Han unification is an effort by the authors of Unicode and the Universal Character Set to map multiple character sets of the so-called CJK languages into a single set of unified characters. In Computing, Unicode is an Industry standard allowing Computers to consistently represent and manipulate text expressed in most of the world's The Universal Character Set (UCS defined by the ISO / IEC 10646 International Standard, is a standard set of characters upon which A character encoding consists of a code that pairs a sequence of characters from a given character set (sometimes incorrectly referred to as Code page CJK is a collective term for Chinese, Japanese, and Korean, which constitute the main East Asian languages. In Typography, a grapheme is the fundamental unit in written language. Han characters are a common feature of written Chinese (hanzi), Japanese (kanji), Korean (hanja), and Cantonese in Hong Kong, and — at least historically — other East and Southeast Asian languages. A Chinese character, also known as a Han character ( is a Logogram used in writing Chinese (hanzi Japanese ( A Chinese character, also known as a Han character ( is a Logogram used in writing Chinese (hanzi Japanese ( is a language spoken by over 130 million people in Japan and in Japanese emigrant communities are the Chinese characters that are used in the modern Japanese logographic writing system along with Hiragana (ひらがな 平仮名 Katakana This article is mainly about the spoken Korean language See Hangul for details on the native Korean writing system Hanja is the Korean name for Chinese characters. More specifically it refers to those Chinese characters borrowed from Chinese and incorporated Hong Kong ( officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, is a territory located on China 's south coast on the Pearl River Delta, and borders (See Vietnamese Hán Tự and Chữ Nôm. Hán tự ( {{IPA|/han˦˥ tɯ˨/}}; 漢[[wikt 字|字]] meaning " Chinese character " or chữ Nho ( {{IPA|/tɕɯ˧˨˧ ɲɔ/}} Chữ Nôm ( IPA: /cɨ3ˀ5 nom33/ chữ Nôm in Unicode: 字[[wikt 喃|喃]]/ 𡨸 喃/ 𡦂 喃 chữ Nôm in Unicode )

Modern Chinese, Korean, and Japanese typefaces typically use regional or historical variants of a given Han character. In Typography, a typeface is a set of one or more Fonts designed with stylistic unity each comprising a coordinated set of Glyphs A typeface usually comprises Variant Chinese characters ( are Chinese characters that can be used interchangeably In the formulation of Unicode, an attempt was made to unify these variants by considering them different glyphs representing the same "grapheme", or orthographic unit, hence, "Han unification", with the resulting character repertoire sometimes contracted to Unihan. In Typography, a grapheme is the fundamental unit in written language. The orthography of a language specifies the correct way of using a specific Writing system to write the language

Unihan can also refer to the Unihan Database maintained by the Unicode Consortium, which provides information about all of the unified Han characters encoded in the Unicode standard, including mappings to various national and industry standards, indices into standard dictionaries, encoded variants, pronunciations in various languages, and an English definition. The database is available to the public as a text file and via an interactive Web site. The latter also includes representative glyphs and definitions for compound words drawn from the free Japanese EDICT and Chinese CEDICT dictionary projects (which are provided for convenience and are not a formal part of the Unicode standard). An edict is an announcement of a Law, often associated with monarchism. The CEDICT project was started by Paul Denisowski in 1997 with the aim to provide a complete Chinese to American English dictionary with pronunciation

Rationale and controversy

Rules for Han unification are given in the East Asian Scripts chapter of the various versions of the Unicode Standard (Chapter 11 in Unicode 4. 0). ^[1] The Ideographic Rapporteur Group (IRG),^[2] made up of experts from the Chinese-speaking countries, North and South Korea, Japan, Vietnam, and other countries, is responsible for the process. The Ideographic Rapporteur Group ( IRG) advises the Unicode Consortium and the ISO /IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2 on Han character additions to the repertoire

One possible rationale is the desire to limit the size of the full Unicode character set, where CJK characters as represented by discrete ideograms may approach or exceed 100,000, (while those required for ordinary literacy in any language are probably under 3,000). An ideogram or ideograph (from Greek idea "idea" + grafo "to write" is a Graphic symbol that represents an Idea The secret life of Unicode article located on IBM DeveloperWorks attempts to illustrate part of the motivation for Han unification:

The problem stems from the fact that Unicode encodes characters rather than "glyphs," which are the visual representations of the characters. There are four basic traditions for East Asian character shapes: traditional Chinese, simplified Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. While the Han root character may be the same for CJK languages, the glyphs in common use for the same characters may not be, and new characters were invented in each country.

