Greek mythology is the body of stories belonging to the Ancient Greeks concerning their gods and heroes, the nature of the world and the origins and significance of their own cult and ritual practices. Zeus (zjuːs in Greek: nominative: Zeús /zdeús/ genitive: Diós; Modern Greek /'zefs/ in Greek mythology Otricoli is a town and Comune in the Province of Terni, Umbria, Italy. The Vatican Museums (Musei Vaticani in Viale Vaticano in Rome, inside the Vatican City, are one of the greatest museums in the world since they display works The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca Polytheism is belief in or worship of multiple Gods (usually assembled in a pantheon) together with associated Mythology and Rituals A hero (from Greek grc ἥρως hērōs) in Greek mythology and Folklore, was originally a Demigod, the offspring of a mortal and This article discusses cult in the original and typically ancient sense of "religious practice" (cultus A ritual is a set of actions often thought to have Symbolic value the performance of which is usually prescribed by a Religion or by the Traditions Modern scholars refer to the myths and study them in an attempt to throw light on the religious and political institutions of Ancient Greece and on the Ancient Greek civilization, and to gain understanding of the nature of myth-making itself. See also Mythology Myth is derived from the Greek word μύθος mythos, which simply means 'story' [1]
Greek mythology is embodied explicitly in a large collection of narratives and implicitly in representational arts, such as vase-paintings and votive gifts. Thanks to its hardy nature pottery bulks large in the archaeological record of Ancient Greece, and because we have so much of it (some 100000 vases are recorded in the Corpus A votive deposit or votive offering is an object left in a Sacred place for Ritual purposes Greek myth explains the origins of the world and details the lives and adventures of a wide variety of gods, goddesses, heroes, heroines, and other mythological creatures. A listing of Greek mythological beings Many of the gods and goddesses had Roman and Etruscan equivalents. Creatures of Greek mythology. See also List of Greek mythological figures. These accounts were initially disseminated in an oral-poetic tradition; the Greek myths are known today primarily from Greek literature. Oral tradition, oral culture and oral lore is a way for a society to transmit history, literature, law and other Knowledges Greek literature refers to those writings autochthonic to the areas of Greek influence typically though not necessarily in one of the Greek dialects throughout the The oldest known Greek literary sources, the epic poems Iliad and Odyssey, focus on events surrounding the Trojan War. An epic is a lengthy Narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation The Iliad ( Greek: Ἰλιάς (Ancient Ιλιάδα (Modern is together with the Odyssey, one of two ancient The Odyssey ( Greek: Ὀδύσσεια or Odússeia) is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. In Greek mythology, the Trojan War was waged against the city of Troy by the Achaeans after Paris of Troy stole Helen from her Two poems by Homer's near contemporary Hesiod, the Theogony and the Works and Days, contain accounts of the genesis of the world, the succession of divine rulers, the succession of human ages, the origin of human woes, and the origin of sacrificial practices. Homer ( Ancient Greek:, Homēros) is a legendary ancient Greek epic Poet, traditionally said to be the author of the epic poems the Hesiod ( Greek: Hesiodos) was an early Greek Poet and Rhapsode, who presumably lived around 700 BCE Theogony ( Greek: Θεογονία theogonia = the birth of God(s is a Poem by Hesiod describing the origins and genealogies Works and Days (in Ancient Greek / Erga kaí Hemérai, which sometimes goes by the Latin name Opera et Dies, as in the OCT) Myths are also preserved in the Homeric Hymns, in fragments of epic poems of the Epic Cycle, in lyric poems, in the works of the tragedians of the 5th century BC, in writings of scholars and poets of the Hellenistic Age and in writers of the time of the Roman Empire, for example, Plutarch and Pausanias. The thirty-three anonymous Homeric Hymns celebrating individual gods are a collection of ancient Greek Hymns "Homeric" in the sense that they employ the The Epic Cycle (Επικός Κύκλος was a collection of Ancient Greek Epic poems that related the story of the Trojan War, which includes the Lyric poetry refers to a usually short poem that expresses personal feelings which may or may not be set to music This article focuses on the cultural aspects of the Hellenistic age for the historical aspects see Hellenistic period. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Greek: Μέστριος Πλούταρχος c Pausanias ( Greek:) was a Greek traveller and Geographer of the 2nd century CE, who lived in the times of Hadrian, Antoninus
Archaeological evidence is a principal source of detail about Greek mythology, with Gods and heroes featuring prominently in the decoration of many artifacts. Geometric designs on pottery of the 8th century BCE depict scenes from the Trojan cycle as well as the adventures of Heracles. In Greek mythology, Heracles or Herakles ("glory of Hera " or In the succeeding Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic periods, Homeric and various other mythological scenes appear to supplement the existing literary evidence. The archaic period in Greece ( 750 BC 480 BC) is a period of Ancient Greek history The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca The Hellenistic period of European history was the period between the death of Alexander the Great (Alexander III of Macedon in 323 BC and the annexation [2]
Greek mythology has had extensive influence on the culture, the arts and the literature of Western civilization and remains part of Western heritage and language. Western culture (sometimes equated with Western Civilization) are terms which are used to refer to Cultures of European origin Poets and artists from ancient times to the present have derived inspiration from Greek mythology and have discovered contemporary significance and relevance in classical mythological themes. [3]
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Sources of Greek mythology
Prometheus (1868 by Gustave Moreau). In Greek mythology, Prometheus (Προμηθεύς "forethought" is a Titan known for his wily intelligence who stole Fire from Zeus Gustave Moreau ( April 6, 1826 &ndash April 18, 1898) was a French Symbolist painter. The myth of Prometheus was first attested by Hesiodus and then constituted the basis for a tragic trilogy of plays, possibly by Aeschylus, consisting of Prometheus Bound, Prometheus Unbound and Prometheus Pyrphoros
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The Roman poet Virgil, here depicted in the 5th century manuscript the Vergilius Romanus, preserved details of Greek mythology in many of his writings. Prometheus Bound (Προμηθεύς Δεσμώτης / Promētheus Desmōtēs) is an Ancient Greek tragedy. Prometheus the Fire-Bringer (Greek Prometheus Pyrphoros) was likely the final play in the Prometheia trilogy traditionally ascribed to the Publius Vergilius Maro ( October 15, 70 BCE &ndash September 21, 19 BCE later called Virgilius, and known in English as Virgil or The Vergilius Romanus ( Vatican City, Biblioteca Apostolica, Cod
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Achilles killing a Trojan prisoner in front of Charon on a red-figure Etruscan calyx-krater, made towards the end of the 4th century-beginning of the 3rd century BC. "Achilleus" redirects here For the emperor with this name see Achilleus (emperor. In Greek mythology, Charon or Kharon (in Greek, Χάρων &mdash the bright) was the Ferryman of Hades Red-figure vase painting is one of the most important styles of figural Greek vase painting. Etruscan civilization is the modern English name given to the culture and way of life of a people of ancient Italy
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Greek mythology is known today primarily from Greek literature and representations on visual media dating from the Geometric period (c. Geometric Art is a phase of Greek art, characterised largely by geometric motifs in vase painting that flourished towards the end of the Greek Dark Ages, circa 900-800 BC) onward. [4]
Literary sources
