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The Han Dynasty (traditional Chinese: 漢朝; simplified Chinese: 汉朝; pinyin: Hàn Cháo; Wade-Giles: Han Ch'ao; 206 BCE–220 CE) followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. Pinyin, more formally Hanyu pinyin, is the most common Standard Mandarin Romanization system in use Wade-Giles (ˌweɪdˈʤaɪlz) sometimes abbreviated Wade, is a Romanization system (phonetic notation and Transcription) for the Mandarin Not to be confused with the Qing Dynasty, the last dynasty of China The Three Kingdoms period ( is a period in the History of China, part of an era of disunity called the Six Dynasties following immediately the loss of China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The Han Dynasty was ruled by the prominent family known as the Liu clan. Liu is a common Chinese family name. The Transliteration Liu can represent several different surnames written in different Chinese characters The reign of the Han Dynasty, lasting over 400 years, is commonly considered within China to be one of the greatest periods in the history of China. Chinese civilization originated in various city-states along the Yellow River ( valley in the Neolithic era To this day, the ethnic majority of China still refer to themselves as the "Han people. Han Chinese ( are an Ethnic group native to China and by most modern definitions the largest single Ethnic group in the world. "
During the Han Dynasty, China officially became a Confucian state and prospered domestically: agriculture, handicrafts and commerce flourished, and the population reached over 55 million people. Confucianism ( is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system originally developed from the teachings of the fifth century B Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture Commerce is a division of trade or production which deals with the exchange of goods and services from producer to final consumer In Biology a population is the collection of inter-breeding organisms of a particular Species; in Sociology Meanwhile, the empire extended its political and cultural influence over Korea, Mongolia, Vietnam, and Central Asia before it finally collapsed under a combination of domestic and external pressures. The Culture of China (traditional Chinese 中國文化 simplified Chinese 中国文化 is home to one of the world's oldest and most complex Civilizations covering a history Korea is a geographic area composed of two sovereign countries a civilization and a former state situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. Mongolia (mɒŋˈɡoʊliə, literally Mongol country/nation,) is a Landlocked Country in East Vietnam (ˌviːɛtˈnɑːm Việt Nam) officially Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south
The first of the two periods of the dynasty was the Former Han Dynasty (traditional Chinese: 前漢; simplified Chinese: 前汉; pinyin: Qiánhàn) or Western Han Dynasty (traditional Chinese: 西漢; simplified Chinese: 西汉; pinyin: Xī Hàn) 206 BCE–24CE, seated at Chang'an. Pinyin, more formally Hanyu pinyin, is the most common Standard Mandarin Romanization system in use Pinyin, more formally Hanyu pinyin, is the most common Standard Mandarin Romanization system in use Year 24 was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Chang'an ( is an ancient Capital of more than ten dynasties in Chinese history. The Later Han Dynasty (traditional Chinese: 後漢; simplified Chinese: 后汉; pinyin: Hòu Hàn) or Eastern Han Dynasty (traditional Chinese: 東漢; simplified Chinese: 东汉; pinyin: Dōng Hàn) 25–220 CE was seated at Luoyang. Pinyin, more formally Hanyu pinyin, is the most common Standard Mandarin Romanization system in use Pinyin, more formally Hanyu pinyin, is the most common Standard Mandarin Romanization system in use Luoyang ( is a Prefecture-level city in western Henan province, People's Republic of China. The western-eastern Han convention is currently used to avoid confusion with the Later Han Dynasty of the Period of the Five Dynasties and the Ten Kingdoms although the former-later nomenclature was used in history texts including Sima Guang's Zizhi Tongjian. Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms ( 907-960 was an era of political upheaval in China, beginning in the Tang Dynasty and ending in the Song Dynasty. Life profession and works He was born in 1019 in present-day Yuncheng Shanxi to a wealthy family and obtained early success as a scholar and officer The Zizhi Tongjian ( was a pioneering reference work in Chinese historiography.
The Han Dynasty was notable also for its military prowess. The empire expanded westward to the Tarim Basin (in modern Xinjiang-Uyghur Autonomous Region), with military expeditions as far west as beyond the Caspian Sea, making possible a relatively safe and secure caravan and merchantile traffic across Central Asia. The Tarim Basin ( is a large Endorheic basin occupying an area of more than 400000 km² Xinjiang ( Uyghur: شىنجاڭ Shinjang;; Postal map spelling: Sinkiang; Turkish: Sincan, Sincan Uygur Özerk The Caspian Sea is the largest enclosed body of water on Earth by area variously classed as the world's largest lake or a full-fledged Sea. The paths of caravan traffic came to be known as the "Silk Road" because the route was used to export Chinese silk. The Silk Road, or Silk Routes, are an extensive interconnected network of Trade routes across the Asian continent connecting East South and Western Asia with the Silk is a natural Protein Fiber, some forms of which can be woven into Textiles The best-known type of silk is obtained from cocoons Chinese armies also invaded and annexed parts of northern Korea (Wiman Joseon) and northern Vietnam toward the end of the 2nd century BC. Wiman Joseon (194 - 108 BC was the part of the Gojoseon period (2333 BC - 108 BC of Korean history. Han Dynasty control of peripheral regions was generally insecure, however. To ensure peace with non-Chinese local powers, the Han court developed a mutually beneficial "tributary system. " Non-Chinese states were allowed to remain autonomous in exchange for symbolic acceptance of Han overlordship. Tributary ties were confirmed and strengthened through intermarriages at the ruling level and periodic exchanges of gifts and goods.
Emergence
Within the first three months after Qin Dynasty Emperor Qin Shi Huang's death at Shaqiu, widespread revolts by peasants, prisoners, soldiers and descendants of the nobles of the six Warring States sprang up all over China. Not to be confused with the Qing Dynasty, the last dynasty of China The Emperor of China ( refers to any sovereign of Imperial China reigning since the founding of the Qin Dynasty in 221 BC until the fall of Qin Shi Huang ( (259 BC – September 10 210 BC personal name Yíng Zhèng, was king of the Chinese State of Qin from 247 BCE to 221 BCE (during the The Warring States Period ( also known as the Era of Warring States covers the period from some time in the 5th century BC to the unification of China by the Chen Sheng and Wu Guang, two in a group of about 900 soldiers assigned to defend against the Xiongnu, were the leaders of the first rebellion. Chen Sheng ( Traditional Chinese: 陳勝 (d 209 BC or 208 BC (around the new year known in some sources as Chen She (陳涉 was the leader of the first rebellion Wu Guang ( Traditional Chinese: 吳廣 (d 209 BC or 208 BC (around the new year was a leader of the first rebellion against Qin Dynasty during the reign of The Xiongnu ( Turkish: Doğu Hun were a confederation of nomadic tribes from Central Asia with a ruling class of unknown origin and other subjugated tribes Continuous insurgence finally toppled the Qin dynasty in 206 BC. An insurgency is a violent internal uprising against a sovereign government that lacks the organization of a revolution Events By place Roman Republic In the Battle of Ilipa ( Alcalá del Río, near Seville) in Spain, the The leader of the insurgents was Xiang Yu, an outstanding military commander without political expertise, who divided the country into 19 feudal states to his own satisfaction. Xiang Yu ( 232 BC – 202 BC was a prominent general during the fall of the Qin Dynasty.