For example, the traditional Chinese glyph for "grass" uses four strokes for the "grass" radical, whereas the simplified Chinese, Japanese, and Korean glyphs use three. But there is only one Unicode point for the grass character (草, U+8349) regardless of writing system. In Computing, Unicode is an Industry standard allowing Computers to consistently represent and manipulate text expressed in most of the world's Another example is the ideograph for "one" (壹, 壱, or 一), which is different in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. Many people think that the three versions should be encoded differently.

In fact, the three ideographs for "one" are encoded separately in Unicode, as they are not considered national variants. The first and second are used on financial instruments to prevent tampering, (they may be considered variants), while the third is the common form in all three countries.

However, Han unification has also caused considerable controversy, particularly among the Japanese public, who, with the nation's literati, have a history of protesting the culling of historically and culturally significant variants. (See Kanji#Orthographic reform and lists of kanji. are the Chinese characters that are used in the modern Japanese logographic writing system along with Hiragana (ひらがな 平仮名 Katakana Today, the list of characters officially recognized for use in proper names continues to expand at a modest pace. )

Since the Unihan standard encodes "graphemes", not "glyphs", the graphical artifacts produced by Unicode have been considered temporary technical hurdles, and at most, cosmetic. However, again, particularly in Japan, due in part to the way in which Chinese characters were incorporated into Japanese writing systems historically, the inability to specify a particular variant is considered a significant obstacle to the use of Unicode in scholarly work. For example, the unification of "grass" (explained above), means that a historical text cannot be encoded so as to preserve its peculiar orthography. Instead, for example, the scholar would be required to locate the desired glyph in a specific typeface in order to convey the text as written, defeating the purpose of a unified character set.

Small differences in graphical representation are also problematic when they affect legibility or the wrong cultural tradition. Besides making some Unicode fonts unusable for texts involving multiple "Unihan languages", names or other orthographically sensitive terminology might be displayed incorrectly. (Proper names tend to be especially orthographically conservative--compare this to changing the spelling of one's name to suit a language reform in the U. S. or U. K. ) While this may be considered primarily a graphical representation or rendering problem to be overcome by more artful fonts, the widespread use of Unicode would make it difficult to preserve such distinctions.

(The problem of one character representing semantically different concepts is also present in the Latin part of Unicode. The Unicode character for an apostrophe is the same as the character for a right single quote: ’. On the other hand, it is sometimes pointed out that the capital Latin letter "A" is not unified with the Greek letter "Α" (Alpha). This is, of course, desirable for reasons of compatibility, and deals with a much smaller alphabetic character set. )

While the unification aspect of Unicode is controversial in some quarters for the reasons given above, Unicode itself does now encode a vast number of seldom-used characters of a more-or-less antiquarian nature.

Some of the controversy stems from the fact that the very decision of performing Han unification was made by the initial Unicode Consortium, which at the time was a consortium of North American companies and organizations (most of them in California),^[3] but included no East Asia government representatives. The initial design goal was to create a 16-bit standard, and Han unification was therefore a critical step for avoiding tens of thousands of character duplications. ^[4] This 16-bit requirement was later abandoned, making the size of the character set less an issue today.

The controversy later extended to the internationally representative ISO: the initial CJK-JRG group favored a proposal (DIS 10646) for a non-unified character set, "which was thrown out in favor of unification with the Unicode Consortium's unified character set by the votes of American and European ISO members" (even though the Japanese position was unclear). ^[5] Endorsing the Unicode Han unification was a necessary step for the heated ISO 10646/Unicode merger.

