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Haloperidol
Systematic (IUPAC) name
4-[4-(4-chlorophenyl)-4-hydroxy-1-piperidyl]-
1-(4-fluorophenyl)-butan-1-one
Identifiers
CAS number 52-86-8
ATC code N05AD01
PubChem 3559
DrugBank APRD00538
Chemical data
Formula C21H23ClFNO2 
Mol. mass 375. IUPAC Nomenclature is a system of naming Chemical compounds and of describing the science of Chemistry in general CAS registry numbers are unique numerical identifiers for Chemical compounds Polymers biological sequences mixtures and Alloys They are also referred to The Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System is used for the classification of drugs It is controlled by the WHO Collaborating Centre for Drug A section of the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System. PubChem is a Database of chemical Molecules The system is maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI a component The DrugBank database available at the University of Alberta is a unique Bioinformatics and Cheminformatics resource that combines detailed drug (i A chemical formula is a way of expressing information about the Atoms that constitute a particular Chemical compound, and how the relationship between those atoms changes Carbon (kɑɹbən is a Chemical element with the symbol C and its Atomic number is 6 Hydrogen (ˈhaɪdrədʒən is the Chemical element with Atomic number 1 Chlorine (ˈklɔriːn from the Greek word 'χλωρóς' ( khlôros, meaning 'pale green' is the Chemical element with Atomic number 17 and Fluorine, fluorum meaning "to flow" is the Chemical element with the symbol F and Atomic number 9 Nitrogen (ˈnaɪtɹəʤɪn is a Chemical element that has the symbol N and Atomic number 7 and Atomic weight 14 Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the The molecular mass (abbreviated m of a substance, more commonly referred to as molecular weight and abbreviated as MW, is the Mass of one 9 g/mol (plain haloperidol)
Pharmacokinetic data
Bioavailability Approx. In Pharmacology, bioavailability is used to describe the fraction of an administered Dose of unchanged drug that reaches the Systemic circulation, one of 60 to 70% (tablets and liquid)
Metabolism hepatic
Half life 12 to 36 hours
Excretion Biliary and renal
Therapeutic considerations
Pregnancy cat.

C
Legal status

℞ Prescription only
Routes Oral, IM, IV, depot (as decanoate ester)

Haloperidol (sold under the tradenames Aloperidin, Bioperidolo, Brotopon, Dozic, Duraperidol (Germany), Einalon S, Eukystol, Haldol, Halosten, Keselan, Linton, Peluces, Serenace, Serenase, Sigaperidol) is a conventional, or typical, butyrophenone antipsychotic drug with pharmacological effects similar to the phenothiazines. Drug metabolism is the Metabolism of drugs, their Biochemical modification or degradation usually through specialized enzymatic systems The biological half-life of a substance is the time it takes for a substance (drug radioactive nuclide or other to lose half of its pharmacologic physiologic or radiologic activity Excretion is the process of eliminating waste products of Metabolism and other non-useful materials The kidneys are complicated organs that have numerous biological roles The pregnancy category of a pharmaceutical agent is an assessment of the risk of fetal injury due to the pharmaceutical if it is used as directed by the mother during The regulation of therapeutic goods, that is drugs and therapeutic devices, varies by jurisdiction In Pharmacology and Toxicology, a route Intramuscular injection is the injection of a substance directly into a Muscle. Intravenous therapy or IV therapy is the giving of Liquid substances directly into a Vein. An injection is an infusion method of putting Liquid into the Body, usually with a hollow needle and a Syringe which is pierced through Decanoic acid is a type of Carboxylic acid.Its formula is CH3(CH28COOH Esters are a class of Chemical compounds and Functional groups Esters consist of an inorganic or organic Acid in which at least Typical antipsychotics (sometimes referred to as first generation antipsychotics, conventional antipsychotics, classical neuroleptics, or major tranquilizers Butyrophenone is a chemical compound (a Ketone) some of its derivatives (called commonly butyrophenones) are used to treat various psychiatric disorders such as Antipsychotics are a group of Psychoactive drugs commonly but not exclusively used to treat Psychosis, which is typified by Schizophrenia. Medication, also referred to as medicine, can be loosely defined as any substance intended for use in the diagnosis cure mitigation treatment or prevention of disease Phenothiazine is the Organic compound with the formula S(C6H42NH