The ensuing war among those states signified the 5 years of Chu Han Contention with Liu Bang, the first emperor of the Han Dynasty, as the eventual winner. Early life Liú Bāng was born into a lower class farming family in Pei (present Pei County in Jiangsu Province) Initially, "Han" (the principality as created by Xiang Yu's division) consisted merely of modern Sichuan, Chongqing, and southern Shaanxi and was a minor humble principality, but eventually grew into an empire; the Han Dynasty was named after the principality, which was itself named after Hanzhong (traditional Chinese: 漢中; simplified Chinese: 汉中; pinyin: hànzhōng) — modern southern Shaanxi, the region centering the modern city of Hanzhong. ( Postal map spelling: Szechwan and Szechuan) is a province in western China with its capital in Chengdu. Chongqing ( Postal map spelling: Chungking; Wade-Giles: Ch'ung-ch'ing) is the largest and most populous of the People's Republic of China ( Postal map spelling: Shensi) is a north-central province of the People's Republic of China, and includes portions of the Loess Pinyin, more formally Hanyu pinyin, is the most common Standard Mandarin Romanization system in use Hanzhong ( is a city in Shaanxi province in central China. Population (2004 approx The beginning of the Han Dynasty can be dated either from 206 BC when the Qin dynasty crumbled and the Principality of Han was established or 202 BC when Xiang Yu committed suicide.
Taoism and feudal system
The new empire retained much of the Qin administrative structure, but retreated somewhat from centralized rule by establishing vassal principalities in some areas for the sake of political convenience. After the establishment of the Han Dynasty, Emperor Gao (Liu Bang) divided the country into several "feudal states" to satisfy some of his wartime allies, though he planned to get rid of them once he had consolidated his power. Examples of feudalism are helpful to fully understand Feudalism and Feudal society.
After his death, his successors from Emperor Hui to Emperor Jing tried to rule China combining Legalist methods with the Taoist philosophic ideals. Early life and years as crown prince How Liu Ying's childhood was like is not completely clear Early life and career as crown prince Emperor Jing was born to Emperor Wen, then Prince of Dai, and Consort Dou, one of his favorite consorts in In Chinese history, Legalism ( was one of the four main philosophic schools during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period (the other Taoism (pronounced /ˈdaʊɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊɪzəm/ also spelled '''Daoism''') refers to a variety of related Philosophical and Religious traditions During this "pseudo-Taoism era", a stable centralized government over China was established through revival of the agriculture sectors and fragmentations of "feudal states" after the suppression of the Rebellion of the seven states. The Rebellion of the Seven States or Revolt of the Seven Kingdoms ( Simplified Chinese: 七国之乱 Traditional Chinese: 七國之亂 took place in
Emperor Wu and Confucianism
During the "Taoism era", China was able to maintain peace with Xiongnu by paying tribute and marrying princesses to them. Taoism (pronounced /ˈdaʊɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊɪzəm/ also spelled '''Daoism''') refers to a variety of related Philosophical and Religious traditions The Xiongnu ( Turkish: Doğu Hun were a confederation of nomadic tribes from Central Asia with a ruling class of unknown origin and other subjugated tribes During this time, the dynasty's goal was to relieve the society of harsh laws, wars, and conditions from both the Qin Dynasty, external threats from nomads, and early internal conflicts within the Han court. War is an international relations Dispute, characterized by organized Violence between National Military units Not to be confused with the Qing Dynasty, the last dynasty of China The government reduced taxation and assumed a subservient status to neighboring nomadic tribes. During this era, the government reduced taxation, reducing its role in civilian lives (traditional Chinese: 與民休息; simplified Chinese: 与民休息; pinyin: yǔ mín xiūxi) and initiating a period of stability known as the Rule of Wen and Jing (Chinese: 文景之治; pinyin: Wén-Jǐngzhīzhì), named after the two Emperors of this particular era. Pinyin, more formally Hanyu pinyin, is the most common Standard Mandarin Romanization system in use The Rule of Wen and Jing (文景之治 Pinyin: Wén Jǐng Zhī Zhì ( 180 BC - 141 BC) refers to the reigns of Emperor Wen of Han and his son Pinyin, more formally Hanyu pinyin, is the most common Standard Mandarin Romanization system in use However, under Emperor Wu, who reigned over one of the most prosperous periods of the Han Dynasty, the Empire was able to reassert its power. Background birth and years as crown prince Emperor Wu was the tenth child of Emperor Jing, and was born to one of Emperor Jing's favorite Concubines, At its height, Han China incorporated present day Qinghai, Gansu, and northern Vietnam into its territories. (青海 qīnghǎi is a province of the People's Republic of China, named after Qinghai Lake. ( is a province located in the northwest of the People's Republic of China. Vietnam (ˌviːɛtˈnɑːm Việt Nam) officially The state mounted military expeditions into Siberian lands beyond Lake Baikal in the northern extremities and established military bases on the shores of the Caspian Sea at its western extremity. Lake Baikal (о́зеро Байка́л Ozero Baykal, ˈozʲɪrə bʌjˈkɑl Байгал нуур Baygal nuur) is in Southern Siberia in Russia The Caspian Sea is the largest enclosed body of water on Earth by area variously classed as the world's largest lake or a full-fledged Sea.
Emperor Wu decided that Taoism was no longer suitable for China and officially declared it a Confucian state; however, like the Emperors of China before him, he combined Legalist methods with the Confucian ideal. Taoism (pronounced /ˈdaʊɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊɪzəm/ also spelled '''Daoism''') refers to a variety of related Philosophical and Religious traditions Confucianism ( is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system originally developed from the teachings of the fifth century B The Emperor of China ( refers to any sovereign of Imperial China reigning since the founding of the Qin Dynasty in 221 BC until the fall of In Chinese history, Legalism ( was one of the four main philosophic schools during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period (the other Confucianism ( is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system originally developed from the teachings of the fifth century B This official adoption of Confucianism led not only to a civil service nomination system, but also compulsory knowledge of Confucian classics among candidates for the imperial bureaucracy, a requirement that lasted up to the establishment of the Republic of China in 1911. See also Bureaucrat The term civil service has two distinct meanings Branch of governmental service in which individuals are hired on the basis Chinese classic texts or Chinese canonical texts ( refer to the pre- Qin Chinese texts especially the Confucian Four Books and Five Classics REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES Year 1911 ( MCMXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Confucian scholars gained prominent status as the core of the civil service.