Much of the controversy surrounding Han unification is based on the distinction between glyphs, as defined in Unicode, and the related but distinct idea of graphemes. A glyph is an element of writing Two or more glyphs representing the same symbol whether interchangeable or context-dependent are called Allographs the abstract unit they In Typography, a grapheme is the fundamental unit in written language. Unicode defines abstract characters, as opposed to glyphs, which are a particular visual representations of a character in a specific typeface, or a grapheme, the "basic unit of writing" in a given language. In Typography, a typeface is a set of one or more Fonts designed with stylistic unity each comprising a coordinated set of Glyphs A typeface usually comprises One character may be represented by many distinct glyphs, for example a "g" or an "a", both of which may have one loop or two. In Dutch, "ij" is a sometimes considered a single letter (ij), and thus arguably a grapheme (a digraph). For example, the first letter in "IJsselmeer" is capitalized. Similarly for "ch" in some Spanish-speaking countries, and "lj" in Croatian. Graphemes present in national character code standards have been added to Unicode, as required by Unicode's Source Separation rule, even where they can be composed of characters already available. The national character code standards existing in CJK languages are considerably more involved, given the technological limitations under which they evolved, and so the official CJK participants in Han unification may well have been amenable to reform.

Unlike European versions, CJK Unicode fonts, due to Han unification, have large but irregular patterns of overlap, requiring language-specific fonts. Unfortunately, language-specific fonts also make it difficult to access to a variant which, as with the "grass" example, happens to appear more typically in another language style. (That is to say, it would be difficult to access "grass" with the four-stroke radical more typical of Traditional Chinese in a Japanese environment, which fonts would typically depict the three-stroke radical. ) Unihan proponents tend to favor markup languages for defining language strings, but this would not ensure the use of a specific variant in the case given, only the language-specific font more likely to depict a character as that variant. (At this point, merely stylistic differences do enter in, as a selection of Japanese and Chinese fonts are not likely to be visually compatible. )

Chinese users seem to have fewer objections to Han unification, largely because Unicode did not attempt to unify Simplified Chinese characters, (an invention of the People's Republic of China, and in use among Chinese speakers in the PRC, Singapore, and Malaysia), with Traditional Chinese characters, as used in Hong Kong, Taiwan (Big5), and, with some differences, more familiar to Korean and Japanese users. Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES Singapore For the biogeographical region see Malesia Malaysia (məˈleɪʒə or /məˈleɪziə/ is a country that consists of thirteen states and Big-5 or Big5 is a character encoding method used in Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau for Traditional Chinese characters Unicode is seen as neutral with regards to this politically charged issue, and has encoded Simplified and Traditional Chinese glyphs separately, (e. g. the ideograph for "discard" is 丟 U+4E1F for Traditional Chinese Big5 #A5E1 and 丢 U+4E22 for Simplified Chinese GB #2210). It is also noted that Traditional and Simplified characters should be encoded separately according to Unicode Han Unification rules, because they are distinguished in pre-existing PRC character sets. Furthermore, as with other variants, Traditional to Simplified characters is not a one-to-one relationship.

Specialist character sets developed to address, or regarded by some as not suffering from, these perceived deficiencies include:

• ISO/IEC 2022 (based on sequence codes to switch between Chinese, Japanese, Korean character sets - hence without unification)
• CNS character set
• CCCII character set
• TRON
• UTF-2000 - first proposed in 1998. ISO 2022, more formally ISO/IEC 2022 "Information Technology—Character code structure and extension techniques" is an ISO standard (equivalent to the The CNS 11643 character set (Chinese National Standard 11643 also officially known as the "Chinese Standard Interchange Code" (中文標準交換碼 is officially the standard Chinese Character Code for Information Interchange (中文資訊交換碼 or CCCII is a character set developed specifically to address the problem of interchange of Chinese TRON is a multi-byte Character encoding. It is similar to Unicode but does not use Unicode's Han unification process each character from each CJK However, as of 2005, adoption of this proposed counter-standard is nearly non-existent. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. There has been little definitive standardization process or documents on UTF-2000 except for some conference presentations in 2000 and 2001.
• Mojikyo
• Big5 extensions
• GCCS and its successor HKSCS

