days, and Hanford soon provided enough material for the bombs dropped at Trinity and Nagasaki. Trinity was the first test of technology for a Nuclear weapon. "Fat Man" is the codename for the Atomic bomb that was detonated over Nagasaki, Japan, by the United States on August 9 [31] Throughout this period, the Manhattan Project maintained a top secret classification. Until news arrived of the bomb dropped on Hiroshima, fewer than one percent of Hanford's workers knew they were working on a nuclear weapons project. The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were nuclear attacks near the end of World War II against the Empire of Japan by the United States at [32] General Groves noted in his memoirs that "We made certain that each member of the project thoroughly understood his part in the total effort; that, and nothing more. "[33]

Technological innovations

In the short time frame of the Manhattan Project, Hanford engineers produced many significant technological advances. As no one had ever built an industrial-scale reactor before, scientists were unsure how much heat would be generated by fission during normal operations. Seeking the greatest margin of error, DuPont engineers installed ammonia-based refrigeration systems with the D and F reactors to further chill the river water before its use as reactor coolant. Ammonia is a compound with the formula N[[hydrogen H3]] It is normally encountered as a Gas with a characteristic pungent Odor Refrigeration is the process of removing Heat from an enclosed space or from a substance and moving it to a place where it is unobjectionable [34]

Another issue the engineers struggled with was how to deal with radioactive contamination. Once the canyons began processing irradiated slugs, the machinery would become so radioactive that it would be unsafe for humans ever to come in contact with it. The engineers therefore had to devise methods to allow for the replacement of any component via remote control. They came up with a modular cell concept, which allowed major components to be removed and replaced by an operator sitting in a heavily shielded overhead crane. This method required early practical application of two technologies that later gained widespread use: Teflon, used as a gasket material, and closed-circuit television, used to give the crane operator a better view of the process. In Chemistry, poly(tetrafluoroethene or poly(tetrafluoroethylene ( PTFE) is a synthetic Fluoropolymer which finds numerous applications Closed-circuit television ( CCTV) is the use of Video cameras to transmit a signal to a specific place limited set of monitors [35]

Cold War expansion

Decommissioning the D-Reactor
Decommissioning the D-Reactor

In September 1946, the General Electric Company assumed management of the Hanford Works under the supervision of the newly created Atomic Energy Commission. The United States Atomic Energy Commission (AEC was an agency of the United States government established after World War II by Congress to foster and control As the Cold War began, the United States faced a new strategic threat in the rise of the Soviet nuclear weapons program. The Soviet project to develop an atomic bomb began during World War II in the Soviet Union. In August 1947, the Hanford Works announced funding for the construction of two new weapons reactors and research leading to the development of a new chemical separations process. With this announcement, Hanford entered a new phase of expansion. [36]

By 1963, the Hanford Site was home to nine nuclear reactors along the Columbia River, five reprocessing plants on the central plateau, and more than 900 support buildings and radiological laboratories around the site. [2] Extensive modifications and upgrades were made to the original three World War II reactors, and a total of 177 underground waste tanks were built. [2] Hanford was at its peak production from 1956 to 1965. Over the entire 40 years of operations, the site produced about 63 short tons (57 MT) of plutonium, supplying the majority of the 60,000 weapons in the U. S. arsenal. [2][3]

Decommissioning

Most of the reactors were shut down between 1964 and 1971, with an average individual life span of 22 years. The last reactor, the N-reactor, continued to operate as a dual-purpose reactor, being both a power reactor used to feed the civilian electrical grid via the Washington Public Power Supply System (WPPSS) and a plutonium production reactor for nuclear weapons. The N-Reactor was a graphite- moderated Nuclear reactor constructed during the Cold War and operated by the U Energy Northwest is a municipal corporation in Washington state tasked with the building and operation of power plants The N-Reactor operated until 1987. Since then, most of the Hanford reactors have been entombed ("cocooned") to allow the radioactive materials to decay, and the surrounding structures have been removed and buried. [37] The B-Reactor has not been cocooned and is accessible to the public on occasional guided tours. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1992,[38] and some historians advocate converting it into a museum. [39][40]

Weapons Production Reactors[41]
Reactor nameStart-up dateShutdown dateInitial power (MWt)Final power (MWt)
B-ReactorSeptember 1944February 19682502210
D-ReactorDecember 1944June 19672502165
F-ReactorFebruary 1945June 19652502040
H-ReactorOctober 1949April 19654002140
DR-ReactorOctober 1950December 19642502015
C-ReactorNovember 1952April 19696502500
KW-ReactorJanuary 1955February 197018004400
KE-ReactorApril 1955January 197118004400
N-ReactorDecember 1963January 198740004000

