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Gullah
Spoken in: United States 
Region: Coastal low country region of South Carolina and Georgia including the Sea Islands [1]
Total speakers: 250,000[1]
Language family: Creole language
 English Creole
  Atlantic
   Eastern
    Northern
     Gullah
Language codes
ISO 639-1: none
ISO 639-2: cpe
ISO 639-3: gul

 
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The Gullah language (Sea Island Creole English, Geechee) is a creole language spoken by the Gullah people (also called "Geechees"), an African American population living on the Sea Islands and the coastal region of the U. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the South Carolina ( is a state in the southern region ( Deep South) of the United States of America. The State of Georgia ( is a state in the United States and was one of the original Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule The Sea Islands are a chain of tidal and Barrier islands on the Atlantic Ocean coast of the United States. List of language familiesA language family is a group of Languages related by descent from a common ancestor called the Proto-language of that family A creole language, or simply a creole, is a stable Language that originates seemingly as a nativized Pidgin. An English-based creole language, or English creole for short is a Creole language that was significantly influenced by the English language. ISO 639-1 is the first part of the ISO 639 international-standard language-code family ISO 639-2 is the second part of the ISO 639 standard, which lists codes for the representation of the names of languages ISO 639 -3 (ISO 639-32007 is an international standard for Language codes The standard describes three‐letter codes for identifying languages African Americans or Black Americans are citizens or residents of the United States who have origins in any of the black populations of Africa African American history is the portion of American history that specifically discusses the African American or Black American ethnic group in the United The Atlantic Slave trade, also known as the transatlantic slave trade, was the trade of African people supplied to the Colonies of the New World The word Maafa (also known as the African Holocaust or Holocaust of Enslavement) is derived from a Swahili word meaning disaster terrible occurrence or Slavery in the United States began soon after English colonists first settled Virginia in 1607 and lasted until the passage of the Thirteenth The Military history of African Americans spans from the arrival of the first black slaves during the colonial history of the United The Jim Crow laws were state and local laws enacted primarily but not exclusively in the Southern and border states of the United States between 1876 and 1965 Redlining is the practice of denying or increasing the cost of services such as Banking, Insurance, access to jobs access to health care or even Supermarkets The American Civil Rights Movement (1955–1968 refers to the reform movements in the United States aimed at abolishing racial discrimination against African Afrocentrism or Afrocentricity is a World view that emphasizes the importance of African people in culture philosophy and history Reparations for Slavery is a proposal by some in the United States that some type of compensation should be provided to the descendants of enslaved people in African American culture in the United States refers to the cultural contributions of African ethnic groups to the culture of the United States either as part of or distinct from African American studies is a subset of Black studies or Africana studies. African American neighborhoods or black neighborhoods are types of Ethnic enclaves found in many cities in the United States. Historically black colleges and universities ( HBCUs) are institutions of Higher education in the United States that were established before 1964 with the intention Kwanzaa is a week-long holiday celebrated primarily in the United States, honoring African-American heritage African American art is a broad term describing the visual arts of the American black community This is an incomplete list of museums which can or may never satisfy any objective standard for completeness African American dances in the vernacular tradition (academically known as "African American vernacular dance" are those dances which have developed within African African American literature is the body of Literature produced in the United States by writers of African descent African American music (also called black music) is an umbrella term given to a range of Music and Musical genres emerging from or influenced by the The term black church or African American church refers to predominantly African-American Christian churches that minister to predominantly black congregations This theology maintains that African Americans must be liberated from multiple forms of bondage — social political economic and religious Black theology refers to a variety of Christian theologies which has as its base in the The Doctrine of Father Divine is the teachings of the late Father Divine (d The Nation of Islam ( NOI) (أمة الإسلام Ummah al-Islāmu) is a group founded in Detroit, Michigan, Black Hebrew Israelites (also Black Hebrews, African Hebrew Israelites, and Hebrew Israelites) are groups of people of Black African ancestry Vodou ( Anglicized: Voodoo) or Vaudoo is a family of New World syncretistic religions primarily based on the faiths of the Hoodoo is a form of predominantly African-American traditional folk magic. Santería, also known as La Regla de Lukumi (Lukumi's Rule and The Way of the Saints is an Afro-Cuban religious tradition derived from traditional beliefs Pan-Africanism is a Sociopolitical World view, and Philosophy, as well as a movement which seeks to unify both Native Africans and those of Black nationalism (BN advocates a racial definition (or redefinition of black national identity as opposed to Multiculturalism. Black Power is a racially based Political slogan and a name for various associated ideologies Black Capitalism is a movement among African Americans to build wealth through the ownership and development of businesses Black conservatism is an international political and social movement rooted in communities of African descent that aligns largely with the conservative movement Following the collapse of Reconstruction, African Americans created a broad-based independent political movement in the South black populism that influence all The African American left tends to support leftist positions on social issues and an expansive state that aims at bringing about equality of outcome between the African The Black Panther Party (originally the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense) was a Marxist / Maoist African-American organization established Garveyism is an aspect of Black Nationalism which takes its source from the works words and deeds of UNIA-ACL founder Marcus Garvey. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, usually abbreviated as NAACP, is one of the oldest and most influential Civil rights organizations The Southern Christian Leadership Conference ( SCLC) is an American Civil rights organization The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (or SNCC, pronounced "snick" was one of the principal organizations of the American Civil Rights Movement The National Urban League ( NUL) formerly known as the National League of black men and women, is a Civil rights organization based in New York City The Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH is a non-profit organization founded in Chicago, Illinois, on September 9, The United Negro College Fund ( UNCF) is a Fairfax, Virginia -based American philanthropic organization that fundraises College tuition The National Black Chamber of Commerce was incorporated in 1993 by Harry Alford who in 2007 continues as CEO History The National Pan-Hellenic Council was established in an age when Racial segregation and disenfranchisement plagued African Americans, the rise of each The Links Incorporated is an exclusive non-profit organization based upon the ideals of combining friendship and community service The National Council of Negro Women (NCNW is a Non-profit organization with the mission to advance the opportunities and the quality of life for African American women their Part of the History of baseball in the United States series The Negro leagues were American professional Baseball leagues History The Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association, founded on the campus of Hampton Institute (now Hampton University) in 1912 is the oldest African-American Conference sports Conference member schools Current members Former members Conference Stadia Championships The Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference (MEAC is a Collegiate athletic conference of historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs in the Southeastern "Southwestern Conference" redirects here For the former major conference in Texas and Arkansas see Southwest Conference; for the Ohio High School Conference English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States Louisiana Creole is a French Creole language spoken by the mixed Louisiana Creole people of the state of Louisiana. African American Vernacular English ( AAVE) – also called African American English; less precisely Black English, Black Vernacular, Notable African-Americans or Black Americans For people from current African countries see lists for individual countries List of first African-American mayors for most mayor listings African Americans are a demographic minority in the United States. This is a list of landmark legislation, court decisions, executive orders and proclamations in the United States significantly affecting African Americans This is an alphabetical list of African-American-related topics: A African American African American culture This is a list of articles that are related to African and black people A creole language, or simply a creole, is a stable Language that originates seemingly as a nativized Pidgin. The Gullah are African Americans who live in the Low Country region of South Carolina and Georgia, which includes both the coastal plain and the African Americans or Black Americans are citizens or residents of the United States who have origins in any of the black populations of Africa The Sea Islands are a chain of tidal and Barrier islands on the Atlantic Ocean coast of the United States. S. states of South Carolina and Georgia. The South Carolina Lowcountry (also spelled Low Country or just lowcountry) is a term used to describe South Carolina 's coastal counties generally south The Golden Isles of Georgia are a group of four barrier islands on the 100-mile-long coast of Georgia on the Atlantic Ocean.