Haloperidol is used in the treatment of schizophrenia and, more acutely, in the treatment of acute psychotic states and delirium. Schizophrenia ( from the Greek roots schizein (σχίζειν "to split" and phrēn Psychosis (from the Greek ψυχή "psyche" for mind or soul and -οσις "-osis" for abnormal condition with adjective psychotic Delirium is an acute and relatively sudden (developing over hours to days decline in attention-focus perception and Cognition. A long-acting decanoate ester is used as a long acting injection given every 4 weeks to people with schizophrenia or related illnesses who have a poor compliance with medication and suffer frequent relapses of illness. Decanoic acid is a type of Carboxylic acid.Its formula is CH3(CH28COOH Esters are a class of Chemical compounds and Functional groups Esters consist of an inorganic or organic Acid in which at least Schizophrenia ( from the Greek roots schizein (σχίζειν "to split" and phrēn In some countries this can be involuntary under Community Treatment Orders.

It was developed in 1957 by the Belgian company Janssen Pharmaceutica and submitted to first clinical trials in Belgium in the same year[1]. Janssen Pharmaceutica, is a Pharmaceutical company based in Beerse, in the Campine region of the province of Antwerp, Belgium. The Kingdom of Belgium is a Country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters as well as those After being rejected by U.S. company Searle due to side effects, it was later marketed in the U. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the GD Searle & Company or just Searle was a company focusing on life sciences specifically pharmaceuticals agriculture and animal health S. by McNeil Laboratories. McNeil Laboratories is an American pharmaceutical company and a subsidiary of Johnson & Johnson. It was approved by the FDA in 1988.

Contents

Pharmacology

Haloperidol is a neuroleptic and a butyrophenone. Antipsychotics are a group of Psychoactive drugs commonly but not exclusively used to treat Psychosis, which is typified by Schizophrenia. Butyrophenone is a chemical compound (a Ketone) some of its derivatives (called commonly butyrophenones) are used to treat various psychiatric disorders such as Due to its strong central antidopaminergic action, it is classified as a highly potent neuroleptic. It is approximately 50 times more potent than chlorpromazine on a weight basis (50mg chlorpromazine are equivalent to 1mg haloperidol). Chlorpromazine (as chlorpromazine Hydrochloride, abbreviated CPZ, marketed in the US as Thorazine) is a Phenothiazine Antipsychotic Haloperidol possesses a strong activity against delusions and hallucinations, most likely due to an effective dopaminergic receptor blockage in the mesocortex and the limbic system of the brain. A delusion is commonly defined as a fixed False Belief and is used in everyday language to describe a belief that is either false fanciful or derived from Deception A hallucination, in the broadest sense is a Perception in the absence of a stimulus. Dopamine is a Hormone and Neurotransmitter occurring in a wide variety of animals including both vertebrates and invertebrates The limbic system, or Paleomammalian brain is a term for a set of brain structures including the Hippocampus and Amygdala and anterior thalamic nuclei and a limbic It blocks the dopaminergic action in the nigrostriatal pathways, which is the probable reason for the high frequency of extrapyramidal-motoric side-effects (dystonias, akathisia, pseudoparkinsonism). Dopamine is a Hormone and Neurotransmitter occurring in a wide variety of animals including both vertebrates and invertebrates The nigrostriatal pathway is a Neural pathway that connects the Substantia nigra with the Striatum. In Human anatomy, the extrapyramidal system is a Neural network located in the brain that is part of the Motor system involved in the coordination Dystonia is a neurological Movement disorder in which sustained muscle contractions cause twisting and repetitive movements or abnormal postures Akathisia, or acathisia, is a syndrome characterized by unpleasant sensations of "inner" restlessness that manifests itself with an inability to sit still or remain Parkinson's disease (also known as Parkinson disease or PD) is a degenerative disorder of the Central nervous system that often impairs the sufferer's It has minor antihistaminic and anticholinergic properties, therefore cardiovascular and anticholinergic side-effects such as hypotension, dry mouth, constipation, etc. Histamine is a Biogenic amine involved in local immune responses as well as regulating physiological function in the gut and acting as a Neurotransmitter An anticholinergic agent is a substance that blocks the Neurotransmitter acetylcholine in the central and the Peripheral nervous system. This is an article about the rock music band "Circulatory System" In Physiology and Medicine, hypotension refers to an abnormally low Blood pressure. Xerostomia is the medical term for a dry mouth due to a lack of Saliva. Constipation, costiveness, or irregularity, is a condition of the Digestive system in which a person (or animal experiences hard Feces that , are seen quite infrequently, compared with less potent neuroleptics such as chlorpromazine. Haloperidol also has sedative properties and displays a strong action against psychomotor agitation but due to a specific action in the limbic system. A sedative, or more specifically a sedative-hypnotic, is a substance that depresses the Central nervous system (CNS resulting in calmness relaxation sleepiness The limbic system, or Paleomammalian brain is a term for a set of brain structures including the Hippocampus and Amygdala and anterior thalamic nuclei and a limbic It therefore is an effective treatment for mania and states of agitation. Mania (from Greek μανία and that from μαίνομαι - mainomai, "to rage to be furious" is a severe medical condition Additionally, it can be given as an adjuvant in the therapy of severe chronic pain.