Contemporary Hanford

Highway sign on a road entering the Hanford Site
Highway sign on a road entering the Hanford Site

The United States Department of Energy assumed control of the Hanford Site in 1977. The United States Department of Energy ( DOE) is a Cabinet -level department of the United States government responsible for energy policy Although uranium enrichment and plutonium breeding were slowly phased out, the nuclear legacy left an indelible mark on the Tri-Cities. Since World War II, the area had developed from a small farming community to a booming "Atomic Frontier" to a powerhouse of the nuclear-industrial complex. [42] Decades of federal investment created a community of highly skilled scientists and engineers. As a result of this concentration of specialized skills, the Hanford site was able to diversify its operations to include scientific research, test facilities, and commercial nuclear power production.

Some of the facilities currently located at the Hanford Site:

Environmental concerns

The Hanford Reach of the Columbia River, where radioactivity was released from 1944 to 1971
The Hanford Reach of the Columbia River, where radioactivity was released from 1944 to 1971

A huge volume of water from the Columbia River was required to dissipate the heat produced by Hanford's nuclear reactors. The Hanford Reach is a free-flowing section of the Columbia River in Eastern Washington State named after a large Northward bend in the river's otherwise Southbound The Columbia River (known as From 1944 to 1971, pump systems drew cooling water from the river and, after treating this water for use by the reactors, returned it to the river. Before being released back into the river, the used water was held in large tanks known as retention basins for up to six hours. Longer-lived isotopes were not affected by this retention, and several terabecquerels entered the river every day. Isotopes (Greek isos = "equal" tópos = "site place" are any of the different types of atoms ( Nuclides The becquerel (symbol Bq) is the SI derived unit of radioactivity. By 1957, the eight plutonium production reactors at Hanford dumped a daily average of 50,000 curies of radioactive material into the Columbia. A CURIE (short for Compact URI) is an abbreviated URI expressed in CURIE syntax and may be found in both XML and non-XML grammars [43] These releases were kept secret by the federal government. [4] Radiation was later measured downstream as far west as the Washington and Oregon coasts. Oregon ( is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. [44]

The plutonium separation process also resulted in the release of radioactive isotopes into the air, which were carried by the wind throughout southeastern Washington and into parts of Idaho, Montana, Oregon, and British Columbia. The State of Idaho ( is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States of America. Montana ( is a state in the Western United States. One-third of the state in the western part contains numerous mountain ranges (approximately 77 named of the northern British Columbia (ˌbrɪtɨʃ kəˈlʌmbiə ( BC) ( (la Colombie-Britannique C [4] Downwinders were exposed to radionuclides, particularly iodine-131, with the heaviest releases during the period from 1945 to 1951. Downwinders refers to individuals and communities who are exposed to Radioactive contamination and/or Nuclear fallout from atmospheric and/or underground Nuclear A radionuclide is an Atom with an unstable nucleus, which is a nucleus characterized by excess energy which is available to be imparted either to a newly-created Iodine-131 (131I, also called radioiodine, is a Radioisotope of Iodine which has medical and pharmaceutical uses These radionuclides filtered into the food chain via contaminated fields where dairy cows grazed; hazardous fallout was ingested by communities who consumed the radioactive food and drank the milk. Dairy Cattle, generally of the species Bos taurus, are Domesticated Animals bred to produce large quantities of Milk Most of these airborne releases were a part of Hanford's routine operations, while a few of the larger releases occurred in isolated incidents. In 1949, an intentional release known as the "Green Run" released 8,000 curies of iodine-131 over two days. [45] Another source of contaminated food came from Columbia River fish, an impact felt disproportionately by Native American communities who depended on the river for their customary diets. Native Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples from the regions of North America now encompassed by the continental United States [4]

Salmon spawning in the Hanford Reach near the H-Reactor
Salmon spawning in the Hanford Reach near the H-Reactor