Government
The bureaucratic system of the Han Dynasty can be divided into two systems, the central and the local. As for the central bureaucrats in the capital, it was organized into a head cabinet of officials called the Three Lords and Nine Ministers (三公九卿). The Three Lords and Nine Ministers system ( was a central administrative system adopted in ancient China that was officially instituted in Qin Dynasty (221 BC - 206 This cabinet was led by the Chancellor (丞相), who was included as one of the three lords. The Chancellor ( variously translated as Prime Minister, Premier or Chief Councillor, was a generic name given to the highest-ranking official in the The Three Excellencies ( or the Three Lords was the collective name for the three highest officials in the Han Dynasty. Officials were graded by rank and salary, were appointed to posts based on the merit of their skills rather than aristocratic clan affiliation, and were subject to dismissal, demotion, and transfer to different administrative regions. [2] The local official during the former Han Dynasty was different from that of the later Han Dynasty. As for the former Han, there were two administered levels, the county (郡) and the xian (縣). In the former Han Dynasty the xian was a subdivision or sub-prefecture of a county. For subsequent types of praefectura, see Prefect. Prefecture (from the Latin Praefectura) indicates the office During the Han period, there were about 1,180 of these xian, or sub-prefectures. [3] The entire Han Empire was heavily dependent upon its county governors (郡太守), as they could decide military policy, economic regulations, and legal matters in the county they presided over. According to historians Ebrey, Walthall, and Palais:
| “ | They collected taxes, judged lawsuits, commanded troops to suppress uprisings, undertook public works such as flood control, chose their own subordinates, and recommended local men to the central government for appointments. [2] | ” |
The main tax exacted on the population during Han times was a poll tax, fixed at a rate of 120 government-issued coins for adults. A poll tax, head tax, or capitation is a Tax of a uniform fixed amount per individual (as opposed to a percentage of income [2] For adults there was also the addition of mandatory labor service for one month out of the year. Besides the poll tax, there was also the land tax administered by county and commandery officials. Property tax, or millage tax, is an Ad valorem tax that an owner pays on the value of the property being taxed This was set by the government at a relatively low rate of one-thirtieth of the collected harvest. [2]
With a large amount of revenue in stable times, the Han government was able to fund various public works projects and state infrustructure. In the year 3 CE, a formalized nationwide government school system was established under Emperor Ping of Han, with a central school located in the capital Chang'an and local schools in the prefectures and counties. Family background and life as imperial prince Then-Liu Jizi was born in 9 BC [4]
As a result of the recorded debate The Discourses on Salt and Iron (Chinese: Yan Tie Lun) about state control over non-renewable resources in China, the state decided to impose government monopolies on salt and iron in the 1st century BC. In Economics, a monopoly (from Greek monos, alone or single + polein, to sell exists when a specific individual or enterprise has sufficient [5] The government monopoly on salt remained a distinctive feature of the Chinese bureaucracy in subsequent dynasties,[6] although it fell out of use at certain times when merchants were allowed to mine it, refine it, and sell it in free trade. [7]
Culture, society, and technology
The intellectual, literary, and artistic endeavors revived and flourished during the Han Dynasty. Zhang Heng ( (CE 78–139 was an astronomer, mathematician, inventor, geographer, cartographer, artist, poet Lacquerware is objects which are decoratively covered with Lacquer which is sometimes inlaid or carved The Han period produced by birth China's most famous historian, Sima Qian (145–90 BC), whose Records of the Grand Historian provides a detailed chronicle from the time of legendary Xia emperor to that of the Emperor Wu (141–87 BC). See also History An historian is an individual who studies and writes about History, and is regarded as an Authority on it Early life and education Sima Qian was born and grew up in Longmen, near present-day Hancheng Shaanxi. The Records of the Grand Historian, also known in English by the Chinese name 史記 or Shiji, written from 109 BC to 91 BC The Xia Dynasty ( of China is the first dynasty to be described in ancient historical records such as Records of the Grand Historian and An emperor (from the Latin " Imperator " is a (male Monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an Empire or another type of Background birth and years as crown prince Emperor Wu was the tenth child of Emperor Jing, and was born to one of Emperor Jing's favorite Concubines, Technological advances also marked this period. One of the great Chinese inventions, paper, dates from the Han Dynasty, largely attributed to the court eunuch Cai Lun (50 - 121 AD). Paper is thin material mainly used for writing upon printing upon or packaging Cai Lun ( (ca 50 AD&ndash121 Courtesy name Jingzhong (敬仲 was a Chinese Eunuch, who is conventionally regarded as the Inventor By the 1st century BC, the Chinese had discovered how to forge the highly durable metal of steel, by melting together wrought iron with cast iron. Steel is an Alloy consisting mostly of Iron, with a Carbon content between 0 QtubIronPillarJPG|thumb|right| Iron pillar at Delhi India containing 98% wrought iron]] Wrought iron is commercially pure Iron. Cast iron usually refers to grey cast iron, but identifies a large group of Ferrous Alloys which solidify with a Eutectic. There were great mathematicians, astronomers, statesmen, and technological inventors such as Zhang Heng (78 - 139 AD), who invented the world's first hydraulic-powered armillary sphere. A mathematician is a person whose primary area of study and research is the field of Mathematics. Historically Astronomy was more concerned with the classification and description of phenomena in the sky while Astrophysics attempted to explain these phenomena A statesman or stateswoman or statesperson is usually a Politician or other notable figure of State who has had a long and respected career in An inventor is a person who creates or discovers a new method form device or other useful means Zhang Heng ( (CE 78–139 was an astronomer, mathematician, inventor, geographer, cartographer, artist, poet For the mechanical technology see Hydraulic machinery and Hydraulic cylinder Hydraulics is a topic of science and Engineering [8][9] He was also largely responsible for the early development of the shi poetry style in China. Shi ( is the Chinese word for " Poetry " or "poem" Zhang Heng's work in mechanical gear systems influenced countless numbers of inventors and engineers to follow, such as Ma Jun, Yi Xing, Zhang Sixun, Su Song, etc. Ma Jun (fl 220&ndash265 styled Deheng (徳衡 was a Chinese Mechanical Engineer and government official during the Three Kingdoms Yi Xing ( 683–727 born Zhang Sui (张遂 was a Chinese Astronomer, Mathematician, mechanical engineer, and Buddhist monk Zhang Sixun ( fl 10th century was a Chinese Astronomer and Military engineer from Bazhong Sichuan during the early Su Song ( style name: Zirong 子容 (1020&ndash1101 AD was a renowned Chinese