Gullah is based on English, with strong influences from West and Central African languages such as Yoruba, Igbo, Hausa, Mandinka, Wolof, Bambara, Fula, Mende, Vai, Akan, Ewe, Kongo, Umbundu, and Kimbundu. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States West Africa or Western Africa is the Westernmost Region of the African Continent. Central Africa is a core Region of the African Continent often considered to include Burundi, the Central African Republic, Chad Yoruba (native name èdè Yorùbá, 'the Yoruba language' is a Dialect continuum of West Africa with over 25 million speakers Igbo (Igbo Asusu Igbo) is a language spoken in Nigeria by around 20-35 million people the Igbo, especially in the southeastern region Hausa is the Chadic language with the largest number of speakers spoken as a first Language by about 24 million people and as a second language by about 15 The Mandinka language, sometimes referred to as Mandingo is a Mandé language spoken by millions of Mandinka people in Mali, Senegal, The Bambara, also known as Bamanankan in the language itself is a Language spoken in Mali by as many as six million people (including second language users The Fula language is a language of West Africa, spoken by the Ful{{IPA|ɓ}}e (Fula or Fulani people from Senegambia and Guinea to Mende ( Mɛnde yia) is a major language of Sierra Leone, with some speakers in neighboring Liberia. Vai language, alternately called Vy or Gallinas is a Mande language. See also Akan languages Akan is a language group spoken by related peoples in mainly Ghana and eastern Côte d'Ivoire. Ewe (native name Ɛ̀ʋɛ̀gbè ὲβὲg͡bè is a Niger-Congo language spoken in Ghana, Togo and Benin by approximately five Kikongo or Kongo is the Bantu language spoken by the Bakongo and Bandundu people living in the tropical forests of the Democratic Republic Umbundu, or South Mbundu (autonym úmbúndú) is a language spoken by the Ovimbundu people in the central highlands of Angola. Kimbundu is one of the most widely spoken languages in Angola, especially in the north-west of the country notably in the Luanda province