The peripheral antidopaminergic effects of haloperidol account for its strong antiemetic activity. There, it acts at the chemoreceptor trigger zone (CTZ). Haloperidol is useful to treat severe forms of nausea/emesis such as those resulting from chemotherapy. Chemotherapy, in its most general sense refers to treatment of disease by chemicals that kill cells specifically those of micro-organisms or Cancer. The peripheral effects lead also to a relaxation of the gastric sphincter muscle and an increased release of the hormone prolactin, with the possible emergence of breast enlargement and secretion of milk (lactation) in both sexes. A sphincter is a structure usually a circular Muscle, that normally maintains constriction of a natural body passage or orifice and which relaxes as required by normal physiological Prolactin ( PRL) or Luteotropic hormone ( LTH) is a Peptide hormone primarily associated with Lactation. Lactation describes the secretion of Milk from the Mammary glands the process of providing that milk to the young and the period of time that a Mother

Pharmacokinetics

Intramuscular injections

The drug is well and rapidly absorbed and has a high bioavailability. Plasma-levels reach their maximum within 20 minutes after injection. The decanoate injectable formulation is for intramuscular administration only and should never be used intravenously.

Intravenous injections

The bioavailability is 100% and the very rapid onset of action is seen within about ten minutes. The duration of action is 3 to 6 hours. If haloperidol is given as slow IV infusion, the onset of action is retarded, but the duration prolonged compared to IM injection.

Therapeutic concentrations

Plasma levels of 4 micrograms per liter to 20 (up to 25) micrograms per liter are required for therapeutic action. The determination of plasma levels can be used to calculate dose adjustments and to check compliance, particularly in long-term patients. Plasma levels in excess of the therapeutic range may lead to a higher incidence of side-effects or even pose the risk of haloperidol intoxication.