statesman, astronomer, cartographer, Zhang Heng's most famous invention was a seismometer with a swinging pendulum that signified the cardinal direction of earthquakes that struck locations hundreds of kilometres away from the positioned device. Seismometers (from Greek Seism - "the shakes" - and Metro - "I measure" are instruments that measure and record motions of the ground including A pendulum is a mass that is attached to a pivot from which it can swing freely An earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth 's crust that creates Seismic waves Earthquakes are recorded with a Seismometer [8][10][11] There was also continuing development in Chinese philosophy, with figures such as Wang Chong (27 - 97 AD), whose written work represented in part the great intellectual atmosphere of the day. Wang Chong ( 27&ndashc 100 AD Wang also accurately described the process of the Water cycle. Among his various written achievements, Wang Chong accurately described the water cycle in meteorology. The Earth 's Water is always in movement and the water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle, describes the continuous movement of water on above Meteorology (from Greek grc μετέωρος metéōros, "high in the sky" and grc -λογία -logia) is the Interdisciplinary [12] Zhang Heng argued that light emanating from the moon was merely the reflected light that came originally from the sun, and accurately described the reasons for solar eclipse and lunar eclipse as path obstructions of light by the celestial bodies of the earth, sun, and moon. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between the Sun and the Earth so that the Sun is wholly or partially obscured A lunar eclipse occurs whenever the Moon passes through some portion of the Earth's shadow [13]
Military technology in the Han period was advanced by the use of cast iron and steel, which the 1st century engineer Du Shi had made easier by applying the hydraulic power of waterwheels in working the bellows of the blast furnace. Cast iron usually refers to grey cast iron, but identifies a large group of Ferrous Alloys which solidify with a Eutectic. Steel is an Alloy consisting mostly of Iron, with a Carbon content between 0 An engineer is a person professionally engaged in a field of Engineering. Du Shi ( d 38 was a Chinese governmental Prefect of Nanyang in 31 AD and a mechanical Engineer of the Eastern Han Dynasty in Ancient For the mechanical technology see Hydraulic machinery and Hydraulic cylinder Hydraulics is a topic of science and Engineering A water wheel is a means of extracting power from the flow (or fall of water otherwise known as Hydropower. A bellows is a device for delivering pressurized Air in a controlled quantity to a controlled location A blast furnace is a type of metallurgical Furnace used for Smelting to produce metals generally Iron. [14] The military of the Han Dynasty also engaged in chemical warfare, as written in the Hou Han Shu for the governor of Ling-ling, Yang Xuan, who fought against a peasant revolt near Guiyang in 178 AD:
| “ | The bandits were numerous, and Yang's forces very weak, so his men were filled with alarm and despondency. Chemical warfare involves using the toxic properties of Chemical substances to kill injure or incapacitate an enemy. The Book of the Later Han ( is one of the official Chinese Historical works which was compiled by Fan Ye in the 5th century, using Guiyang ( is the capital of Guizhou Province the People's Republic of China. But he organized several dozen horse-drawn vehicles carrying bellows to blow powdered lime strongly forth, he caused incendiary rags to be tied to the tails of a number of horses, and he prepared other vehicles full of bowmen and crossbowmen. Calcium oxide ( CaO) commonly known as burnt lime, lime or quicklime, is a widely used Chemical compound. The lime chariots went forward first, and as the bellows were plied the smoke was blown forwards according to the wind, then the rags were kindled and the frightened horses rushed forwards throwing the enemy lines into confusion, after which the bowmen and crossbowmen opened fire, the drums and gongs were sounded, and the terrified enemy was utterly destroyed and dispersed. [15] | ” |
There were other notable technological advancements during the Han period. This includes the hydraulic-powered trip hammer for agriculture and iron industry,[16] the winnowing machine for agriculture,[17] and the rotary fan and Cardan suspension of Ding Huan (fl. A trip hammer (alt helve hammer) is a massive powered Hammer, usually raised by a Cam and then released to fall under the force of gravity. Wind winnowing is an agricultural method developed by ancient cultures for separating grain from Chaff. A mechanical fan is an electrically powered device used to produce an airflow for the purpose of creature comfort (particularly in the heat ventilation, exhaust 180 AD). [18]
Beginning of the Silk Road
- Further information: Protectorate of the Western Regions and Chief Official of the Western Regions
From 138 BC, Emperor Wu also dispatched Zhang Qian twice as his envoy to the Western Regions, and in the process pioneered the route known as the Silk Road from Chang'an (today's Xi'an, Shaanxi Province), through Xinjiang and Central Asia, and on to the east coast of the Mediterranean Sea. The Silk Road, or Silk Routes, are an extensive interconnected network of Trade routes across the Asian continent connecting East South and Western Asia with the The Protectorate of the Western Regions was a Chinese Military government established by the Han Dynasty to manage and to control the Western Regions The Chief Official of the Western Regions was a Chinese military official in charge of the Western Regions. Zhang Qian ( 張[[wikt 騫|騫]] Wade-Giles Chang Ch'ien was an imperial envoy to the outside world in the 2nd century BC during the time of the Han Dynasty The Western Regions or Xiyu ( was a historical name specified in the Chinese chronicles between the 3rd century BC to 8th century that referred to the regions west of Jade The Silk Road, or Silk Routes, are an extensive interconnected network of Trade routes across the Asian continent connecting East South and Western Asia with the UserEl_C --> Xi'an ( Postal map spelling: Sian is the Capital of the Shaanxi province in the ( Postal map spelling: Shensi) is a north-central province of the People's Republic of China, and includes portions of the Loess Xinjiang ( Uyghur: شىنجاڭ Shinjang;; Postal map spelling: Sinkiang; Turkish: Sincan, Sincan Uygur Özerk Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south
Following Zhang Qian's embassy and report, commercial relations between China and Central as well as Western Asia flourished, as many Chinese missions were sent throughout the 1st century BC, initiating the development of the Silk Road:
- "The largest of these embassies to foreign states numbered several hundred persons, while even the smaller parties included over 100 members. In writing a report is a document characterized by information or other content reflective of inquiry or investigation which is tailored to the context of a given situation and audience The Silk Road, or Silk Routes, are an extensive interconnected network of Trade routes across the Asian continent connecting East South and Western Asia with the . . In the course of one year anywhere from five to six to over ten parties would be sent out. " (Shiji, trans. The Records of the Grand Historian, also known in English by the Chinese name 史記 or Shiji, written from 109 BC to 91 BC Burton Watson).