Beginning in the 1960s, scientists with the U.S. Public Health Service published reports about radioactivity released from Hanford, and there were protests from the health departments of Oregon and Washington. Salmon is the common name for several species of Fish of the family Salmonidae. Organization of the Public Health Service The Public Health Service Act placed the United States Public Health Service ( PHS) as the primary division By February 1986, mounting citizen pressure forced the Department of Energy to release to the public 19,000 pages of previously unavailable historical documents about Hanford’s operations. [4] The Washington State Department of Health collaborated with the citizen-led Hanford Health Information Network (HHIN) to publicize data about the health effects of Hanford’s operations. HHIN reports concluded that residents who lived downwind from Hanford or who used the Columbia River downstream were exposed to elevated doses of radiation that placed them at increased risk for various cancers and other diseases. [4] A class-action lawsuit brought by two thousand Hanford downwinders against the federal government has been in the court system for many years. In Law, a class action or a representative action is a form of Lawsuit where a large group of people collectively bring a claim to court [46] The first six plaintiffs went to trial in 2005, in a bellwether trial to test the legal issues applying to the remaining plaintiffs in the suit. A bellwether is any entity in a given arena that serves to create or influence trends or to presage future happenings [47]

Cleanup era

Image of the surface of waste found inside double-shell tank 101-SY at the Hanford Site, April 1989
Image of the surface of waste found inside double-shell tank 101-SY at the Hanford Site, April 1989

In 1989, the Washington Department of Ecology, the federal Environmental Protection Agency, and the Department of Energy entered into the Tri-Party Agreement, which provides a legal framework for environmental remediation at Hanford. The Washington Department of Ecology, or simply Ecology, is an environmental regulatory agency for the State of Washington. [8] The agencies are currently engaged in the world's largest environmental cleanup, with many challenges to be resolved in the face of overlapping technical, political, regulatory, and cultural interests. The cleanup effort is focused on three outcomes: restoring the Columbia River corridor for other uses, converting the central plateau to long-term waste treatment and storage, and preparing for the future. [48] The cleanup effort is managed by the Department of Energy under the oversight of the two regulatory agencies. A citizen-led Hanford Advisory Board provides recommendations from community stakeholders, including local and state governments, regional environmental organizations, business interests, and Native American tribes. [49] In recent years, the federal government has spent about $2 billion annually on the Hanford project. [50] About 11,000 workers are on site to consolidate, clean up, and mitigate waste, contaminated buildings, and contaminated soil. [5] Originally scheduled to be complete within thirty years, the cleanup was less than half finished by 2008. [50]

While major releases of radioactive material ended with the reactor shutdown in the 1970s, parts of the Hanford site remain heavily contaminated. Many of the most dangerous wastes are contained, but there are concerns about contaminated groundwater headed toward the Columbia River. There are also continued concerns about workers' health and safety. [50]

The most significant challenge at Hanford is stabilizing the 53 million U. S.  gallons (204,000 m³) of high-level radioactive waste stored in 177 underground tanks. About a third of these tanks have leaked waste into the soil and groundwater. [51] As of 2008, most of the liquid waste has been transferred to more secure double-shelled tanks; however, 2. 8 million US gallons (10,599 m³) of liquid waste, together with 27 million US gallons (102,206 m³) of salt cake and sludge, remains in the single-shelled tanks. [5] That waste was originally scheduled to be removed by 2018. The revised deadline is 2040. [50] Nearby aquifers contain an estimated 270 billion US gallons (1 billion m³) of contaminated groundwater as a result of the leaks. [52] As of 2008, 1 million US gallons (3,785 m³) of highly radioactive waste is traveling through the groundwater toward the Columbia River. This waste is expected to reach the river in 12 to 50 years if cleanup does not proceed on schedule. [5] The site also includes 25 million cubic feet (707,921 m³) of solid radioactive waste. [52]

Grand opening of the Environmental Restoration Disposal Facility (ERDF)
Grand opening of the Environmental Restoration Disposal Facility (ERDF)

Under the Tri-Party Agreement, lower-level hazardous wastes are buried in huge lined pits that will be sealed and monitored with sophisticated instruments for many years. Disposal of plutonium and other high-level wastes is a more difficult problem that continues to be a subject of intense debate. As an example, plutonium has a half-life of 24,100 years, and a decay of ten half-lives is required before a sample is considered to be safe. Half-Life (computer-game page here It's already listed in the disambiguation page [53][54] The Department of Energy is currently building a vitrification plant on the Hanford site. Vitrification is a process of converting a material into a Glass -like Amorphous solid that is free from any Crystalline structure either by the quick removal Vitrification is a method designed to combine these dangerous wastes with glass to render them stable. Bechtel, the San Francisco based construction and engineering firm, has been hired to construct the vitrification plant, which is currently estimated to cost approximately $12 billion. Bechtel Corporation ( Bechtel Group) is the largest Engineering company in the United States, ranking as the 9th-largest privately owned company in the Construction began in 2001. After some delays, the plant is now scheduled to be operational in 2019, with vitrification completed in 2047. It was originally scheduled to be operational by 2011, with vitrification completed by 2028. [55][50]