Contents

The Origins of Gullah

Scholars have proposed two theories:

Many scholars believe that Gullah arose independently in South Carolina and Georgia in the 18th and 19th centuries when African slaves on rice plantations developed their own creole language combining features of the English they encountered in America with the West and Central African languages they brought with them on the middle passage. A creole language, or simply a creole, is a stable Language that originates seemingly as a nativized Pidgin. According to this view, Gullah is an independent development in North America.

But other scholars maintain that some of the slaves brought to South Carolina and Georgia already knew Guinea Coast Creole English (also called West African Pidgin English) before they left Africa. West African Pidgin English, also called Guinea Coast Creole English, was the Lingua franca of commerce along the West African coast during the era of the Atlantic West African Pidgin English, also called Guinea Coast Creole English, was the Lingua franca of commerce along the West African coast during the era of the Atlantic Guinea Coast Creole English was spoken along the West African coast during the 18th century as a language of trade between Europeans and Africans and between Africans of different tribes.

These two theories are not necessarily mutually exclusive, though. While it is very likely that some of the Gullahs’ ancestors did come from Africa with a knowledge of Guinea Coast Creole English, it is also clear that the Gullah language evolved in unique circumstances in coastal South Carolina and Georgia and acquired its own distinctive form in that new environment.

The vocabulary of Gullah comes primarily from English, but there are also words of African origin. Some of the most common African loanwords are: cootuh ("turtle"), oonuh ("you"), nyam ("eat"), buckruh ("white man"), pojo ("heron"), swonguh ("proud"), benne ("sesame"), and biddy ("baby chick"). A loanword (or loan word) is a word directly taken into one Language from another with little or no translation Pseudemys is a Genus of pond turtles also known as Cooter Turtles, especially in the state of Florida. The herons are wading Birds in the Ardeidae family Some are called Egrets or Bitterns instead of herons Sesame ( Sesamum indicum) is a Flowering plant in the genus Sesamum.

Related languages

Gullah resembles several other English-based creole languages spoken in West Africa and the Caribbean Basin. These include the Krio language of Sierra Leone, Nigerian Pidgin English, Bahamian Dialect, Jamaican Creole, and even Belizean Creole. Krio (also Creo or Creole) is the lingua franca language spoken throughout Sierra Leone. Sierra Leone, officially the Republic of Sierra Leone, is a country in West Africa. Nigerian Pidgin is an English -based pidgin or creole language spoken as a kind of Lingua franca across Nigeria that is referred to simply Bahamian English is a Dialect of English spoken in Bahamas and Bahamian diasporas (mostly by Bahamian Americans and Bahamian Britons Belizean Creole, known as Kriol by its speakers is a Creole language closely related to Miskito Coastal Creole, Limón Coastal Creole, All of these languages have vocabularies derived largely from English, but grammars and sentence structures strongly influenced by African languages.