China also sent missions to Parthia, which were followed up by reciprocal missions from Parthian envoys around 100 BC:
- "When the Han envoy first visited the kingdom of Anxi (Parthia), the king of Anxi dispatched a party of 20,000 horsemen to meet them on the eastern border of the kingdom. Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran Anxi ( is the ancient Chinese name for Parthia. Anxi was described by the Chinese explorer Zhang Qian who visited the neighbouring countries of Bactria . . When the Han envoys set out again to return to China, the king of Anxi dispatched envoys of his own to accompany them. . . The emperor was delighted at this. " (Shiji, 123, trans. The Records of the Grand Historian, also known in English by the Chinese name 史記 or Shiji, written from 109 BC to 91 BC Burton Watson).
By AD 97 the Chinese general Ban Chao had embarked on a military expedition as far west as the landmass encompassed by present-day Ukraine in pursuit of fleeing Xiongnu insurgents, and returned eastward to establish base on the shores of the Caspian Sea with 70,000 men and established direct military contacts with the Parthian Empire, also dispatching an envoy to Rome in the person of Gan Ying. Control of the Tarim Basin Ban Chao like his predecessors Huo Qubing and Wei Qing from the earlier-half of the Han Dynasty before him is said to The Xiongnu ( Turkish: Doğu Hun were a confederation of nomadic tribes from Central Asia with a ruling class of unknown origin and other subjugated tribes The Caspian Sea is the largest enclosed body of water on Earth by area variously classed as the world's largest lake or a full-fledged Sea. Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Gan Ying ( Hanyu Pinyin: Gān Yīng was a Chinese military Ambassador who was sent on a mission to Rome in AD 97 by the Chinese General
Several Roman embassies to China are recounted in Chinese history, starting with a Hou Hanshu (History of the Later Han) account of a Roman convoy set out by emperor Antoninus Pius that reached the Chinese capital Luoyang in 166 and was greeted by Emperor Huan. Sino-Roman relations started first on an indirect basis during the 2nd century BC. The Book of the Later Han ( is one of the official Chinese Historical works which was compiled by Fan Ye in the 5th century, using The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus ( September 19, 86 &ndash March 7 161) generally known in English as Antoninus Pius Luoyang ( is a Prefecture-level city in western Henan province, People's Republic of China. Family background and ascension Liu Zhi was born in 132 to Liu Yi (劉翼 the Marquess of Liwu and his Concubine Yan Ming (匽明 Good exchanges such as Chinese silk, African ivory, and Roman incense increased the contacts between the East and West.
Contacts with the Kushan Empire led to the introduction of Buddhism to China from India in the first century. The Kushan Empire (c 1st &ndash 3rd centuries) was a Bactrian state that at its cultural zenith Circa 105 &ndash 250 Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices
Rise of landholding class
To secure funding for his triumphant campaigns against the Xiongnu, Emperor Wu relinquished land control to merchants and the rich, and in effect legalized the privatization of lands. The Xiongnu ( Turkish: Doğu Hun were a confederation of nomadic tribes from Central Asia with a ruling class of unknown origin and other subjugated tribes Land taxes were based on the sizes of fields instead of on income. The harvest could not always pay the taxes completely as incomes from selling harvest were often market-driven and a stable amount could not be guaranteed, especially not after harvest-reducing natural disasters. Merchants and prominent families then lured peasants to sell their lands since land accumulation guaranteed living standards of theirs and their descendants' in the agricultural society of China. Lands were hence accumulating into a new class of landholding families. The Han government in turn imposed more taxes on the remaining independent servants in order to make up the tax losses, therefore encouraging more peasants to come under the landholding elite or the landlords. This could be seen through such examples as the written evidence in the Yan Tie Lun (Discourses on Salt and Iron), written about 80 BC, where the Lord Grand Secretary is quoted in this passage in his support of nationalizing the salt and iron industries:
| “ | Formerly the overbearing and powerful great families, obtaining control of the profits of the mountains and lakes, mined iron ore and smelted it with great bellows, and evaporated brine for salt. Salt is a Dietary mineral composed primarily of Sodium chloride that is essential for Animal life but toxic to most land plants Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 Iron ores are rocks and Minerals from which Metallic Iron can be economically extracted A bellows is a device for delivering pressurized Air in a controlled quantity to a controlled location Brine (lat saltus) is Water saturated or nearly saturated with Salt (NaCl A single family would assemble a multitude, sometimes as many as a thousand men or more, for the most part wandering unattached plebeians (fang liu ren min) who had traveled far from their own villages, abandoning the tombs (of their ancestors). Plebs were the general body of landowners of Roman Citizens in Ancient Rome. Thus attaching themselves to the great families, they came together in the midst of mountain fastnesses or desolate marshes, bringing about thereby the fruition of business based on selfish intrigue (for profit) and intended to aggrandise the power of particular firms and factions. [19] | ” |
Ideally the peasants pay the landlords certain periodic (usually annual) amount of income, who in turn provide protection against crimes and other hazards. In fact an increasing number of peasant population in the prosperous Han society and limited amount of lands provided the elite to elevate their standards for any new subordinate peasants. The inadequate education and often complete illiteracy of peasants forced them into a living of providing physical services, which were mostly farming in an agricultural society. The peasants, without other professions for their better living, compromised to the lowered standard and sold their harvest to pay their landlords. In fact they often had to delay the payment or borrow money from their landlords in the aftermath of natural disasters that reduced harvests. To make the situation worse, some Han rulers double-taxed the peasants. Eventually the living conditions of the peasants worsened as they solely depended on the harvest of the land they once owned.
The landholding elite and landlords, for their part, provided inaccurate information of subordinate peasants and lands to avoid paying taxes; to this very end corruption and incompetence of the Confucian scholar gentry on economics would play a vital part. Scholar-bureaucrats or scholar-officials were civil servants appointed by the Emperor of China to perform day-to-day governance from the Sui Dynasty to Han court officials who attempted to strip lands out of the landlords faced such enormous resistance that their policies would never be put in to place. In fact only a member of the landholding families, for instance Wang Mang, was able to put his reforming ideals into effect despite failures of his "turning the clock back" policies.