Uses

A comprehensive review of haloperidol has found it to be an effective agent in treatment of symptoms associated with schizophrenia. Schizophrenia ( from the Greek roots schizein (σχίζειν "to split" and phrēn [2] Haloperidol is also used in the control of the symptoms of:

Some weeks or even months of treatment may be needed before a remission of schizophrenia is evident. Delirium is an acute and relatively sudden (developing over hours to days decline in attention-focus perception and Cognition. Tic disorders are defined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM based on type (motor or phonic and duration of Tics (sudden rapid nonrhythmic Tourette syndrome (also called Tourette's syndrome, Tourette's disorder, Gilles de la Tourette syndrome, GTS or more commonly simply Tourette's

In some clinics the use of atypical neuroleptics (e. The atypical antipsychotics (also known as second generation antipsychotics) are a group of Antipsychotic drugs used to treat psychiatric conditions g. clozapine, risperidone, olanzapine, ziprasidone) is generally preferred over haloperidol, because these drugs have an appreciably lower incidence of extrapyramidal side-effects. Clozapine (sold as Clozaril, Leponex, Fazaclo, Froidir; Gen-Clozapine in Canada Clozaril, Denzapine, Risperidone (pronounced Ris-PER-ǐ-dōn and sold under the trade name Risperdal in the Netherlands, United States, Canada, the Olanzapine ( Zyprexa, Zyprexa Zydis, Zalasta, Zolafren, Olzapin, or in combination with Fluoxetine Symbyax) is Ziprasidone (marketed as Geodon, Zeldox) was the fifth Atypical antipsychotic to gain FDA approval (February 2001 Each of these drugs, however, has its own spectrum of potentially serious side-effects (e. g. agranulocytosis with clozapine, weight gain with increased risk of diabetes and of stroke). Atypical neuroleptics are also much more expensive and have recently been the subject of increasing controversy regarding their efficacy in comparison to older products and side effects.

Haloperidol was considered indispensable for treating psychiatric emergency situations,[3][4] although the newer atypical drugs have gained greater role in a number of situations as outlined in a series of consensus reviews published between 2001 and 2005. [5][6][7][2] It is enrolled in the World Health Organization List of Essential Medicines. Essential medicines, as defined by the World Health Organization are "those drugs that satisfy the health care needs of the majority of the population they should therefore

As is common with typical neuroleptics, haloperidol is by far more active against "positive" psychotic symptoms (delusions, hallucinations etc. ) than against "negative" symptoms (social withdrawal, autism etc. ). With the exception of the highly effective clozapine, the effectiveness of haloperidol against positive symptoms has not been outperformed by newer antipsychotics. Clozapine (sold as Clozaril, Leponex, Fazaclo, Froidir; Gen-Clozapine in Canada Clozaril, Denzapine,

A multi-year UK study by the Alzheimer's Research Trust suggested that this and other neuroleptic anti-psychotic drugs commonly given to Alzheimer's patients with mild behavioural problems often make their condition worse. Antipsychotics are a group of Psychoactive drugs commonly but not exclusively used to treat Psychosis, which is typified by Schizophrenia. Antipsychotics are a group of Psychoactive drugs commonly but not exclusively used to treat Psychosis, which is typified by Schizophrenia. [8] The study concluded that

“ For most patients with AD, withdrawal of neuroleptics had no overall detrimental effect on functional and cognitive status and by some measures improved functional and cognitive status. Neuroleptics may have some value in the maintenance treatment of more severe neuropsychiatric symptoms, but this possibility must be weighed against the unwanted effects of therapy. The current study helps to inform a clinical management strategy for current practice, but the considerable risks of maintenance therapy highlight the urgency of further work to find, develop, and implement safer and more effective treatment approaches for neuropsychiatric symptoms in people with AD. ”

[9]

The television show Twin Peaks includes an instance in which Haloperidol is used during an interrogation as a truth serum. Twin Peaks is a Television Serial drama that follows the investigation of the brutal murder of popular respected Teenager and homecoming queen A truth drug (or truth serum) is a Psychoactive drug used to attempt to obtain information from an unwilling subject most often by a police intelligence or military There is no recorded history of Haloperidol actually being used for this purpose, and many of the effects on the show seem to be the opposite of the drugs actual effects (including the induction of a psychotic state).