However, none of these alternative standards has been as widely adopted as Unicode, which is now the base character set for many new standards and protocols, and is built into the architecture of operating systems (Microsoft Windows, Apple Mac OS X, and many versions of Unix), programming languages (Perl, Python, C#, Java, Common LISP, APL), and libraries (IBM International Components for Unicode (ICU) along with the Pango, Graphite, Scribe, Uniscribe, and ATSUI rendering engines), font formats (TrueType and OpenType) and so on. Mojikyo (文字鏡 is a set of Computer software and fonts for enhanced Logogram word-processing Big-5 or Big5 is a character encoding method used in Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau for Traditional Chinese characters The Hong Kong Supplementary Character Set ( commonly abbreviated to HKSCS) is a set of Chinese characters -- 4702 in total in the initial release -- used exclusively The Hong Kong Supplementary Character Set ( commonly abbreviated to HKSCS) is a set of Chinese characters -- 4702 in total in the initial release -- used exclusively In Computing, Unicode is an Industry standard allowing Computers to consistently represent and manipulate text expressed in most of the world's Microsoft Windows is a series of Software Operating systems and Graphical user interfaces produced by Microsoft. Apple Inc, ( formerly Apple Computer Inc, is an American Multinational corporation with a focus on designing and manufacturing Consumer electronics Mac OS X (mæk oʊ ɛs tɛn is a line of computer Operating systems developed marketed and sold by Apple Inc, the latest of which is pre-loaded on all currently Unix (officially trademarked as UNIX, sometimes also written as Unix with Small caps) is a computer NOTES FOR EDITORS "Perl" is not an acronym (read the "Name" section below Python is a general-purpose High-level programming language. Its design philosophy emphasizes programmer productivity and code readability C# (pronounced C Sharp is a Multi-paradigm Common Lisp, commonly abbreviated CL, is a dialect of the Lisp Programming language, published in ANSI standard document Information International Components for Unicode (ICU is an Open source project of mature C / C++ and Java libraries for Unicode support Pango (Παν語 is a free and open source Computing library for rendering internationalized texts in high quality Graphite is a programmable Unicode -compliant smart-font rendering system developed by SIL international. Qt (pronounced "cute" by its creators is a Cross-platform application development framework widely used for the development of GUI programs (in which Uniscribe is the Microsoft Windows set of services for rendering Unicode -encoded text especially Complex text layout. The Apple Type Services for Unicode Imaging ( ATSUI) is the set of services for rendering Unicode -encoded text starting with Mac OS 8 TrueType is an Outline font standard originally developed by Apple Computer in the late 1980s as a competitor to Adobe 's Type 1 fonts OpenType is a scalable format for Computer fonts initially developed by Microsoft, later joined by Adobe Systems.

Examples of language dependent characters

In each row of the following table, the same character is repeated in all five columns. However, each column is marked (via the HTML lang attribute) as being in a different language: Chinese (3 varieties: unmarked "Chinese", simplified characters, and traditional characters), Japanese, or Korean. is a language spoken by over 130 million people in Japan and in Japanese emigrant communities This article is mainly about the spoken Korean language See Hangul for details on the native Korean writing system The browser should select, for each character, a glyph (from a font) suitable to the specified language. A web browser is a software application which enables a user to display and interact with text images videos music games and other information typically located on a A glyph is an element of writing Two or more glyphs representing the same symbol whether interchangeable or context-dependent are called Allographs the abstract unit they In Typography, a typeface is a set of one or more Fonts designed with stylistic unity each comprising a coordinated set of Glyphs A typeface usually comprises (Besides actual character variation--look for differences in stroke order, number, or direction--the typefaces may also reflect different typographical styles, as with serif and non-serif alphabets. ) This only works for fallback glyph selection if you have CJK fonts installed on your system and the font selected to display this article does not include glyphs for these characters. Note also that Unicode includes non-graphical language tag characters in the range U+E0000 – U+E007F for plain text language tagging.

Examples of some non-unified Han ideographs

For some glyphs, Unicode has encoded variant characters, making it unnecessary to switch between fonts or language tags. In Computing, Unicode is an Industry standard allowing Computers to consistently represent and manipulate text expressed in most of the world's In the following table, the separate rows in each group contains the Unicode equivalent character using different code points. Note that for characters such as 入 (U+5165), the only way to display the two variants is to change font (or language tag) as described in the previous table. However, for 內 (U+5167), there is an alternate character 内 (U+5185) as illustrated below. For some characters, like 兌/兑 (U+514C/U+5151), either method can be used to display the different glyphs.