The Han government kept records on people's property to assess taxes. Fenghuang are mythological Chinese birds that reign over all other birds Yet government officials and secretaries weren't the only ones documenting property. In the Han period the prototype of contractual language and privately signed contracts appear for those wishing to keep their own private documents on their property for later use in court if necessary. A contract is an exchange of promises between two or more parties to do or refrain from doing an act which is enforceable in a court of law [20] However, creating signed contracts with documented witnesses and scribes was not in common use until the Tang period (618–907), while contractual language did not "permeate Chinese life" until the Yuan Dynasty (1279–1238), according to historians Valerie Hansen and Timothy Brook. The Tang Dynasty ( Middle Chinese: dhɑng (June 18 618&ndashJune 4 907 was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by The Yuan Dynasty ( Pinyin: Yuáncháo Dai Ön Ulus (Дай Юан Улс was a ruling Dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai [20]
Interruption of Han rule
After 200 years, Han rule was interrupted briefly during AD 9–24 by Wang Mang, a reformer and a member of the landholding families. Year 9 ( IX) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Year 24 was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Wang Mang ( (45 BC&ndashOctober 6 23 Courtesy name Jujun (巨君 was a Han Dynasty official who seized the throne from the Liu family The economic situation deteriorated at the end of Western Han Dynasty. Wang Mang, believing the Liu family had lost the Mandate of Heaven, took power and turned the clock back with vigorous monetary and land reforms, which damaged the economy even further. The Mandate of Heaven (天命 Pīnyīn: Tiānmìng is a traditional Chinese philosophical concept concerning the legitimacy of rulers
Rise and fall of Eastern Han Dynasty
A distant relative of Liu royalty, Liu Xiu, prevailed after a number of agrarian rebellions had overthrown Wang Mang's Xin Dynasty, and he reestablished the Han Dynasty (commonly referred to as the Eastern Han Dynasty, as his capital was at Luoyang, east of the old Han Dynasty capital at Chang'an) in AD 25. Family background Liu Xiu was the sixth generation descendant of Emperor Jing of the Former (or Western Han Luoyang ( is a Prefecture-level city in western Henan province, People's Republic of China. Chang'an ( is an ancient Capital of more than ten dynasties in Chinese history. He and his son Emperor Ming of Han and grandson Emperor Zhang of Han were generally considered able emperors whose reigns were the prime of the Eastern Han Dynasty. Family background Then-Liu Yang was born in 28 to Emperor Guangwu and his first love Consort Yin Lihua. Family background Then-Prince Da was born to then-Crown Prince Liu Zhuang and one of his consorts Consort Jia, in 57 After Emperor Zhang, however, the dynasty fell into states of corruption and political power struggles among three groups of powerful individuals -- eunuchs, empresses' clans, and Confucian scholar-officials. A eunuch (ˈjuːnək is a Castrated man in particular one castrated early enough to have major hormonal consequences the term usually refers to those castrated in order to None of these three parties was able to improve the harsh livelihood of peasants under the landholding families. Land privatizations and accumulations on the hands of the elite affected the societies of the Three Kingdoms and the Southern and Northern Dynasties that the landholding elite held the actual driving and ruling power of the country. The Three Kingdoms period ( is a period in the History of China, part of an era of disunity called the Six Dynasties following immediately the loss of This article is about the Southern and Northern Dynasties in China. Successful ruling entities worked with these families, and consequently their policies favored the elite. Adverse effects of the Nine grade controller system or the Nine rank system were brilliant examples. The Nine rank system ( Pinyin: jiǔ pǐn zhōng zhèng zhī or jiǔ pǐn guǎn rén fǎ or much less commonly Nine grade controller system, was a Civil service The Nine rank system ( Pinyin: jiǔ pǐn zhōng zhèng zhī or jiǔ pǐn guǎn rén fǎ or much less commonly Nine grade controller system, was a Civil service
Taiping Taoist ideals of equal rights and equal land distribution quickly spread throughout the peasantry. Taoism (pronounced /ˈdaʊɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊɪzəm/ also spelled '''Daoism''') refers to a variety of related Philosophical and Religious traditions As a result, the peasant insurgents of the Yellow Turban Rebellion swarmed the North China Plain, the main agricultural sector of the country. The Yellow Turban Rebellion, sometimes also translated as the Yellow Scarves Rebellion, ( was a AD 184 peasant rebellion against Emperor Ling of Han The North China Plain ( is based on the deposits of the Huang He (Yellow River and is the largest Alluvial plain of eastern Asia. Power of the Liu royalty then fell into the hands of local governors and warlords, despite suppression of the main upraising of Zhang Jiao and his brothers. A warlord is a person with power who has military control over a subnational area due to Armed forces loyal to the warlord and not to a central authority Zhang Jiao or Zhang Jue (d 184 was the leader of the Yellow Turbans during the late Eastern Han Dynasty of China. Three overlords eventually succeeded in control of the whole of China proper, ushering in the period of the Three Kingdoms. China proper (also known as Inner China) refers to the historical lands of China where the Han Chinese are the majority Ethnic group, in contrast The Three Kingdoms period ( is a period in the History of China, part of an era of disunity called the Six Dynasties following immediately the loss of The figurehead Emperor Xian reigned until 220 when Cao Pi forced his abdication. Emperor Xian of Han ( Traditional 漢獻帝 Simplified 汉献帝 Pinyin Hàn Xiàn dì, Wade-Giles Han Hsien-ti; Cao Pi (曹丕 187 - June 29, 226) formally Emperor Wen of (Cao Wei (曹魏文帝 Courtesy name Zihuan (子桓 was Abdication (from the Latin abdicatio, disowning renouncing from ab, away from and dicare, to declare to proclaim as not belonging to one