Gullah is most closely related, though, to Afro-Seminole Creole spoken in scattered Black Seminole communities in Oklahoma, Texas, and Northern Mexico. Afro-Seminole Creole is an English -based creole spoken by Black Seminoles in scattered communities in Oklahoma Texas and Northern Mexico The Black Seminoles are descendants of free Africans and some Runaway slaves who escaped from coastal South Carolina and Georgia into the Florida wilderness The Black Seminoles' ancestors were Gullahs who escaped from slavery in coastal South Carolina and Georgia in the 18th and 19th centuries and fled into the Florida wilderness. They emigrated from Florida after the Second Seminole War (1835-42), and their modern descendants in the West still speak a conservative form of Gullah resembling the language of 19th century plantation slaves. The Second Seminole War, also known as the Florida War, was a conflict from 1835 to 1842 in Florida between various groups of Native Americans collectively

Lorenzo Turner's research

In the 1930s and 1940s an African American linguist named Lorenzo Dow Turner did a seminal study of the Gullah language based on field research in rural communities in coastal South Carolina and Georgia. Lorenzo Dow Turner (b August 21 1890 - d 1972 was an African American linguist who did seminal research on the Gullah language of coastal South Carolina and Georgia Turner found that Gullah is strongly influenced by African languages in its sound system, vocabulary, grammar, sentence structure, and semantic system. Turner identified over 300 loanwords from various African languages in Gullah and almost 4,000 African personal names used by Gullah people. A loanword (or loan word) is a word directly taken into one Language from another with little or no translation The Languages of Africa is a 1963 book of essays by Joseph Greenberg, in which he sets forth a genetic classification of African languages that He also found Gullahs living in remote sea-side settlements who could recite songs and story fragments and do simple counting in the Mende, Vai, and Fulani languages of West Africa. Turner published his findings in a classic work called Africanisms in the Gullah Dialect (1949). His book, now in its 4th edition, was most recently reprinted with a new introduction in 2002.

Before Lorenzo Turner's work, mainstream scholars viewed Gullah speech as substandard English, a hodgepodge of mispronounced words and corrupted grammar uneducated black people developed in their efforts to copy the speech of their English, Irish, Scottish, and French Huguenot slave owners. The Huguenots were members of the Protestant Reformed Church of France (or French Calvinists) from the sixteenth to the eighteenth [2] But Turner's study was so well researched and so convincingly detailed in its presentation of evidence of African influences in Gullah that academics soon reversed course. After Turner's book was published in 1949, scholars began coming to the Gullah region on a regular basis to study African influences in Gullah language and culture.

Gullah verbs

The following sentences illustrate the basic verb tense and aspect system in Gullah:

Uh he'p dem -- "I help them/I helped them" (Present/Past Tense)
Uh bin he'p dem -- "I helped them" (Past Tense)
Uh gwine he'p dem -- "I will help them" (Future Tense)
Uh done he'p dem -- "I have helped them" (Perfect Tense)
Uh duh he'p dem -- "I am helping them" (Present Progressive)
Uh binnuh he'p dem -- "I was helping them" (Past Progressive)

African grammar influence

These sentences illustrate African grammatical and syntactical influences in 19th century Gullah speech. Note the literal, word-for-word translations into English used here in order to show the influence of African sentence structure:

Da' big dog, 'e bite'um -- "That big dog, it bit him" (Topicalization)
Duh him cry out so -- "It is him cried out that way" (Front Focusing)
Uh tell'um say da' dog fuh bite'um -- "I told him said that dog would bite him" (Dependent Clauses with "Say")
De dog run, gone, bite'um -- "The dog ran, went, bit him" (Serial Verb Construction)
Da' duh big big dog -- "That is big big dog" (Reduplication)