Mythical narration plays an important role in nearly every genre of Greek literature. Nevertheless, the only general mythographical handbook to survive from Greek antiquity was the Library of Pseudo-Apollodorus, which attempts to reconcile the contradictory tales of the poets and provides a grand summary of traditional Greek mythology and heroic legends. The Bibliotheca (in English: Library) in three books provides a grand summary of traditional Greek mythology and heroic Legends [5]
Among the literary sources first in age are Homer's two epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Homer ( Ancient Greek:, Homēros) is a legendary ancient Greek epic Poet, traditionally said to be the author of the epic poems the Other poets completed the "epic cycle", but these later and lesser poems are now almost entirely lost. Despite their traditional name, the Homeric Hymns have no connection with Homer. They are choral hymns from the earlier part of the so-called Lyric age. Lyric poetry refers to a usually short poem that expresses personal feelings which may or may not be set to music [6] Hesiod, a possible contemporary with Homer, offers in Theogony (Origin of the Gods) the fullest account of the earliest Greek myths, dealing with the creation of the world; the origin of the gods, Titans and Giants; elaborate genealogies and folktales and etiological myths. Hesiod ( Greek: Hesiodos) was an early Greek Poet and Rhapsode, who presumably lived around 700 BCE Theogony ( Greek: Θεογονία theogonia = the birth of God(s is a Poem by Hesiod describing the origins and genealogies In Greek mythology, the Titans ( Greek: Tītā́n; plural Tītânes) were a race of powerful Deities that ruled during the legendary The Mythology and Legends of many different Cultures include monsters of human appearance but prodigious size and strength Hesiod's Works and Days, a didactic poem about farming life, also includes the myths of Prometheus, Pandora and the Four Ages. In Greek mythology, Prometheus (Προμηθεύς "forethought" is a Titan known for his wily intelligence who stole Fire from Zeus In Greek mythology, Pandora (from Greek:, "giver of all all-endowed" was the first woman The Ages of Man are the stages of human existence on the Earth according to Classical mythology. The poet gives advice on the best way to succeed in a dangerous world rendered yet more dangerous by its gods. [2]
Lyrical poets sometimes take their subjects from myth, but the treatment becomes gradually less narrative and more allusive. Greek lyric poets, including Pindar, Bacchylides, Simonides, and bucolic poets, such as Theocritus and Bion, provide individual mythological incidents. Pindar (ˈpɪndɚ (or Pindarus, Greek:) (probably born 522 BC in Cynoscephalae a village in Boeotia; died 443 BC in Argos) was an Ancient Bacchylides (5th century BC was an Ancient Greek lyric Poet. Later Greeks included him in the canonical list of Nine lyric poets which included Theocritus ( Greek: Θεόκριτος the creator of Ancient Greek Bucolic Poetry, flourished in the 3rd century BC [7] Additionally, myth was central to classical Athenian drama. The History of Athens is one of the longest of any city in Europe and in the world Drama is the specific mode of Fiction represented in Performance. The tragic playwrights Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides took their plots from the age of heroes and the Trojan War. Aeschylus (ˈɛskɨləs or /ˈiːskɨləs/ Greek: Ασχύλος, Aischylos, 525 BC/524 BC 456 BC/455 BC was an ancient Greek Playwright Sophocles (ˈsɒfəkliːz Ancient Greek, sopʰoklɛ̂ːs circa Euripides ( Ancient Greek:) (ca 480 BC–406 BC was the last of the three great tragedians of classical Athens (the other two being Aeschylus Many of the great tragic stories (i. e. Agamemnon and his children, Oedipus, Jason, Medea etc. In Greek mythology, Agamemnon (very resolute / ( ancient Greek:) is a hero, the son of King Atreus of Mycenae Oedipus (pronounced /ˈɛdəpəs/ in American English or /ˈiːdəpəs/ in British English; Greek: Oidípous meaning "swollen-footed" Jason ( Greek: Ἰάσων, Etruscan: Easun, Laz: Yason) was a late ancient Greek mythological Medea (Μήδεια Mēdeia) in Greek mythology was the daughter of King Aeëtes of Colchis, niece of Circe, granddaughter of ) took on their classic form in these tragic plays. For his part, the comic playwright Aristophanes used myths, as in The Birds or The Frogs. Aristophanes (Ἀριστοφάνης ˌærɪˈstɒfəniːz in English ca The Birds ( Greek: Ornithes) is a comedy written by the Ancient Greek playwright Aristophanes in 414 BC Frogs ( Ancient Greek: grc Βάτραχοι grc-Latn Bátrachoi) is a comedy written by the Ancient Greek playwright Aristophanes. [8]
Historians Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus, and geographers Pausanias and Strabo, who traveled around the Greek world and noted the stories they heard, supplied numerous local myths, often giving little-known alternative versions. Herodotus of Halicarnassus ( Greek: Hēródotos Halikarnāsseús) was a Greek Historian who lived in the 5th century BC ( 484 BC&ndash Pausanias ( Greek:) was a Greek traveller and Geographer of the 2nd century CE, who lived in the times of Hadrian, Antoninus Strabo ( Greek: Στράβων 63/64 BC – ca AD 24 was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher. [7] Herodotus in particular, searched the various traditions presented him and found the historical or mythological roots in the confrontation between Greece and the East. [9]
The poetry of the Hellenistic and Roman ages, which although composed as a literary rather than cultic exercise, nevertheless contains many important details that would otherwise be lost. This article focuses on the cultural aspects of the Hellenistic age for the historical aspects see Hellenistic period. Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC This category includes the works of:
- The Roman poets Ovid, Statius, Valerius Flaccus, Seneca and Virgil with Servius's commentary. Publius Ovidius Naso ( March 20, 43 BC – 17 AD was a Roman poet known to the English -speaking world as Ovid who wrote on many topics including Publius Papinius Statius (ca 45-96 was a Roman Poet of the Silver Age of Latin literature, born in Naples, Italy. Valerius Flaccus may refer to Gaius Valerius Flaccus, Roman poet at the time of Vespasian Lucius Valerius Flaccus, name of a number of Roman Publius Vergilius Maro ( October 15, 70 BCE &ndash September 21, 19 BCE later called Virgilius, and known in English as Virgil or "Servius" redirects here For the Roman king see Servius Tullius.
- The Greek poets of the Late Antique period: Nonnus, Antoninus Liberalis and Quintus Smyrnaeus. Late Antiquity (c 300-600 is a Periodization used by historians to describe the transitional centuries from Classical Antiquity to the Middle Ages, in Theophanes Nonnus was a Byzantine physician For the saint of this name see Saint Nonnus. Antoninus Liberalis was an Ancient Greek Grammarian who probably flourished between AD 100 and 300. Quintus Smyrnaeus (or Quintus of Smyrna, also known as Kointos of Smyrna) ( Κόιντος Σμυρναίος) was a Greek epic
- The Greek poets of the Hellenistic period: Apollonius of Rhodes, Callimachus, Pseudo-Eratosthenes and Parthenius. Callimachus ( Greek:, 310 BC/305 BC-240 BC was a native of the Greek colony of Cyrene, Libya. Eratosthenes of Cyrene ( Greek; 276 BC - 194 BC was a Greek Mathematician, Poet, athlete, Geographer and
- The ancient novels of Greeks and Romans such as Apuleius, Petronius, Lollianus and Heliodorus. Apuleius should not be confused with Lucius Appuleius Saturninus, a Roman demagogue or with Pseudo-Apuleius, an author Petronius (ca 27–66 was a Roman writer of the Neronian age he was a noted satirist. Heliodorus of Emesa, from Emesa, Syria, was a Greek writer generally dated to the third century AD who is known for the ancient Greek romance
The Fabulae and Astronomica of the Roman writer styled Pseudo-Hyginus are two important, non-poetical compendiums of myth. Gaius Julius Hyginus (ca 64 BC &ndash AD 17 was a Latin author but whether a native of Spain or of Alexandria is not sure a pupil of the famous The Imagines of Philostratus the Elder and Younger and the Descriptions of Callistratus, are two other useful sources. Philostratus, was the name of four Greek Sophists of the Roman imperial period: (c