Contraindications

Absolute

Special caution needed

Adverse effects

The drug is noted for its strong early and late extrapyramidal side-effects. In Human anatomy, the extrapyramidal system is a Neural network located in the brain that is part of the Motor system involved in the coordination [2] The risk of the facial disfiguring tardive dyskinesia is around 4% per year in younger patients, higher than with most other antipsychotic drugs. Tardive dyskinesia is a variety of dyskinesia (involuntary repetitive movements manifesting as a side effect of long-term or high-dose use of Dopamine antagonists In patients over the age of 45, the percentage of those afflicted can be even higher. Other predispositive factors may be female gender, preexisting affective disorder and cerebral dysfunction.

Akathisia manifests itself with anxiety, dysphoria, and an inability to remain motionless. Akathisia, or acathisia, is a syndrome characterized by unpleasant sensations of "inner" restlessness that manifests itself with an inability to sit still or remain

Other side effects include dry mouth, lethargy, restlessness of akathisia, muscle-stiffness, muscle-cramping, restlessness, tremors, and weight-gain; side effects like these are more likely to occur when the drug is given in high doses and/or during long-term treatment. Xerostomia is the medical term for a dry mouth due to a lack of Saliva. Akathisia, or acathisia, is a syndrome characterized by unpleasant sensations of "inner" restlessness that manifests itself with an inability to sit still or remain Muscle (from Latin musculus, diminutive of mus "mouse" is contractile tissue of the body and is derived from the Tremor is an unintentional somewhat rhythmic muscle movement involving to-and-from movements (oscillations of one or more parts of the body In the Physical sciences weight is a Measurement of the gravitational Force acting on an object Depression, severe enough to result in suicide, is quite often seen during long-term treatment. Major depressive disorder, also known as major depression, unipolar depression, unipolar disorder, clinical depression, or simply depression Care should be taken to detect and treat depression early in course. Sometimes the change from haloperidol to a mildly potent neuroleptic (e. g. chlorprothixene or chlorpromazine), together with appropriate antidepressant therapy, does help. Chlorprothixene is a Typical antipsychotic drug of the Thioxanthene class Chlorpromazine (as chlorpromazine Hydrochloride, abbreviated CPZ, marketed in the US as Thorazine) is a Phenothiazine Antipsychotic Sedative and anticholinergic side-effects occur more frequently in the elderly.

The potentially fatal neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS) is a significant possible side effect. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS is a life-threatening neurological disorder most often caused by an adverse reaction to neuroleptic or antipsychotic drugs. Haloperidol and fluphenazine are the two drugs which cause NMS most often. Fluphenazine (marketed as Prolixin is a Typical antipsychotic drug NMS involves fever and other symptoms. Allergic and toxic side-effects are uncommon. Skin rash and photosensitivity both occur in less than 1% of patients.

Children and adolescents are particularly sensitive to the early and late extrapyramidal side-effects of haloperidol. It is recommended to treat pediatric patients only if clearly needed and if the psychiatric or neurologic disorder is substantial.

QT prolongation with sudden death is rarely seen. The long QT syndrome ( LQTS) is a Heart condition associated with prolongation of repolarization (recovery following depolarization (excitation of the cardiac Likewise, the development of thromboembolic complications are also rare. Thrombosis is the formation of a blood Clot ( Thrombus) inside a Blood vessel, obstructing the flow of Blood through the Circulatory

Haloperidol may have a negative impact on vigilance or decrease the ability of the patient to drive or operate a machine, particularly initially.

Haloperidol is completely devoid of any potential psychological dependence. A greater problem is that psychiatric patients prescribed this drug may seek to avoid taking it and consequently risk relapse of their symptoms.