Sample sentences

These sentences are examples of how Gullah was spoken in the 19th century:

Uh gwine gone dey tomorruh. "I will go there tomorrow. "
We blan ketch 'nuf cootuh dey. "We always catch a lot of turtles there. "
Dem yent yeddy wuh oonuh say. "They did not hear what you said. "
Dem chillun binnuh nyam all we rice. "Those children were eating all our rice. "
'E tell'um say 'e haffuh do'um. "He told him that he had to do it. "
Duh him tell we say dem duh faa'muh. "He's the one who told us that they are farmers. "
De buckruh dey duh 'ood duh hunt tuckrey. "The white man is in the woods hunting turkeys. "
Alltwo dem 'ooman done fuh smaa't. "Both those women are really smart. "
Enty duh dem shum dey? "Aren't they the ones who saw him there?"
Dem dey dey duh wait fuh we. "They are there waiting for us. "

Gullah storytelling

The Gullah people have a rich storytelling tradition strongly influenced by African oral traditions, but also informed by their historical experience in America. Their stories include animal trickster tales about the antics of "Brer Rabbit", "Brer Fox", "Brer Wolf," "Brer Gator," "Brer Partridge," etc. In Mythology, and in the study of Folklore and Religion, a trickster is a God, Goddess, spirit, man woman or anthropomorphic Br'er Rabbit (also spelled Bre'r Rabbit or Brer Rabbit or Buh Rabbit) is a central figure in the Uncle Remus stories of the Southern United Br'er Fox is a Fictional character from the Uncle Remus folktales adapted and compiled by Joel Chandler Harris. ; human trickster tales about clever and self-assertive slaves; and morality tales designed to impart moral teaching to children.

Several white American writers collected Gullah stories in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The best collections were made by Charles Colcock Jones, Jr. from Georgia and Albert Henry Stoddard from South Carolina. Jones (a Confederate officer during the Civil War) and Stoddard were both planter class whites who grew up speaking Gullah with the slaves (and later, freedmen) on their families' plantations. Another collection was made by Abigail Christensen, a Northern woman whose parents came to the Low Country after the Civil War to assist the newly freed slaves. Ambrose E. Gonzales, another writer of South Carolina planter class background, also wrote his own original stories in 19th century Gullah, based on Gullah literary forms. Ambrose Elliott Gonzales ( May 27 1857 - July 11 1926) was born in Paulo Parish South Carolina. Gonzales' works are still well remembered in South Carolina today.

The linguistic accuracy of these writings has been questioned because of the authors' social backgrounds, but these works provide the best information we have on the Gullah language as it was spoken in its more conservative form during the 19th century.

A Gullah story

This story, called "Brer Lion an Brer Goat," was first published in 1888 by story collector Charles Colcock Jones, Jr. :

Brer Lion bin a hunt, an eh spy Brer Goat duh leddown topper er big rock duh wuk eh mout an der chaw. Eh creep up fuh ketch um. Wen eh git close ter um eh notus um good. Brer Goat keep on chaw. Brer Lion try fuh fine out wuh Brer Goat duh eat. Eh yent see nuttne nigh um ceptin de nekked rock wuh eh duh leddown on. Brer Lion stonish. Eh wait topper Brer Goat. Brer Goat keep on chaw, an chaw, an chaw. Brer Lion cant mek de ting out, an eh come close, an eh say: "Hay! Brer Goat, wuh you duh eat?" Brer Goat skade wen Brer Lion rise up befo um, but eh keep er bole harte, an eh mek ansur: "Me duh chaw dis rock, an ef you dont leff, wen me done long um me guine eat you. " Dis big wud sabe Brer Goat. Bole man git outer diffikelty way coward man lose eh life.