Finally, the Christian apologist Arnobius, quoting cult practices in order to disparage them, and a number of Byzantine Greek writers provide important details of myth, some of it sourced from lost Greek works. Arnobius of Sicca (died c 330 AD was an Early Christian apologist, during the reign of Diocletian (284 - 305 These preservers of myth include Hesychius' lexicon, the Suda, and the treatises of John Tzetzes and Eustathius. Hesychius of Alexandria (῾Ησύχιος ὁ Ἀλεξανδρεύς a Grammarian who flourished probably in the 5th century CE compiled the richest lexicon The Suda or Souda ( also, Suidas) is a massive 10th century Byzantine Greek historical encyclopedia of the ancient Mediterranean John (Johannes Tzetzes (Ιωάννης Τζέτζης (c 1110 &ndash 1180 was a Byzantine Poet and Grammarian known to have lived at Constantinople Eustathius or Eustathios may refer to Eustathius of Antioch, Patriarch of Antioch (c The Christian moralizing view of Greek myth is encapsulated in the saying ἐν παντὶ μύθῳ καὶ τὸ Δαιδάλου μύσος / en panti muthōi kai to Daidalou musos ("In every myth there is also the defilement of Daidalos"), on which subject the encyclopedic Sudas reported of the role of Daedalus in satisfying the "unnatural lust" of Pasiphae for the bull of Poseidon: "Since the origin and blame for these evils were attributed to Daidalos and he was loathed for them, he became the subject of the proverb. Sudās ("worshipping well" an s -stem either from a root dās, or with the extra s added to avoid an archaic root noun in ā, This article is about the mythological character For other uses see Daedalus (disambiguation. In Greek mythology, Pasiphaë (English pəˈsɪfeɪiː Greek: Πασιφάη Pasipháē "wide-shining" was the daughter of Helios "[10]
Archaeological sources
The discovery of the Mycenaean civilization by German amateur archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann in the 19th century, and the discovery of the Minoan civilization in Crete by British archaeologist, Sir Arthur Evans in the 20th century, helped to explain many of the questions about Homer's epics and provided archaeological evidence of many of the mythological details about gods and heroes. Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from Greek grc ἀρχαιολογία archaiologia – grc ἀρχαῖος archaīos Heinrich Schliemann (ˈʃliːman ( January 6 1822 in Neubukow Mecklenburg-Schwerin - December 26 1890, Naples) was a German The Minoan civilization was a Bronze Age civilization which arose on the island of Crete. Crete ( Greek: Κρήτη transliteration: Krētē, modern transliteration Kriti) is the largest of the Greek islands and the Sir Arthur John Evans ( July 8 1851 &ndash July 11 1941) was a British Archaeologist most famous for unearthing the palace of Unfortunately, the evidence about myth and ritual at Mycenaean and Minoan sites is entirely monumental, as the Linear B script (an ancient form of Greek found in both Crete and Greece) was mainly used to record inventories, though the names of gods and heroes have been doubtfully revealed. Linear B is a script that was used for writing Mycenaean, an early form of Greek. [2]
Geometric designs on pottery of the 8th century BC depict scenes from the Trojan cycle, as well as the adventures of Heracles. [2] These visual representations of myths are important for two reasons; on the one hand, many Greek myths are attested on vases earlier than in literary sources (of the twelve labors of Heracles, only the Cerberus adventure occurs for the first time in a literary text[11]) and, on the other hand, visual sources sometimes represent myths or mythical scenes that are not attested in any extant literary source. In Greek mythology, Cerberus or Kerberos ( Greek Κέρβερος Kérberos) the ker or Daimon of In some cases, the first known representation of a myth in geometric art predates its first known representation in late archaic poetry by several centuries. [4] In the Archaic (c. 750–c. 500 BC), Classical (c. 480–323 BC), and Hellenistic periods, Homeric and various other mythological scenes appear to supplement the existing literary evidence. [2]
Survey of mythic history
The Greeks' mythology has changed over time to accommodate the evolution of their own culture, of which mythology both overtly and in its unspoken assumptions, is an index. In the surviving literary forms in which we have them, they are inherently political, as Gilbert Cuthbertson has urged[12]
The earlier inhabitants of the Balkan Peninsula were an agricultural people who assigned a spirit to every aspect of nature. Eventually, these vague spirits assumed human shape and entered the local mythology as gods and goddesses. [13] When tribes from the north of the Balkan Peninsula invaded, they brought with them a new pantheon of gods, based on conquest, force, prowess in battle, and violent heroism. Other older deities of the agricultural world fused with those of the more powerful invaders or else faded into insignificance. [14]
After the middle of the Archaic period myths about relationships between male gods and male heroes become more and more frequent, indicating the parallel development of pedagogic pederasty (Eros paidikos, παιδικός ἔρως), thought to have been introduced around 630 BC. Greek Pederasty, as idealised by the Greeks from archaic times onward was a relationship and bond between an adolescent boy and an adult man outside By the end of the 5th century BC, poets had assigned at least one eromenos to every important god except Ares and to many legendary figures. In the pederastic tradition of Classical Athens, the eromenos ( Greek ἐρώμενος pl In Greek mythology, Ares ( Ancient Greek:, Μodern Greek Άρης) is the son of Zeus and Hera. [15] Previously existing myths, such as that of Achilles and Patroclus, were also cast in a pederastic light. "Achilleus" redirects here For the emperor with this name see Achilleus (emperor. In Greek mythology, as recorded in the Iliad by Homer, Patroclus, or Patroklos (Gr Religious narrative has included stories interpreted by many as accounts of same-sex love and sexuality [16] Alexandrian poets at first, then more generally literary mythographers in the early Roman Empire, often adapted stories of Greek mythological characters.
The achievement of epic poetry was to create story-cycles, and as a result to develop a sense of mythological chronology. Thus Greek mythology unfolds like a phase in the development of the world and of man. [17] While self-contradictions in the stories make an absolute timeline impossible, an approximate chronology may be discerned. The mythological history of the world can be divided in 3 or 4 broader periods:
- The myths of origin or age of gods (Theogonies, "births of gods"): myths about the origins of the world, the gods, and the human race.
- The age when gods and mortals mingled freely: stories of the early interactions between gods, demigods, and mortals. The term " demigod " meaning "half-god" is used to describe mythological figures whose one parent was a god and whose other parent was human
- The age of heroes (heroic age), where divine activity was more limited. The last and greatest of the heroic legends is the stories of the Trojan War and after (regarded by some researchers as a separate fourth period). [18]
While the age of gods has often been of more interest to contemporary students of myth, the Greek authors of the archaic and classical eras had a clear preference for the age of heroes. For example, the heroic Iliad and Odyssey dwarfed the divine-focused Theogony and Homeric Hymns in both size and popularity. Under the influence of Homer the "hero cult" leads to a restructuring in spiritual life, expressed in the separation of the realm of the gods from the realm of the dead (=heroes), of the Olympian from the Chthonic. Chthonic (from Greek χθόνιος khthonios "of the earth" from khthōn "earth" pertaining to the Earth; earthy subterranean [19] In the Works and Days, Hesiod makes use of a scheme of Four Ages of Man (or Races): Golden, Silver, Bronze, and Iron. The Ages of Man are the stages of human existence on the Earth according to Classical mythology. These races or ages are separate creations of the gods, the Golden Age belonging to the reign of Cronus, the subsequent races the creation of Zeus. Hesiod intercalates the Age (or Race) of Heroes just after the Bronze Age. The term Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced Metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use included techniques for The final age was the Iron Age, during which the poet himself lived. This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age for the mythological Iron Age see Ages of Man. The poet regards it as the worst; the presence of evil was explained by Pandora's myth. [20] In Metamorphoses Ovid follows Hesiod's concept of the four ages. The Metamorphoses by the Roman poet Ovid is a narrative poem [21]
Age of gods
Cosmogony and cosmology
- See also: Greek primordial gods and Family tree of the Greek gods