Unpleasant withdrawal symptoms, if haloperidol is stopped abruptly after long-term treatment, are sometimes noted. These are usually agitation, anxiety, insomnia, and nausea. But agitation is also a side effect of this drug because of akathisia. Akathisia, or acathisia, is a syndrome characterized by unpleasant sensations of "inner" restlessness that manifests itself with an inability to sit still or remain Rebound of psychotic symptoms and mood swing into mania are also seen.

Other Remarks

During long-term treatment of chronic psychiatric disorders, it should be tried - in regular intervals - to reduce the daily dose to the lowest level needed for maintenance of remission. Sometimes, it may be indicated to terminate haloperidol treatment gradually.

Other forms of therapy (psychotherapy, occupational therapy/ergotherapie, social rehabilitation) should be instituted properly.

Pregnancy and lactation

Data from animal experiments indicate haloperidol is not teratogenic, but is embryotoxic in high doses. Animal testing or animal research is the use of non-human Animals in scientific experimentation. Teratology stems from the Greek ( Genitive) meaning monster, or marvel and, meaning word, speech. In humans, no controlled studies exist. Unconfirmed studies in pregnant women revealed possible damage to the fetus, although most of the women were exposed to multiple drugs during pregnancy. Following accepted general principles, haloperidol should only be given during pregnancy if the benefit to the mother clearly outweighs the potential fetal risk.

Haloperidol, when given to lactating women, is found in significant amounts in their milk. Breastfed children sometimes show extrapyramidal symptoms. If the use of haloperidol during lactation seems indicated, the benefit for the mother should clearly outweigh the risk for the child. Consider termination of breastfeeding.

Carcinogenicity

So far, no statistically acceptable evidence is found to associate long-term use of haloperidol with the potential for increased breast cancer risk in female patients. In an unconfirmed study, relative risks of breast cancer, in inmates of the Buffalo Psychiatric Center undergoing long-term treatment with haloperidol, were 3. 5 (compared to patients hospitalized in general or internal medicine facilities) and 9. 5 (general population), respectively. [11] These results need confirmation by larger studies. If true, carcinogenity is most probably related to the strong increase in plasma-levels of prolactin under long-term treatment with haloperidol. Prolactin ( PRL) or Luteotropic hormone ( LTH) is a Peptide hormone primarily associated with Lactation. This news is another good reason to avoid any unnecessary use of haloperidol.

Interactions

Doses

As directed by the physician, depends on the condition to be treated, age and weight of patient:

Depot forms are also available; these are injected deeply i. m. at regular intervals. The depot forms are not suitable for initial treatment

Overdose

Experimental evidence from animal studies indicates that doses needed for acute poisoning are quite high in relation to therapeutic doses.

Overdoses with depot injections are uncommon, because almost always experienced personnel administer them to patients.

Symptoms

Symptoms are usually due to exaggerated side-effects. Most often encountered are:

Treatment

Treatment is merely symptomatic and involves intensive care with stabilization of vital functions. In early detected cases of oral overdose induction of emesis, gastric lavage and the use of activated charcoal can all be tried. Vomiting (also called throwing up, emesis) is the forceful expulsion of the contents of one's Stomach through the Mouth and sometimes the Gastric Lavage, also commonly called Stomach pump or Gastric irrigation, is the process of cleaning out the contents of the Stomach. Activated carbon, also called activated charcoal or activated coal, is a form of Carbon that has been processed to make it extremely porous and thus to Avoid epinephrine for treatment of hypotension and shock, because its action might be reversed.

Prognosis

Generally, the prognosis of overdose is good and lasting damage is not known, provided that the patient has survived the initial phase.

Other formulations

Skeletal formula of haloperidol decanoate. The decanoate group is highlighted in blue.
Skeletal formula of haloperidol decanoate. The skeletal formula of an Organic compound is a shorthand representation of its molecular structure. The decanoate group is highlighted in blue.