Gallery of art
 A Western Han Dynasty bronze tripod lamp |
 A Western Han Dynasty gilt-bronze lamp set |
 An Eastern Han lacquered wooden basket with three-inch figure painting, unearthed at Lolang, North Korea |
 A bronze Western Han horse in mid gallop, 2nd century BC, found in Gansu |
 Sculptures of maids and servants, 2nd century BC |
 A terracotta sitting lady, 2nd-1st century BC |
 Jade ornament from the Western Han period |
Emperors of Han Dynasty
| Posthumous Name | Personal Name | Period of Reign | Era Name | Range of years |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Convention: "Han" + posthumous name, excepting Liu Gong, Liu Hong, Ruzi Ying, the Prince of Changyi, the Marquess of Beixiang, and the Prince of Hongnong. In a general sense lacquer is a clear or coloured Varnish, that dries by solvent evaporation and often a curing process as well that produces a hard durable finish in any ( is a province located in the northwest of the People's Republic of China. Jade is an Ornamental stone. The term jade is applied to two different rocks that are made up of different Silicate minerals. Fenghuang are mythological Chinese birds that reign over all other birds Chinese jade is any of the carved-jade objects produced in China from the Neolithic Period (c A posthumous name is an honorary name given to royalty nobles and sometimes others in some cultures after the person's death A Chinese era name ( is the Era name, reign period or regnal title used when traditionally numbering years in an emperor's reign and naming certain Chinese | ||||
| Western Han Dynasty 206 – 9 AD | ||||
| Gao Zu 高帝 |
Liu Bang 劉邦 |
206 – 195 BC | Did not exist | |
| Hui Di 惠帝 |
Liu Ying 劉盈 |
194 – 188 BC | Did not exist | |
| Shao Di (Shao Di Gong) 少帝 |
Liu Gong 劉恭 |
188 – 184 BC | Did not exist | |
| Shao Di (Shao Di Hong) 少帝 |
Liu Hong 劉弘 |
184 – 180 BC | Did not exist | |
| Wen Di 文帝 |
Liu Heng 劉恆 |
179 – 157 BC | Hòuyuán (後元) | 163 – 156 BC |
| Jing Di 景帝 |
Liu Qi 劉啟 |
156 – 141 BC | Zhōngyuán (中元) Hòuyuán (後元) |
149 – 143 BC 143 – 141 BC |
| Wu Di 武帝 |
Liu Che 劉徹 |
140 – 87 BC | Jiànyuán (建元) Yuánguāng(元光) |
140 – 135 BC 134 – 129 BC |
| Zhao Di 昭帝 |
Liu Fuling 劉弗陵 |
86 – 74 BC | Shǐyuán (始元) Yuánfèng (元鳳) |
86 – 80 BC 80 – 75 BC |
| The Prince of Changyi 昌邑王 or 海昏侯 |
Liu He 劉賀 |
74 BC | Yuánpíng (元平) | 74 BC |
| Xuan Di 宣帝 |
Liu Xun 劉詢 |
73 – 49 BC | Běnshǐ (本始) Dìjié (地節) |
73 BC – 70 BC 69 – 66 BC |
| Yuan Di 元帝 |
Liu Shi 劉奭 |
48 – 33 BC | Chūyuán (初元) Yǒngguāng (永光) |
48 – 44 BC 43 – 39 BC |
| Cheng Di 成帝 |
Liu Ao 劉驁 |
32 – 7 BC | Jiànshǐ (建始) Hépíng (河平) |
32 – 28 BC 28 – 25 BC |
| Ai Di 哀帝 |
Liu Xin 劉欣 |
6 – 1 BC | Jiànpíng (建平) Yuánshòu (元壽) |
6 – 3 BC 2 – 1 BC |
| Ping Di 平帝 |
Liu Kan 劉衎 |
1 BC – 5 AD | Yuánshǐ (元始) | 1 BC – 5 AD |
| Ruzi Ying 孺子嬰 |
Liu Ying 劉嬰 |
6 – 8 | Jùshè (居攝) Chūshǐ (初始) |
6 – October 8 November 8 – December 8 |
| Xin Dynasty (AD 9–23) | ||||
| Xin Dynasty of Wang Mang (王莽) | 9 – 23 | Shǐjiànguó (始建國) Tiānfēng (天鳳) |
9 – 13 14 – 19 |
|
| Continuation of Han Dynasty | ||||
| Geng Shi Di 更始帝 |
Liu Xuan 劉玄 |
23 – 25 | Gēngshǐ (更始) | 23 – 25 |
| Eastern Han Dynasty 25 – 220 | ||||
| Guang Wu Di 光武帝 |
Liu Xiu 劉秀 |
25 – 57 | Jiànwǔ (建武) Jiànwǔzhongōyuán (建武中元) |
25 – 56 56 – 57 |
| Ming Di 明帝 |
Liu Zhuang 劉莊 |
58 – 75 | Yǒngpíng (永平) | 58 – 75 |
| Zhang Di 章帝 |
Liu Da 劉炟 |
76 – 88 | Jiànchū (建初) Yuánhé (元和) |
76 – 84 84 – 87 |
| He Di 和帝 |
Liu Zhao 劉肇 |
89 – 105 | Yǒngyuán (永元) Yuánxīng (元興) |
89 – 105 105 |
| Shang Di 殤帝 |
Liu Long 劉隆 |
106 | Yánpíng (延平) | 9 months in 106 |
| An Di 安帝 |
Liu Hu 劉祜 |
106 – 125 | Yǒngchū (永初) Yuánchū (元初) |
107 – 113 114 – 120 |
| Shao Di, the Marquess of Beixiang 少帝 or 北鄉侯 |
Liu Yi 劉懿 |
125 | Yánguāng (延光) | 125 |
| Shun Di 順帝 |
Liu Bao 劉保 |
125 – 144 | Yǒngjiàn (永建) Yángjiā (陽嘉) |
126 – 132 132 – 135 |
| Chong Di 沖帝 |
Liu Bing 劉炳 |
144 – 145 | Yōngxī (永嘉) | 145 |
| Zhi Di 質帝 |
Liu Zuan 劉纘 |
145 – 146 | Běnchū (本初) | 146 |
| Huan Di 桓帝 |
Liu Zhi 劉志 |
146 – 168 | Jiànhé (建和) Hépíng (和平) |
147 – 149 150 |
| Ling Di 靈帝 |
Liu Hong 劉宏 |
168 – 189 | Jiànníng (建寧) Xīpíng (熹平) |
168 – 172 172 – 178 |
| Shao Di, the Prince of Hongnong 少帝 or 弘農王 |
Liu Bian 劉辯 |
189 | Guīngxī (光熹) Zhàoníng (昭寧) |
189 189 |
| Xian Di 獻帝 |
Liu Xie (liú xié) 劉協 |
189 – 220 | Yǒnghàn (永漢) (中平} |
189 189 |
See also
- Battle of Gaixia
- Battle of Jushi
- Chu-Han Contention
- Chinese sovereign
- Kingdoms of Han Dynasty
- Emperor of China
- History of China
- List of largest empires
- Family tree of the Han Dynasty
- Mawangdui
Notes
- ^ Bulling, 312. Early life Liú Bāng was born into a lower class farming family in Pei (present Pei County in Jiangsu Province) Early life and years as crown prince How Liu Ying's childhood was like is not completely clear Emperor Wen of Han (202 BC&ndash157 BC was an emperor of the Han Dynasty in China. Early life and career as crown prince Emperor Jing was born to Emperor Wen, then Prince of Dai, and Consort Dou, one of his favorite consorts in Background birth and years as crown prince Emperor Wu was the tenth child of Emperor Jing, and was born to one of Emperor Jing's favorite Concubines, Birth and childhood before ascending the throne In 94 BC then-Prince Fuling was born to a favorite concubine of Emperor Wu Consort Zhao who carried the title Lady Gouyi (鉤弋夫人 Background and career as the Prince of Changyi It is not known when Prince He was born Family background and early life Parentage disaster and a barely spared young life Liu Bingyi was born in 91 BC to Liu Jin, the son of then-Crown Prince Family background When Emperor Yuan was born as Liu Shi in 75 BC his parents Liu Bingyi and Xu Pingjun were commoners without titles