"Myths of origin" or "creation myths" represent an attempt to render the universe comprehensible in human terms and explain the origin of the world. [22] The most widely accepted account of beginning of things as reported by Hesiod's Theogony, starts with Chaos, a yawning nothingness. Hesiod ( Greek: Hesiodos) was an early Greek Poet and Rhapsode, who presumably lived around 700 BCE Theogony ( Greek: Θεογονία theogonia = the birth of God(s is a Poem by Hesiod describing the origins and genealogies For the state of disarray see Chaos. In Greek mythology Chaos ( Xάος) or Khaos is the original state of existence from which Out of the void emerged Ge or Gaia (the Earth) and some other primary divine beings: Eros (Love), the Abyss (the Tartarus), and the Erebus. Gaia (ˈgeɪə or /ˈgaɪə/ (" land " or " Earth " from the Ancient Greek Γαîα also Gæa or Gea This article refers to the religious setting For other uses see Abyss. In classic Greek mythology below Heaven, Earth, and Pontus is Tartarus, or Tartaros ( Greek Τάρταρος deep place In Greek mythology, Erebus or Erebos ( Ancient Greek:, English translation: "deep blackness/darkness or shadow" was the son of a primordial [23] Without male assistance Gaia gave birth to Uranus (the Sky) who then fertilised her. Uranus (ˈjʊərənəs jʊˈreɪnəs is the Latinized form of Ouranos () the Greek word for Sky. From that union were born, first, the Titans: six males and six females (Oceanus, Coeus and Crius and Hyperion and Iapetus, Theia and Rhea, Themis and Mnemosyne, Phoebe and Tethys, and Cronus); then the one-eyed Cyclopes and the Hecatonchires or Hundred-Handers. In Greek mythology, the Titans ( Greek: Tītā́n; plural Tītânes) were a race of powerful Deities that ruled during the legendary Ocean (Ὠκεανός was believed to be the world-ocean in Classical antiquity, which the ancient Romans and Greeks considered to be In Greek mythology, Coeus ( Ancient Greek:, Koios) was one of the Titans, the giant sons and daughters of Uranus (Heaven and In Greek mythology, Crius ( Kreios (Κρεῖος the "Ram" was one of the Titans in the list given in Hesiod 's Theogony Hyperion (Greek) is a Titan, the son of Gaia (Earth and Uranus (Sky Helios Hyperion, 'Sun High-one' In Greek mythology, Iapetus, also Iapetos or Japetus (Ἰαπετός was a Titan, the son of Uranus and Gaia, and father In Greek mythology, Theia, goddess or divine, (sometimes written Thea or Thia) also called Euryphaessa, wide-shining Rhea ( ancient Greek) was the Titaness daughter of Uranus, the sky and Gaia, the earth in classical Greek mythology For other uses see Themis (disambiguation. In Greek mythology, Hesiod mentions Themis (Θέμις among the six sons and six daughters of Gaia Mnemosyne (Greek, nɪˈmɒzɪni or /nɪˈmɒsəni/ (sometimes confused with Mneme or compared with Memoria In Greek mythology "golden-wreathed" Phoebe (Ancient Greek Φοίβη, Phoibe pronounced /'fiː In Classical Greek mythology, Tethys (Greek Τηθύς) daughter of Uranus and Gaia ( Hesiod, Theogony lines Cronus or Kronos, ( Ancient Greek Κρόνος Krónos) was the leader and the youngest of the first generation of Titans, divine descendants In Greek mythology and later Roman mythology, a cyclops (ˈsaɪklɒps or kyklops ( Greek) is a member of a primordial race of The Hecatonchires, or Hekatonkheires Ἑκατόγχειρες( were three gargantuan figures of an archaic stage of Greek mythology. Cronus ("the wily, youngest and most terrible of [Gaia's] children"[23])castrated his father and became the ruler of the gods with his sister-wife Rhea as his consort and the other Titans became his court. This motif of father/son conflict was repeated when Cronus was confronted by his son, Zeus. Zeus (zjuːs in Greek: nominative: Zeús /zdeús/ genitive: Diós; Modern Greek /'zefs/ in Greek mythology After Cronus betrayed his father, he feared that his offspring would do the same, and so each time Rhea gave birth, he snatched up the child and ate it. Rhea hated this and tricked him by hiding Zeus and wrapping a stone in a baby's blanket, which Cronus ate. When Zeus was grown, he fed his father a drugged drink which caused Cronus to throw up Zeus' brothers and sisters, and one stone, which had been sitting in Cronus' stomach all along. Then Zeus challenged Cronus to war for the kingship of the gods. At last, with the help of the Cyclopes, (whom Zeus freed from Tarturus), Zeus and his siblings were victorious, while Cronus and the Titans were hurled down to imprisonment in Tartarus. In classic Greek mythology below Heaven, Earth, and Pontus is Tartarus, or Tartaros ( Greek Τάρταρος deep place [24]
The earliest Greek thought about poetry considered the theogony to be the prototypical poetic genre — the prototypical mythos — and imputed almost magical powers to it. Orpheus, the archetypal poet, was also the archetypal singer of theogonies, which he uses to calm seas and storms in Apollonius' Argonautica, and to move the stony hearts of the underworld gods in his descent to Hades. Orpheus ( Greek: Ὀρφεύς ˈɔrfiəs ( OHR-fee-uhs) or /ˈɔrfjuːs/ ( OHR'-fews) in English is a figure from Greek mythology born in The Argonautica ( Greek:) is a Greek Epic poem written by Apollonius Rhodius in the 3rd century BCE. Hades (from Greek, Hadēs, originally, Haidēs or, Aidēs, probably from Indo-European *n̥-wid- 'unseen' refers both to the ancient When Hermes invents the lyre in the Homeric Hymn to Hermes, the first thing he does is sing the birth of the gods. Hermes ( Greek,, ˈhɝmiːz in Greek mythology, is the Olympian god of boundaries and of the travelers who cross them of Shepherds and The lyre is a stringed musical instrument well known for its use in Classical Antiquity and later [25] Hesiod's Theogony is not only the fullest surviving account of the gods, but also the fullest surviving account of the archaic poet's function, with its long preliminary invocation to the Muses. In Greek mythology, the Muses ( Ancient Greek, hai moũsai: perhaps from the Proto-Indo-European root * men- "think" are Theogony was also the subject of many lost poems, including those attributed to Orpheus, Musaeus, Epimenides, Abaris and other legendary seers, which were used in private ritual purifications and mystery-rites. For people surnamed Musaeus see Musäus. Musaeus is also a spider genus ( Thomisidae) Epimenides of Knossos ( Crete) (Greek) was a semi- mythical 6th century BC Greek seer and Philosopher - poet Abaris redirects here For the Baroque opera see Les Boréades Abaris the Hyperborean' ( Greek: grc Ἄβαρις Ὑπερβόρειος Mystery Religions, Sacred Mysteries or simply Mysteries, were "religious cults of the Graeco-Roman There are indications that Plato was familiar with some version of the Orphic theogony. Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece [26] A few fragments of these works survive in quotations by Neoplatonist philosophers and recently unearthed papyrus scraps. Neoplatonism (also Neo-Platonism) is the modern term for a school of religious and mystical Philosophy that took shape in the 3rd century AD founded by Papyrus (/pəˈpaɪrəs/ (Rhymes -aɪrəs)is a thick paper-like material produced from the Pith of the papyrus plant Cyperus papyrus One of these scraps, the Derveni Papyrus now proves that at least in the 5th century BC a theogonic-cosmogonic poem of Orpheus was in existence. The Derveni papyrus is an Ancient Greek Papyrus scroll that was found in 1962 This poem attempted to outdo Hesiod's Theogony and the genealogy of the gods was extended back with Nyx (Night) as an ultimate beginning before Uranus, Cronus and Zeus. [27]
The first philosophical cosmologists reacted against, or sometimes built upon, popular mythical conceptions that had existed in the Greek world for some time. Some of these popular conceptions can be gleaned from the poetry of Homer and Hesiod. In Homer, the Earth was viewed as a flat disk afloat on the river of Oceanus and overlooked by a hemispherical sky with sun, moon and stars. Ocean (Ὠκεανός was believed to be the world-ocean in Classical antiquity, which the ancient Romans and Greeks considered to be The Sun (Helios) traversed the heavens as a charioteer and sailed around the Earth in a golden bowl at night. In Greek mythology the Sun was personified as Helios (ˈhiliˌɑs ( Ἥλιος Latinized as Helius) Sun, earth, heaven, rivers, and winds could be addressed in prayers and called to witness oaths. Natural fissures were popularly regarded as entrances to the subterranean house of Hades, home of the dead. [28]
Greek gods
- See also: Religion in ancient Greece and Twelve Olympians