The decanoate ester of haloperidol (Haloperidol decanoate, trade names Haldol decanoate, Halomonth, Neoperidole) has a much longer duration of action, and therefore is used in noncompliant people. Decanoic acid is a type of Carboxylic acid.Its formula is CH3(CH28COOH A dose of 25 to 250 mg is given by intramuscular injection once every two to four weeks. [12]

The IUPAC name of haloperidol decanoate is 4-(4-chlorophenyl)-1-1[4-(4-fluorophenyl)-4-oxobutyl]-4 piperidinyl decanoate. IUPAC Nomenclature is a system of naming Chemical compounds and of describing the science of Chemistry in general

Veterinary use

Haloperidol is also used on many different kinds of animals. It appears to be particularly successful when given to birds; e. g. a parrot that will not otherwise stop plucking its feathers out.

Dose forms

See also

References

  1. ^ B. Biological psychiatry, or biopsychiatry is an approach to Psychiatry that aims to understand Mental disorder in terms of the biological function Granger, S. Albu, The Haloperidol Story, Annals of Clinical Psychiatry (after Jan 1, 2004), Volume 17, Number 3, Number 3/July-September 2005 , pp. 137-140(4)
  2. ^ a b c Joy CB, Adams CE, Lawrie SM (2006). "Haloperidol versus placebo for schizophrenia". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (4): CD003082. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003082.pub2. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 17054159.  
  3. ^ Cavanaugh SV (1986). "Psychiatric emergencies". Med. Clin. North Am. 70 (5): 1185–202. PMID 3736271.  
  4. ^ Currier GW (2003). "The controversy over "chemical restraint" in acute care psychiatry". J Psychiatr Pract 9 (1): 59–70. doi:10.1097/00131746-200301000-00006. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 15985915.  
  5. ^ Allen MH, Currier GW, Hughes DH, Reyes-Harde M, Docherty JP (2001). "The Expert Consensus Guideline Series. Treatment of behavioral emergencies". Postgrad Med (Spec No): 1–88; quiz 89–90. PMID 11500996.  
  6. ^ Allen MH, Currier GW, Hughes DH, Docherty JP, Carpenter D, Ross R (2003). "Treatment of behavioral emergencies: a summary of the expert consensus guidelines". J Psychiatr Pract 9 (1): 16–38. doi:10.1097/00131746-200301000-00004. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 15985913.  
  7. ^ Allen MH, Currier GW, Carpenter D, Ross RW, Docherty JP (2005). "The expert consensus guideline series. Treatment of behavioral emergencies 2005". J Psychiatr Pract 11 Suppl 1: 5–108; quiz 110–2. PMID 16319571.  
  8. ^ "Medication 'worsens Alzheimer's'", BBC News, Tuesday, 1 April 2008. Retrieved on 2008-04-01. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 527 - Byzantine Emperor Justin I names his nephew Justinian I as co-ruler and successor to the throne  "Neuroleptics provided no benefit for patients with mild behavioural problems, but were associated with a marked deterioration in verbal skills. " 
  9. ^ Ballard C, Lana MM, Theodoulou M, Douglas S, McShane R, et al. (2008). "A Randomised, Blinded, Placebo-Controlled Trial in Dementia Patients Continuing or Stopping Neuroleptics (The DART-AD Trial)". PLOS Medicine 5 (4, e76): e76. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0050076. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.  
  10. ^ "Delirium in Elderly People: An Update" - Medscape. Retrieved on 2008-02-21. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 362 - Athanasius returns to Alexandria. 1245 - Thomas, the first known Bishop of Finland
  11. ^ Halbreich U, Shen J, Panaro V (1996). "Are chronic psychiatric patients at increased risk for developing breast cancer?". Am J Psychiatry 153 (4): 559–60. PMID 8599407.  
  12. ^ Goodman and Gilman's Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 10th edition (McGraw-Hill, 2001).

External links


Dictionary

haloperidol

-noun

  1. (pharmacology) A neuroleptic and a butyrophenone drug used in the treatment of mental illness such as psychosis.
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