Unicode ranges

Main article: CJK Unified Ideographs

Ideographic characters assigned by Unicode appear in the following blocks:

• CJK Unified Ideographs (4E00–9FFF) (chart)
• CJK Unified Ideographs Extension A (3400–4DBF) (chart)
• CJK Unified Ideographs Extension B (20000–2A6DF)

Unicode includes support of CJKV radicals, strokes, punctuation, marks and symbols in the following blocks:

• CJK Radicals Supplement (2E80–2EFF)
• CJK Symbols and Punctuation (3000–303F) (chart)
• CJK Strokes (31C0–31EF)
• Ideographic Description Characters (2FF0–2FFF)

Additional compatibility (discouraged use) characters appear in these blocks:

• Kangxi Radicals (2F00–2FDF)
• Enclosed CJK Letters and Months (3200–32FF) (chart)
• CJK Compatibility (3300–33FF) (chart)
• CJK Compatibility Ideographs (F900–FAFF) (chart)
• CJK Compatibility Ideographs (2F800–2FA1F)
• CJK Compatibility Forms (FE30–FE4F) (chart)

These compatibility characters are included for compatibility with legacy text handling system and other legacy character sets. Unicode supports several phonetic alphabets and notations through the existing writing systems and the addition of several phonetic extension blocks Numerals (often called numbers in Unicode are characters that denote a number A diacritic ( also called a diacritic or diacritical mark, point, or sign, is a small sign added to a letter to alter pronunciation In Computing, in addition to encoding characters for the various Writing systems used throughout the World Unicode also devotes several blocks of characters In discussing Unicode and the UCS many often refer to compatibility characters Many characters are used to control the interpretation or display of text but these characters themselves have no visual or spatial representation In Digital typography, combining characters are characters that are intended to modify other characters A precomposed character (alternatively decomposable character) is a Unicode entity that can be decomposed into an equivalent string of several other characters CJK Unified Ideographs is a range of Unicode code points assigned for Ideographs used by Chinese characters. This disambiguation page differentiates the various historical uses of the term radical in the context of Chinese characters The CJK strokes (also known as the CJK(V or CJKV strokes are the strokes needed to write the Chinese characters used in East Asia. The following is a list of all 214 Kangxi radicals, used originally in the 1615 Zihui and adopted by the 1716 Kangxi dictionary They include forms of characters for vertical text layout and rich text characters that Unicode recommends handling through other means.

See also

• Chinese character encoding
• GB 18030
• Sinicization
• Z-variant
• List of Unicode characters/CJK Unified Ideographs

References

External links

• Unihan Database
  • Example of data for the han character "中"
• Unicode standard
• IRG Page
• IRG working documents – many big size pdfs, some of them with details of CJK extensions
• Han Unification in Unicode by Otfried Cheong
• Why Unicode Won't Work on the Internet: Linguistic, Political, and Technical Limitations
• Why Unicode Will Work On The Internet
• Per-character summary of differences in characters
• The secret life of Unicode
• GB18030 Support Package for Windows 2000/XP, including Chinese, Tibetan, Yi, Mongolian and Thai font by Microsoft
• Proposal to encode additional grass radicals in the UCS – A humorous proposal to encode all possible variants of the grass radical, made as an April Fool's Day joke
• Unicode Technical Note 26: On the Encoding of Latin, Greek, Cyrillic, and Han
• "Unicode Revisited" – the strong point of view of some people working on the competing TRON proposal
• "Unicode in Japan, guide to a technical and psychological struggle" – A more balanced take on the arguments for and against Unicode for Japanese. In computing Chinese character encodings can be used to represent text written in the CJK languages &mdash Chinese, Japanese, Korean &mdash GB18030 is the registered Internet name for the official Character set of the People's Republic of China (PRC superseding GB2312. Sinicization, Sinicisation or Sinification, (in Mandarin: 中国化 Zhōngguóhuà) is the linguistic assimilation or In Unicode, two Glyphs are said to be Z-variants (often spelled zVariants) if they share the same etymology but have slightly different appearances and different This article is about the informal holiday For other uses see April Fool.