According to Classical-era mythology, after the overthrow of the Titans, the new pantheon of gods and goddesses was confirmed. A pantheon (from Greek Πάνθειον - pantheion, literally "a temple of all gods " neut God, as a male Deity, contrasts with female deities or " goddesses " A goddess is a Female Deity. Many Cultures have goddesses Often deities are part of a polytheistic system that includes several deities Among the principal Greek deities were the Olympians (The limitation of their number to twelve seems to have been a comparatively modern idea),[29] residing atop Mount Olympus under the eye of Zeus. Mount Olympus (Όλυμπος also transliterated as Ólympos, and on Greek maps Óros Ólimbos) is the highest Mountain in Greece Besides the Olympians, the Greeks worshiped various gods of the countryside, the goat-god Pan, Nymphs (spirits of rivers), Naiads (who dwelled in springs), Dryads (who were spirits of the trees), Nereids (who inhabited the sea), river gods, Satyrs, and others. Pan ( Greek, Genitive) is the Greek god of shepherds and flocks of mountain wilds hunting and rustic music paein means to pasture In Greek mythology, a nymph is any member of a large class of mythological entities in human female form In Greek mythology, the Naiads or Naiades (Ναϊάδες from the Greek νάειν "to flow" and νἃμα "running water" The DRYAD Numeral Cipher/Authentication System (KTC 1400 D is a simple paper Cryptographic system currently in use by the U In Greek mythology, satyrs (Σάτυροι Satyroi) are a troop of male companions of Pan and Dionysus – " Satyresses quot In addition, there were the dark powers of the underworld, such as the Erinyes (or Furies), said to pursue those guilty of crimes against blood-relatives. In Greek mythology the Erinyes (Ἐρινύες pl of Ἐρινύς lit [30] In order to honor the ancient Greek pantheon, poets composed the Homeric Hymns (a group of thirty-three songs). [31] Gregory Nagy regards "the larger Homeric Hymns as simple preludes (compared with Theogony), each of which invokes one god". [32]
In the wide variety of myths and legends that Greek mythology consists of, the deities that were native to the Greek peoples are described as having essentially corporeal but ideal bodies. According to Walter Burkert, the defining characteristic of Greek anthropomorphism is that "the Greek gods are persons, not abstractions, ideas or concepts". Walter Burkert (born Neuendettelsau, Bavaria, February 2, 1931) a scholar of Greek mythology and cult, is an emeritus [33] Regardless of their underlying forms, the ancient Greek gods have many fantastic abilities; most significantly, the gods are not affected by disease, and can be wounded only under highly unusual circumstances. The Greeks considered immortality as the distinctive characteristic of their gods; this immortality, as well as unfading youth, was insured by the constant use of nectar and ambrosia, by which the divine blood was renewed in their veins. Nectar is a Sugar -rich liquid produced by plants It is produced either by the Flowers in which it attracts pollinating animals or by extrafloral In ancient Greek mythology, ambrosia is sometimes the food sometimes the drink of the gods, often depicted as conferring ageless Immortality [34]
Each god descends from his or her own genealogy, pursues differing interests, has a certain area of expertise, and is governed by a unique personality; however, these descriptions arise from a multiplicity of archaic local variants, which do not always agree with one another. When these gods were called upon in poetry, prayer or cult, they are referred to by a combination of their name and epithets, that identify them by these distinctions from other manifestations of themselves (e. An epithet (from Greek ἐπίθετον - epitheton, neut of ἐπίθετος - epithetos, "attributed added" is a g. Apollo Musagetes is "Apollo, [as] leader of the Muses"). In Greek mythology, the Muses ( Ancient Greek, hai moũsai: perhaps from the Proto-Indo-European root * men- "think" are Alternatively the epithet may identify a particular and localized aspect of the god, sometimes thought to be already ancient during the classical epoch of Greece.
Most gods were associated with specific aspects of life. For example, Aphrodite was the goddess of love and beauty, Ares was the god of war, Hades the god of the dead, and Athena the goddess of wisdom and courage. In Greek mythology, Ares ( Ancient Greek:, Μodern Greek Άρης) is the son of Zeus and Hera. Hades (from Greek, Hadēs, originally, Haidēs or, Aidēs, probably from Indo-European *n̥-wid- 'unseen' refers both to the ancient ATHENA was an Antimatter research project that took place at the AD Ring at CERN. [35] Some deities, such as Apollo and Dionysus, revealed complex personalities and mixtures of functions, while others, such as Hestia (literally "hearth") and Helios (literally "sun"), were little more than personifications. In Classical mythology, Dionysus or Dionysos (in Greek, Διόνυσος or Διώνυσος; associated with Roman In Greek mythology, virginal Hestia, (Roman name Vesta daughter of Kronus and Rhea, ( ancient Greek) is the Goddess In Greek mythology the Sun was personified as Helios (ˈhiliˌɑs ( Ἥλιος Latinized as Helius) The most impressive temples tended to be dedicated to a limited number of gods, who were the focus of large pan-Hellenic cults. Greek temples ( Ancient Greek:, grc-Latn ho naós "dwelling" semantically distinct from Latin la templum " Temple It was, however, common for individual regions and villages to devote their own cults to minor gods. Many cities also honored the more well-known gods with unusual local rites and associated strange myths with them that were unknown elsewhere. During the heroic age, the cult of heroes (or demi-gods) supplemented this of the gods.
Age of gods and men
Bridging the age when gods lived alone and the age when divine interference in human affairs was limited was a transitional age in which gods and men moved together. Johann Rottenhammer, or Hans Rottenhammer, (1564&ndash1625 was a German painter born in Munich, where he studied until 1588 under Hans Donauer the Elder These were the early days of the world when the groups mingled more freely than they did later. Most of these tales were later told by Ovid's Metamorphoses and they are often divided in two thematic groups: tales of love, and tales of punishment. [36]
Tales of love often involve incest, or the seduction or rape of a mortal woman by a male god, resulting in heroic offspring. The stories generally suggest that relationships between gods and mortals are something to avoid; even consenting relationships rarely have happy endings. [37] In a few cases, a female divinity mates with a mortal man, as in the Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite, where the goddess lies with Anchises to produce Aeneas. In Greek mythology, Anchises was a son of Capys and Themiste (daughter of Ilus son of Tros or Hieromneme, a Naiad. This article is about the Roman hero For other uses see Aeneas (disambiguation. [38]
The second type (tales of punishment) involves the appropriation or invention of some important cultural artifact, as when Prometheus steals fire from the gods, when Tantalus steals nectar and ambrosia from Zeus' table and gives it to his own subjects—revealing to them the secrets of the gods, when Prometheus or Lycaon invents sacrifice, when Demeter teaches agriculture and the Mysteries to Triptolemus, or when Marsyas invents the aulos and enters into a musical contest with Apollo. The Brygos Painter was an ancient Greek Attic red-figure vase painter of the Late Archaic period The Cabinet des Médailles, or Cabinet de France, more formally known as Le département des Monnaies Médailles et Antiquités de la Bibliothèque Nationale, is In Greek mythology, Prometheus (Προμηθεύς "forethought" is a Titan known for his wily intelligence who stole Fire from Zeus In Greek mythology Tantalus ( Greek Τάνταλος was a son of Zeus and the Nymph Plouto. In ancient Greek mythology, ambrosia is sometimes the food sometimes the drink of the gods, often depicted as conferring ageless Immortality In Greek mythology, Prometheus (Προμηθεύς "forethought" is a Titan known for his wily intelligence who stole Fire from Zeus Lycaon was the son of Pelasgus and Meliboea (or of Oread nymph Cyllene) father of Oenotrus and the mythical first king Demeter (dɨˈmiːtɚ Greek:, possibly "distribution-mother" from the noun of the Indo-European mother-earth * dheghom * mater Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture The Eleusinian Mysteries (Ἐλευσίνια Μυστήρια were initiation ceremonies held every year for the cult of Demeter and Persephone Buzyges redirects here For the Genus of Grass skipper Butterflies, see Buzyges (butterfly. In Greek mythology, the Satyr Marsyas ( gr) appeared in two vignettes: in one he picked up the double flute ( Aulos The aulos ( Greek αυλός, plural αυλοί, auloi or tibia ( Latin) was an ancient Greek musical instrument Prometheus' adventures mark "a place between the history of the gods and that of man". [39] An anonymous papyrus fragment, dated to the third century, vividly portrays Dionysus' punishment of the king of Thrace, Lycurgus, whose recognition of the new god came too late, resulting in horrific penalties that extended into the afterlife. In Classical mythology, Dionysus or Dionysos (in Greek, Διόνυσος or Διώνυσος; associated with Roman Thrace (Тракия Trakiya or "Trakija" or Trakia, Θράκη Thráki, Trakya is a historical and geographic area in southeast Europe Lycurgus (also Lykurgos, Lykourgos) was a king of the Edoni in Thrace, and the father of Dryas, the "oak" ( [40] The story of the arrival of Dionysus to establish his cult in Thrace was also the subject of an Aeschylean trilogy. [41] In another tragedy, Euripides' The Bacchae, the king of Thebes, Pentheus, is punished by Dionysus, because he disrespected the god and spied on his Maenads, the female worshippers of the god. The Bacchae (Βάκχαι / Bakchai; also known as The Bacchantes) is a Athenian Tragedy by the ancient Greek Thebes ( Classic Greek Θῆβαι, Mod Θήβα) is a city in Greece, situated to the north of the Cithaeron range which divides In Greek mythology, Pentheus was a king of Thebes, son of the strongest of the Spartes, Echion, and of Agave, daughter of This article refers to the religious act For the album by Michael W [42]
In another story, based on an old folktale-motif,[43] and echoeing a similar theme, Demeter was searching for her daughter, Persephone, having taken the form of an old woman called Doso, and received a hospitable welcome from Celeus, the King of Eleusis in Attica. Demeter (dɨˈmiːtɚ Greek:, possibly "distribution-mother" from the noun of the Indo-European mother-earth * dheghom * mater In Greek mythology, Persephone ( Kore or Cora) was the embodiment of the Earth's fertility at the same time that she was the Queen of the Underworld Celeus (or Keleus) was the king of Eleusis in Greek mythology. Elefsina (Ελευσίνα Ancient/ Katharevousa: Eleusis is a town and municipality about 20 km NW of Athens. Attica (Αττική Attikí;) is a periphery (subdivision in Greece, containing Athens, the capital of Greece As a gift to Celeus, because of his hospitality, Demeter planned to make Demophon as a god, but she was unable to complete the ritual because his mother Metanira walked in and saw her son in the fire and screamed in fright, which angered Demeter, who lamented that foolish mortals do not understand the concept and ritual. [44]
Heroic age
The age in which the heroes lived is known as the heroic age. [45] The epic and genealogical poetry created cycles of stories clustered around particular heroes or events and established the family relationships between the heroes of different stories; they thus arranged the stories in sequence. According to Ken Dowden, "there is even a saga effect: we can follow the fates of some families in successive generations". [17]
After the rise of the hero cult, gods and heroes constitute the sacral sphere and are invoked together in oaths, and prayers which are addressed to them. [19] In contrast to the age of gods, during the heroic age the roster of heroes is never given fixed and final form; great gods are no longer born, but new heroes can always be raised up from the army of the dead. Another important difference between the hero cult and the cult of gods is that the hero becomes the centre of local group identity. [19]
The monumental events of Heracles are regarded as the dawn of the age of heroes. To the Heroic Age are also ascribed three great military events, the Argonautic expedition and the Trojan War as well as the Theban War. For other uses of this term see Argonaut. In Greek mythology, the Argonauts ( Ancient Greek:) were a band of heroes [46]
Heracles and the Heracleidae
- For more details on this topic, see Heracles and Heracleidae
Some scholars believe that behind Heracles' complicated mythology there was probably a real man, perhaps a chieftain-vassal of the kingdom of Argos. Argos ( Greek: Ἄργος, Árgos ˈaɾɣos is a city in Greece in the Peloponnese near Nafplio, which was its historic harbor Some scholars suggest the story of Heracles is an allegory for the sun's yearly passage through the twelve constellations of the zodiac. [47] Others point to earlier myths from other cultures, showing the story of Heracles as a local adaptation of hero myths already well established. Traditionally, Heracles was the son of Zeus and Alcmene, granddaughter of Perseus. In Greek mythology, Alcmene or Alcmena ( Greek:) was the mother of Heracles Perseus, Perseos, or Perseas ( Greek: Περσεύς, Περσέως, Περσέας) the Legendary founder [48] His fantastic solitary exploits, with their many folk tale themes, provided much material for popular legend. History The concept of folklore developed as part of the 19th century ideology of Romantic nationalism, leading to the reshaping of oral traditions to serve modern ideological He is portrayed as a sacrificier, mentioned as a founder of altars, and imagined as a voracious eater himself; it is in this role that he appears in comedy, while his tragic end provided much material for tragedy — Heracles is regarded by Thalia Papadopoulou as "a play of great significance in examination of other Euripidean dramas". Heracles or Hercules Furens (Ηρακλής μαινόμενος / Hēraklēs Mainomenos) is a play by Euripides (c [49] In art and literature Heracles was represented as an enormously strong man of moderate height; his characteristic weapon was the bow but frequently also the club. The vase paintings demonstrate the unparalleled popularity of Heracles, his fight with the lion being depicted many hundreds of times. [50]
Heracles also entered Etruscan and Roman mythology and cult, and the exclamation "mehercule" became as familiar to the Romans as "Herakleis" was to the Greeks. [50] In Italy he was worshipped as a god of merchants and traders, although others also prayed to him for his characteristic gifts of good luck or rescue from danger. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest [48]
Heracles attained the highest social prestige through his appointment as official ancestor of the Dorian kings. The Dorians or Dorian Greeks ( Greek:, Dōrieis singular, Dōrieus were This probably served as a legitimation for the Dorian migrations into the Peloponnese. The Peloponnese or Peloponnesus ( Greek: Πελοπόννησος Pelopónnisos; see also List of Greek place names) is a large Peninsula Hyllus, the eponymous hero of one Dorian phyle, became the son of Heracles and one of the Heracleidae or Heraclids (the numerous descendants of Heracles, especially the descendants of Hyllus — other Heracleidae included Macaria, Lamos, Manto, Bianor, Tlepolemus, and Telephus). Hyllus is also a genus of Jumping spiders. In Greek mythology, Hyllus (also Hyllas or Hylles) was Hyllus is also a genus of Jumping spiders. In Greek mythology, Hyllus (also Hyllas or Hylles) was For the Geometer moth Genus, see Semiothisa In Greek mythology, Macaria There are two figures in Greek mythology named Manto, one a daughter of Tiresias, the other a daughter of Heracles. Bianor is a Genus of the Spider family Salticidae ( Jumping spiders with a size between 3 and 4 mm Tlepolemus, or Tlêpólemos, in Greek mythology was the son of Heracles by Astyocheia, daughter of the King of Ephyra. This article is about Telephus the son of Heracles. The name also refers to the father of Cyparissus. These Heraclids conquered the Peloponnesian kingdoms of Mycenae, Sparta and Argos, claiming, according to legend, a right to rule it through their ancestor. The Peloponnese or Peloponnesus ( Greek: Πελοπόννησος Pelopónnisos; see also List of Greek place names) is a large Peninsula "Lion Gate" redirects here For other uses see Lions' Gate (disambiguation. The city of Sparta ( Doric Σπάρτα Attic Σπάρτη Argos ( Greek: Ἄργος, Árgos ˈaɾɣos is a city in Greece in the Peloponnese near Nafplio, which was its historic harbor Their rise to dominance is frequently called the "Dorian invasion". The Dorian invasion is a concept devised by historians of Ancient Greece to explain the replacement of pre-classical dialects and traditions in southern Greece by The Lydian and later the Macedonian kings, as rulers of the same rank, also became Heracleidae. [51]