Translation: Brer Lion was hunting, and he spied Brer Goat lying down on top of a big rock working his mouth and chewing. He crept up to catch him. When he got close to him, he watched him good. Brer Goat kept on chewing. Brer Lion tried to find out what Brer Goat was eating. He didn't see anything near him except the naked rock which he was lying down on. Brer Lion was astonished. He waited for Brer Goat. Brer Goat kept on chewing, and chewing, and chewing. Brer Lion couldn't make the thing out, and he came close, and he said: "Hey! Brer Goat, what are you eating?" Brer Goat was scared when Brer Lion rose up before him, but he kept a bold heart, and he made (his) answer: "I am chewing this rock, and if you don't leave me (alone), when I am done with it I will eat you. " This big word saved Brer Goat. A bold man gets out of difficulty where a cowardly man loses his life.

Gullah language today

The Gullah language is spoken today by about 250,000 people in coastal South Carolina and Georgia. The South Carolina Lowcountry (also spelled Low Country or just lowcountry) is a term used to describe South Carolina 's coastal counties generally south The Golden Isles of Georgia are a group of four barrier islands on the 100-mile-long coast of Georgia on the Atlantic Ocean. Although some scholars argue that Gullah has changed little since the 19th century, it is clear that at least some decreolization has taken place. In other words, some African-influenced grammatical structures that were present a century ago are no longer found in the language today. Nonetheless, Gullah is still decidedly a creole language and still quite distinct from English.

For generations, outsiders stigmatized Gullah speakers, regarding their language as a mark of ignorance and low social status. Social stigma is severe social disapproval of personal characteristics or Beliefs that are against cultural norms. As a result, Gullah people developed the habit of speaking their language only within the confines of their own homes and local communities, and avoided the possibility of being seen speaking it in public situations outside the safety of their home areas. The Gullah are African Americans who live in the Low Country region of South Carolina and Georgia, which includes both the coastal plain and the Ironically, the prejudice of outsiders was probably a factor in helping preserve the language.

U.S. Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas was raised a Gullah speaker in coastal Georgia. The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest judicial body in the United States and leads the federal judiciary. Clarence Thomas (born June 23, 1948) is an American Jurist. He has been serving as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United When asked why he has little to say during hearings of the court, he told a reporter that the ridicule he received for his Gullah speech as a young man caused him to develop the habit of listening rather than speaking in public. [1]

But in recent years educated Gullah people have begun promoting use of Gullah as a symbol of cultural pride. In 2005, Gullah community leaders announced the completion of a translation of the New Testament into modern Gullah, a project that took more than 20 years to complete.

Gullah New Testament

This passage is from the New Testament in modern Gullah:

Now Jedus been bon een Betlem town, een Judea, jurin de same time wen Herod been king. Atta Jedus been bon, some wise man dem dat study bout de staa dem come ta Jerusalem fom weh dey been een de east. And dey aks say, "Weh de chile da, wa bon fa be de Jew people king? We beena see de staa wa tell bout um een de east, an we come fa woshup um op. Wen King Herod yeh dat, e been opsot fa true. And ebrybody een Jerusalem been opsot too. E call togeda all de leada dem ob de Jew priest dem and de Jew Law teacha dem. E aks um say, "Weh de Messiah gwine be bon at?" Dey tell King Herod say, "E gwine be bon een Betlem town een Judea. "

Translation: Now Jesus was born in Bethlehem town, in Judea, during the same time when Herod was king. After Jesus was born, some wise men that studied about the stars came to Jerusalem from where they were in the east. And they asked, "Where is the child, who was born to be the Jewish king? We saw the star which told about him in the east, and we came to worship him. " When King Herod heard that, he was truly upset. And everybody in Jerusalem was upset too. He called together all the leaders of the Jewish priests and the Jewish Law teachers. He asked them, "Where will the Messiah be born?" They told King Herod that, "He will be born in Bethlehem town in Judea. "

Notes

  1. ^ a b Gordon, Raymond G. , Jr. (2005). Sea Island Creole English. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Ethnologue. Retrieved on 2007-03-01. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 86 BC - Lucius Cornelius Sulla, at the head of a Roman Republic army enters in Athens, removing the Tyrant
  2. ^ Mill and Montgomery "Introduction to Africanisms in the Gullah Dialect by Lorenzo Turner" xix–xxiv, Gonzales "The Black Border: Gullah Stories of the Carolina Coast 10.

External links

Further reading

Books in the Gullah language

Films in the Gullah language

Listen to the Gullah language

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