Birth and career as Crown Prince Emperor Cheng was born circa 51 BC to then-Crown Prince Liu Shi (later Emperor Yuan) and one of his consorts Consort Wang (later Family background and early life as the Prince of Dingtao Emperor Ai was born to Prince Liu Kang of Dingtao (劉康 the brother to then-reigning Emperor Cheng and son Family background and life as imperial prince Then-Liu Jizi was born in 9 BC Emperor Ruzi of Han (AD 5&ndashAD 25 commonly known as " Ying the Kid " ( and with the personal name of Liu Ying (劉嬰 was last emperor The Xin Dynasty ( was a Chinese Dynasty (although strictly speaking it had only one Emperor) which lasted from 9 - 23 AD The Xin Dynasty ( was a Chinese Dynasty (although strictly speaking it had only one Emperor) which lasted from 9 - 23 AD Wang Mang ( (45 BC&ndashOctober 6 23 Courtesy name Jujun (巨君 was a Han Dynasty official who seized the throne from the Liu family Emperor Gengshi of Han, ch 漢更始帝, py. gèng shĭ dì, wg. Family background Liu Xiu was the sixth generation descendant of Emperor Jing of the Former (or Western Han Family background Then-Liu Yang was born in 28 to Emperor Guangwu and his first love Consort Yin Lihua. Family background Then-Prince Da was born to then-Crown Prince Liu Zhuang and one of his consorts Consort Jia, in 57 Family background Then-Prince Zhao was born to Emperor Zhang and his Concubine Consort Liang in 79 Family background Then-Prince Long was born in autumn 105 to Emperor He and a Concubine whose identity is unknown Family background and ascension to the throne Then-Prince Hu was born in 94 to Prince Liu Qing of Qinghe and his Concubine, Consort Zuǒ Xiǎo É Family background It is not known when Yi was born -- other than he was described as young at the time he ascended the throne in 125 and therefore must have been born late in the Family background Then-Prince Bao was born to Emperor An and his Concubine Consort Li in 115 apparently shortly after Emperor An had created his Family background Then-Prince Bing was born to Emperor Shun and his Concubine Consort Yu in 143 Family background and ascension to the throne Liu Zuan the future Emperor Zhi was born to Liu Hong (劉鴻 the Prince of Le'an and his wife Consort Chen in 138 Family background and ascension Liu Zhi was born in 132 to Liu Yi (劉翼 the Marquess of Liwu and his Concubine Yan Ming (匽明 Emperor Ling of Han, trad ch 漢靈帝, sim ch 汉灵帝, py. The Prince of Hongnong (176-190 ( trad ch: 弘農王 sim ch: 弘农王 py. Emperor Xian of Han ( Traditional 漢獻帝 Simplified 汉献帝 Pinyin Hàn Xiàn dì, Wade-Giles Han Hsien-ti; The Battle of Gaixia (垓下之戰 was a Chinese battle in 202 BC, during the Chu-Han contention between rival rulers of China which followed the collapse The Battle of Jushi was a Battle between the Han Dynasty and the Xiongnu over the Turpan Basin in 67 BC. Chinese sovereign is the ruler of a particular period in ancient China. The Emperor of China ( refers to any sovereign of Imperial China reigning since the founding of the Qin Dynasty in 221 BC until the fall of Chinese civilization originated in various city-states along the Yellow River ( valley in the Neolithic era This article provides a list of the largest Empires in world history. Overview This is a family tree from which Emperor Xian, the last emperor of the Han Dynasty was a descendant of the first emperor Liu Bang. Mawangdui ( is an archaeological site located in Changsha, China.
- ^ a b c d Ebrey, 49.
- ^ Fairbank, 106.
- ^ Yuan, 193.
- ^ Menzies, 721.
- ^ Menzies, 721–722.
- ^ Ebrey et al. (2006), 164.
- ^ a b Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 30.
- ^ Morton, 70.
- ^ Wright, 66.
- ^ Huang, 64.
- ^ Needham, Volume 3, 468.
- ^ Needham, Volume 3, 414.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 370
- ^ Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 167.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 184.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 118.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 233.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 22.
- ^ a b Brook, 59.
References
- Brook, Timothy. (1998). The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-22154-0
- Bulling, A. "A Landscape Representation of the Western Han Period," Artibus Asiae (Volume 25, Number 4, 1962): 293–317.
- Ebrey, Walthall, and Palais (2006). East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0-618-13384-4.
- Fairbank, John King and Merle Goldman (1992). China: A New History; Second Enlarged Edition (2006). Cambridge: MA; London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01828-1
- Huang, Ray (1997). China: A Macro History. New York: An East Gate Book, M. E. SHARPE Inc.
- Menzies, Nicholas K. "Strategic Space: Exclusion and Inclusion in Wildland Policies in Late Imperial China," Modern Asian Studies (Volume 26, Number 4, 1992): 719–733.
- Morton, W. Scott and Charlton M. Lewis (2005). China: It's History and Culture. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
- Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 2. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.
- Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Part 7. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.
- Wright, David Curtis (2001) The History of China. Westport: Greenwood Press.
- Yuan, Zheng. "Local Government Schools in Sung China: A Reassessment," History of Education Quarterly (Volume 34, Number 2; Summer 1994): 193–213.
External links
- Han Dynasty by Minnesota State University
- Han Dynasty art with video commentary, Minneapolis Institute of Arts
| Preceded by Qin Dynasty |
Dynasties in Chinese history 206 BC – AD 220 |
Succeeded by Three Kingdoms |
Not to be confused with the Qing Dynasty, the last dynasty of China The following is a Chronology of the dynasties in Chinese history. The Three Kingdoms period ( is a period in the History of China, part of an era of disunity called the Six Dynasties following immediately the loss of
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