Other members of this earliest generation of heroes, such as Perseus, Deucalion, Theseus and Bellerophon, have many traits in common with Heracles. In Greek mythology, Deucalion (Δευκαλίων was a son of Prometheus and Pronoia. For other uses see Theseus (disambiguation Theseus (Θησεύς was a Legendary king of Athens, son of Aethra, and fathered Bellerophon (βελλεροφῶν or Bellerophontes (βελλεροφόντης was a Hero of Greek mythology, "the greatest hero and Like him, their exploits are solitary, fantastic and border on fairy tale, as they slay monsters such as the Chimera and Medusa. A fairy tale or fairy story is a fictional Story that may feature folkloric characters (such as fairies, enchantments]] often involving In Greek mythology, the Chimera ( Greek (Chímaira Latin Chimaera) was a monstrous creature of Lycia in Asia Minor In Greek mythology, Medusa ( Greek: Μέδουσα (Médousa "guardian protectress" was a monstrous Chthonic female character gazing upon Bellerophon's adventures are commonplace types, similar to the adventures of Heracles and Theseus. Sending a hero to his presumed death is also a recurrent theme of this early heroic tradition, used in the cases of Perseus and Bellerophon. [52]
Argonauts
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For more details on this topic, see Argonauts. For other uses of this term see Argonaut. In Greek mythology, the Argonauts ( Ancient Greek:) were a band of heroes
The only surviving Hellenistic epic, the Argonautica of Apollonius of Rhodes (epic poet, scholar, and director of the Library of Alexandria) tells the myth of the voyage of Jason and the Argonauts to retrieve the Golden Fleece from the mythical land of Colchis. The Argonautica ( Greek:) is a Greek Epic poem written by Apollonius Rhodius in the 3rd century BCE. The Royal Library of Alexandria or Ancient Library of Alexandria in Alexandria, Egypt, was once the largest library in the ancient world Jason ( Greek: Ἰάσων, Etruscan: Easun, Laz: Yason) was a late ancient Greek mythological In Greek mythology, the Golden Fleece (Χρυσόμαλλον Δέρας is the fleece of the winged ram Chrysomallos (Χρυσόμαλλος In ancient Geography, Colchis or Kolchis ( Georgian and Laz: კოლხეთი k'olxeti; Greek:, Kolchís In the Argonautica, Jason is impelled on his quest by king Pelias, who receives a prophecy that a man with one sandal would be his nemesis. Pelias was king of Iolcus in Greek mythology, the son of Tyro, daughter of Aleus, and of either Poseidon or Cretheus Nemesis (in Greek,) also called Rhamnousia/Rhamnusia ("the Goddess of Rhamnous " at her sanctuary at Jason loses a sandal in a river, arrives at the court of Pelias, and the epic is set in motion. Nearly every member of the next generation of heroes, as well as Heracles, went with Jason in the ship Argo to fetch the Golden Fleece. In Greek mythology, the Argo (Ἀργώ was the ship on which Jason and the Argonauts sailed from Iolcus to retrieve the This generation also included Theseus, who went to Crete to slay the Minotaur; Atalanta, the female heroine; and Meleager, who once had an epic cycle of his own to rival the Iliad and Odyssey. For other uses see Theseus (disambiguation Theseus (Θησεύς was a Legendary king of Athens, son of Aethra, and fathered Crete ( Greek: Κρήτη transliteration: Krētē, modern transliteration Kriti) is the largest of the Greek islands and the In Greek mythology, the Minotaur ( Greek:, Mīnṓtauros) was a creature that was part man and part bull. Atalanta (Αταλάντη English translation: "balanced" is a character from ancient Greek mythology. This article is about the mythological figure for other uses see Meleager (disambiguation. Pindar, Apollonius and Apollodorus endeavor to give full lists of the Argonauts. [53]
Although Apollonius wrote his poem in the 3rd century BC, the composition of the story of the Argonauts is earlier than Odyssey, which shows familiarity with the exploits of Jason (the wandering of Odysseus may have been partly founded on it). [54] In ancient times the expedition was regarded as a historical fact, an incident in the opening up of the Black Sea to Greek commerce and colonization. The Black Sea is an inland Sea bounded by southeastern Europe, the Caucasus and the Anatolian peninsula ( Turkey [55] It was also extremely popular, forming a cycle to which a number of local legends became attached. The story of Medea, in particular, caught the imagination of the tragic poets. [56]
House of Atreus and Theban Cycle
- See also: Theban Cycle and Seven Against Thebes
In between the Argo and the Trojan War, there was a generation known chiefly for its horrific crimes. The Theban Cycle (Θηβαϊκὸς Κύκλος is a collection of four lost epics of ancient Greek literature which related the mythical history of the Boeotian The Seven against Thebes (Επτά επί Θήβας Epta epi Thēbas) is a mythic narrative whose classic statement is found in the play by Aeschylus (467 BCE In Greek myth, dragon's teeth feature prominently in the legends of the Phoenician prince Cadmus and Jason 's quest for the Golden Fleece Maxfield Parrish ( July 25, 1870 &ndash March 30, 1966) was an American painter and illustrator. This includes the doings of Atreus and Thyestes at Argos. In Greek mythology, King Atreus ( Greek: Ατρεύς Atreús) (fearless of Mycenae was the son of Pelops and Hippodamia In Greek mythology, Thyestes (Θυέστης was the son of Pelops, King of Olympia, and Hippodamia and father of Pelopia and Behind the myth of the house of Atreus (one of the two principal heroic dynasties with the house of Labdacus) lies the problem of the devolution of power and of the mode of accession to sovereignty. In Greek mythology, Labdacus (Λάβδακος was the only son of Polydorus and a king of Thebes. The twins Atreus and Thyestes with their descendants played the leading role in the tragedy of the devolution of power in Mycenae. [57]
The Theban Cycle deals with events associated especially with Cadmus, the city's founder, and later with the doings of Laius and Oedipus at Thebes; a series of stories that lead to the eventual pillage of that city at the hands of the Seven Against Thebes (it is not known whether the Seven against Thebes figured in early epic) and Epigoni. Cadmus, or Kadmos (Κάδμος in Greek mythology, was a Phoenician prince son of Agenor and the brother of Phoenix, Cilix In Greek mythology, King Laius, or Laios of Thebes was a divine hero and key personage in the Theban founding myth This is an article about the Greek myth For the epic on the subject see Epigoni (epic. [58] As far as Oedipus is concerned, early epic accounts seem to have followed a different pattern (in which he continued to rule at Thebes after the revelation that Iokaste was his mother and subsequently married a second wife who became the mother of his children) from the one known to us through tragedy (e. In Greek mythology, Jocasta, also known as Jocaste (Iοκαστη or Epikastê was a daughter of Menoeceus and Queen consort of Thebes g. Sophocles' "Oedipus the King") and later mythological accounts. [59]
Trojan War and aftermath
- For more details on this topic, see Trojan War and Epic Cycle
Greek mythology culminates in the Trojan War, fought between the Greeks and Troy, and its aftermath. In Greek mythology, the Trojan War was waged against the city of Troy by the Achaeans after Paris of Troy stole Helen from her The Epic Cycle (Επικός Κύκλος was a collection of Ancient Greek Epic poems that related the story of the Trojan War, which includes the Troy ( Greek: grc Τροία Troia, also, Ilion; Latin: Trōia, Īlium, Hittite: Wilusa or In Homer's works the chief stories have already taken shape and substance, and individual themes were elaborated later, especially in Greek drama. The Trojan War acquired also a great interest for the Roman culture because of the story of Aeneas, a Trojan hero, whose journey from Troy led to the founding of the city that would one day become Rome, is recounted in Virgil's Aeneid (Book II of Virgil's Aeneid contains the best-known account of the sack of Troy). Endless such activities were also conducted in other cities under ancient Rome This article is about the Roman hero For other uses see Aeneas (disambiguation. For the group of nine Ancient Egyptian deities see Ennead. The Aeneid (əˈniːɪd in [60] Finally there are two pseudo-chronicles written in Latin that passed under the names of Dictys Cretensis and Dares Phrygius. Dictys Cretensis, ( Dictys of Crete) alleged to have been of Knossus in Crete, was the legendary companion of Idomeneus during the Trojan Dares Phrygius, according to Homer ( Iliad, 59 527 was a Trojan priest of Hephaestus. [61]