In May 2007, state and federal officials began closed-door negotiations about the possibility of extending legal cleanup deadlines for waste vitrification in exchange for shifting the focus of the cleanup to urgent priorities, such as groundwater remediation. Those talks stalled in October. In early 2008, the Bush administration proposed a $600 million cut to the Hanford cleanup budget. The Presidency of George W Bush began on his inauguration on January 20, 2001 as the 43rd and current President of the United States of America Washington state officials expressed concerned about the budget cuts, as well as missed deadlines and recent safety lapses at the site, and threatened to file a lawsuit alleging that the Department of Energy is in violation of environmental laws. [50] They appeared to step back from that threat in April after another meeting of federal and state officials resulted in progress toward a tentative agreement. [56]

Site Tours

According to the Department of Energy website, there are tours of Hanford. The United States Department of Energy ( DOE) is a Cabinet -level department of the United States government responsible for energy policy Dates are posted on a website and are limited to U. S. citizens. Tours are expected to bring up to 2,000 people to the site. Many sites including Reactor B are visited during the tour[57].

Historic photos

Cooling water retention basins at the F-Reactor

Underground tank farm with 12 of the site's 177 waste storage tanks

Inside one of the waste storage tanks

Inside the PUREX facility

View of the central plateau from Rattlesnake Mountain

The government town of Richland in the early days of the site

Hanford workers lining up for paychecks

Hanford scientists feeding radioactive food to sheep

Testing a sheep's thyroid for radiation

Cold War-era billboard

"Atomic Frontier Days" parade in Richland

The Fast Flux Test Facility

References

  1. ^ B Reactor. Rattlesnake Mountain (Native American name Lalíik meaning "land above the water" is a 3527 ft (1060 m windswept treeless sub-alpine ridge overlooking the Richland is a city in Benton County in the southeastern part of the U Richland is a city in Benton County in the southeastern part of the U The Fast Flux Test Facility is a 400 MW nuclear test reactor owned by the U United States Department of Energy. The United States Department of Energy ( DOE) is a Cabinet -level department of the United States government responsible for energy policy Retrieved on 2007-01-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 904 - Sergius III comes out of retirement to take over the papacy from the deposed Antipope Christopher.
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  3. ^ a b "Science Watch: Growing Nuclear Arsenal", The New York Times, April 28, 1987. Events 1192 - Assassination of Conrad of Montferrat (Conrad I King of Jerusalem, in Tyre, two days after his title Year 1987 ( MCMLXXXVII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link displays 1987 Gregorian calendar) Retrieved on 2007-01-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 904 - Sergius III comes out of retirement to take over the papacy from the deposed Antipope Christopher.  
  4. ^ a b c d e f An Overview of Hanford and Radiation Health Effects. Hanford Health Information Network. Retrieved on 2007-01-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 904 - Sergius III comes out of retirement to take over the papacy from the deposed Antipope Christopher.
  5. ^ a b c d Hanford Quick Facts. Washington Department of Ecology. The Washington Department of Ecology, or simply Ecology, is an environmental regulatory agency for the State of Washington. Retrieved on 2007-01-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 904 - Sergius III comes out of retirement to take over the papacy from the deposed Antipope Christopher.
  6. ^ Harden, Blaine; Dan Morgan. "Debate Intensifies on Nuclear Waste", Washington Post, June 2, 2007, p. Events 455 - The Vandals enter Rome, and plunder the city for two weeks Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.  A02. Retrieved on 2007-01-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 904 - Sergius III comes out of retirement to take over the papacy from the deposed Antipope Christopher.  
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  11. ^ Seelye, Katharine. "Gore Praises Move to Aid Salmon Run", The New York Times, June 10, 2000. Events 1190 - Third Crusade: Frederick I Barbarossa drowns in the Sally River while leading an army to Jerusalem 2000 ( MM) was a Leap year that started on Saturday of the Common Era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. Retrieved on 2007-01-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 904 - Sergius III comes out of retirement to take over the papacy from the deposed Antipope Christopher.  
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  36. ^ Cocooning Hanford Reactors. City of Richland (2003-12-02). Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1409 - The University of Leipzig opens 1755 - The second Eddystone Lighthouse is destroyed by fire Retrieved on 2008-01-31. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1504 - France cedes Naples to Aragon. 1606 - Gunpowder Plot: Guy Fawkes
  37. ^ NRHP site #92000245. National Register Information System. National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service (2007-01-23). Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 393 - Roman Emperor Theodosius I proclaims his nine year old son Honorius co-emperor Retrieved on 2008-04-06. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar defeats Caecilius Metellus Scipio and Marcus Porcius Cato in the Battle of Thapsus (See also the commercial site National Register of Historic Places. )
  38. ^ B-Reactor Museum Association. B Reactor Museum Association (January 2008). Retrieved on 2007-01-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 904 - Sergius III comes out of retirement to take over the papacy from the deposed Antipope Christopher.
  39. ^ "Big Step Toward B Reactor Preservation", KNDO/KNDU News, 2008-03-12. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 538 - Witiges, king of the Ostrogoths ends his siege of Rome and retreats to Ravenna, leaving Retrieved on 2008-04-06. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar defeats Caecilius Metellus Scipio and Marcus Porcius Cato in the Battle of Thapsus  
  40. ^ Plutonium: the first 50 years: United States plutonium production, acquisition, and utilization from 1944 through 1994. U. S. Department of Energy. Retrieved on 2007-01-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 904 - Sergius III comes out of retirement to take over the papacy from the deposed Antipope Christopher.
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  42. ^ Hanford History. Washington Physicians for Social Responsibility. Retrieved on 2007-01-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 904 - Sergius III comes out of retirement to take over the papacy from the deposed Antipope Christopher.
  43. ^ "Radiation Flowed 200 Miles to Sea, Study Finds", The New York Times, July 17, 1992. Events 180 - Twelve inhabitants of Scillium in North Africa are executed for being Christians Year 1992 ( MCMXCII) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1992 Gregorian calendar) Retrieved on 2007-01-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 904 - Sergius III comes out of retirement to take over the papacy from the deposed Antipope Christopher.  
  44. ^ Gerber, Michele (2002). On the Home Front: The Cold War Legacy of the Hanford Nuclear Site, 2nd Ed. , Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 78–80. ISBN 0803271018.  
  45. ^ Hanford Downwinders Litigation Website. Downwinders. com. Retrieved on 2008-04-06. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar defeats Caecilius Metellus Scipio and Marcus Porcius Cato in the Battle of Thapsus
  46. ^ McClure, Robert. "Downwinders' court win seen as 'great victory'", Seattle Post-Intelligencer, May 21, 2005. Events 878 - Syracuse Italy is captured by the Muslim sultan of Sicily. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Retrieved on 2007-01-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 904 - Sergius III comes out of retirement to take over the papacy from the deposed Antipope Christopher.  
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  50. ^ Wald, Matthew. "Panel Details Management Flaws at Hanford Nuclear Waste Site", The New York Times, January 16, 1998. Events 27 BC - The title Augustus is bestowed upon Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian by the Roman Senate. Year 1998 ( MCMXCVIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1998 Gregorian calendar) Retrieved on 2007-01-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 904 - Sergius III comes out of retirement to take over the papacy from the deposed Antipope Christopher.  
  51. ^ a b Wolman, David. "Fission Trip", Wired Magazine, April 2007, p.  78.  
  52. ^ Hanson, Laura A. (November 2000). "Radioactive Waste Contamination of Soil and Groundwater at the Hanford Site" (PDF). . University of Idaho Retrieved on 2008-01-31. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1504 - France cedes Naples to Aragon. 1606 - Gunpowder Plot: Guy Fawkes
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  54. ^ Dininny, Shannon. "Hanford plant now $12.2 billion", Seattle Post-Intelligencer, September 8, 2006. Events 70 - Roman forces under Titus sack Jerusalem. 1264 - The Statute of Kalisz Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Retrieved on 2007-01-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 904 - Sergius III comes out of retirement to take over the papacy from the deposed Antipope Christopher.  
  55. ^ Stiffler, Lisa. "State steps back from brink of Hanford suit", Seattle Post-Intelligencer, April 3, 2008. Events 1043 - Edward the Confessor is crowned King of England. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Retrieved on 2008-05-08. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 589 - Reccared summons the Third Council of Toledo 1450 - Jack Cade's Rebellion: Kentishmen  
  56. ^ Nuclear tourism: Hanford lures visitors - US and Canada - MSNBC.com

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