The Trojan War cycle, a collection of epic poems, starts with the events leading up to the war: (Eris and the golden apple of Kallisti, the Judgement of Paris, the abduction of Helen, the sacrifice of Iphigenia at Aulis). The Epic Cycle (Επικός Κύκλος was a collection of Ancient Greek Epic poems that related the story of the Trojan War, which includes the An epic is a lengthy Narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation Eris ( Greek Ἔρις, "Strife" is the Greek Goddess of strife her name being translated into Latin as Discordia The golden apple is an element that appears in some countries' legends or Fairy tales. An apple of discord is a reference to the Golden Apple of Discord which according to Greek mythology, the goddess Eris ( Gr The Judgement of Paris is a story from Greek mythology, which was one of the events that led up to the Trojan War and (in slightly later versions of the story to This article is about the mythological figure Helen of Troy For other uses see Helen (disambiguation and Helen of Troy (disambiguation. 112 Iphigenia is an Asteroid. Iphigeneia (Eng /ɪfədʒə'naɪə/, also Iphigenia To recover Helen, the Greeks launched a great expedition under the overall command of Menelaus' brother, Agamemnon, king of Argos or Mycenae, but The Trojans refused to return Helen. In Greek mythology, Menelaus ( Ancient Greek:) was a king of Ancient Sparta, the husband of Helen, and a central figure in the "Lion Gate" redirects here For other uses see Lions' Gate (disambiguation. The Iliad, which is set in the tenth year of the war, tells of the quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles, who was the finest Greek warrior, and the consequent deaths in battle of Achilles' friend Patroclus and Priam's eldest son, Hector. In Greek mythology, as recorded in the Iliad by Homer, Patroclus, or Patroklos (Gr In Greek mythology, Hectōr ( "holding fast" or Hektōr, is a Trojan prince and one of the greatest fighters in the After Hector's death the Trojans were joined by two exotic allies, Penthesilea, queen of the Amazons, and Memnon, king of the Ethiopians and son of the dawn-goddess Eos. In Greek mythology, Penthesilea (Greek Πενθεσίλεια or Penthesileia was an Amazonian queen daughter of Ares and Otrera The Amazons (in Greek, grc Ἀμαζόνες are a nation of all-female warriors in Classical and Greek mythology, who were possibly historical In Greek mythology, Memnon was an Ethiopian king and son of Tithonus and Eos. NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page For other uses of the name Eos see Eos (disambiguation. For the Slavic goddesses called the Auroras see The Zorya. [62] Achilles killed both of these, but Paris then managed to kill Achilles with an arrow. Before they could take Troy, the Greeks had to steal from the citadel the wooden image of Pallas Athena (the Palladium). In Greek and Roman mythology, a palladium or palladion was an image of great antiquity on which the safety of a city was said to depend Finally, with Athena's help, they built the Trojan Horse. The Trojan Horse was part of the Trojan War, as told in Virgil 's Latin Epic poem The Aeneid. Despite the warnings of Priam's daughter Cassandra, the Trojans were persuaded by Sinon, a Greek who feigned desertion, to take the horse inside the walls of Troy as an offering to Athena; the priest Laocoon, who tried to have the horse destroyed, was killed by sea-serpents. In Greek mythology, Cassandra ( Greek: Κασσάνδρα "she who entangles men" (also known as Alexandra) was the daughter of King In Greek mythology, Sinon, a son of Aesimus (son of Autolycus) or of the crafty Sisyphus, was a Greek warrior during the Trojan War. At night the Greek fleet returned, and the Greeks from the horse opened the gates of Troy. In the total sack that followed, Priam and his remaining sons were slaughtered; the Trojan women passed into slavery in various cities of Greece. The adventurous homeward voyages of the Greek leaders (including the wanderings of Odysseus and Aeneas (the Aeneid), and the murder of Agamemnon) were told in two epics, the Returns (Nostoi; lost) and Homer's Odyssey. grc-Latn Odysseus or la Ulysses ( Greek grc-Latn Odysseus; Latin: la Ulixes or more commonly Ulysses) oʊˈdɪsiəs The Nostoi (Νόστοι also known as Nosti in Latin, Returns in English) is a lost epic of ancient Greek literature. [63] The Trojan cycle also includes the adventures of the children of the Trojan generation (e. g. Orestes and Telemachus). In Greek mythology, Orestes (in English /ɔ'ɹɛstiːz/ and in Greek,) was the son of Clytemnestra and Agamemnon This article is about the figure in greek mythology For the Christian saint see Saint Telemachus, and for the South African cricketer, see Roger [62]
The Trojan War provided a variety of themes and became a main source of inspiration for ancient Greek artists (e. g. metopes on the Parthenon depicting the sack of Troy); this artistic preference for themes deriving from the Trojan Cycle indicates its importance for the ancient Greek civilization. In Classical architecture, a metope (μετώπη is a rectangular architectural element that fills the space between two Triglyphs in a Doric frieze The Parthenon ( Ancient Greek:) is a temple of the Greek goddess Athena, built in the 5th century BC on the Athenian Acropolis [63] The same mythological cycle also inspired a series of posterior European literary writings. For instance, Trojan Medieval European writers, unacquainted with Homer at first hand, found in the Troy legend a rich source of heroic and romantic storytelling and a convenient framework into which to fit their own courtly and chivalric ideals. 12th century authors, such as Benoît de Sainte-Maure (Roman de Troie [Romance of Troy, 1154–60]) and Joseph of Exeter (De Bello Troiano [On the Trojan War, 1183]) describe the war while rewriting the standard version they found in Dictys and Dares. Benoît de Sainte-Maure (died 1173 was a 12th century French Poet, from either Sainte-Maure near Poitiers or Sainte-More near Tours France Joseph of Exeter was a Twelfth century Latin poet from Exeter, England. They thus follow Horace's advice and Virgil's example: they rewrite a poem of Troy instead of telling something completely new. Quintus Horatius Flaccus, ( Venosa, December 8, 65 BC - Rome, November 27, 8 BC known in the English-speaking world as Horace [64]
Greek and Roman conceptions of myth
Mythology was at the heart of everyday life in ancient Greece. [65] Greeks regarded mythology as a part of their history. They used myth to explain natural phenomena, cultural variations, traditional enmities and friendships. It was a source of pride to be able to trace one's leaders' descent from a mythological hero or a god. Few ever doubted that there was truth behind the account of the Trojan War in the Iliad and Odyssey. According to Victor Davis Hanson, a military historian, columnist, political essayist and former Classics professor, and John Heath, associate professor of Classics at Santa Clara University, the profound knowledge of the Homeric epos was deemed by the Greeks the basis of their acculturation. Victor Davis Hanson (born 1953 in Fowler California) is a Military historian, Columnist, political essayist and former Classics professor notable See also History An historian is an individual who studies and writes about History, and is regarded as an Authority on it A columnist is a Journalist who writes material on a regular basis for publication in a series "Classical literature" redirects here For literature in Classical languages outside the Graeco-Roman sphere see Ancient literature. Santa Clara University is a private co-educational Jesuit -affiliated University located in Santa Clara, California. An epic is a lengthy Narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation Homer was the "education of Greece" (Ἑλλάδος παίδευσις), and his poetry "the Book". [66]
Philosophy and myth
After the rise of philosophy, and history, prose and rationalism in the late 5th century BC the fate of myth became uncertain, and mythological genealogies gave place to a conception of history which tried to exclude the supernatural (such as the Thucydidean history). In Epistemology and in its broadest sense rationalism is "any view appealing to Reason as a source of knowledge or justification" (Lacey 286 Thucydides ( C 460 BC &ndash C 395 BC) ( Greek Θουκυδίδης Thoukydídēs) was a Greek [67] While poets and dramatists were reworking the myths, Greek historians and philosophers were beginning to criticize them. [6]
A few radical philosophers like Xenophanes of Colophon were already beginning to label the poets' tales as blasphemous lies in the 6th century BC; Xenophanes had complained that Homer and Hesiod attributed to the gods "all that is shameful and disgraceful among men; they steal, commit adultery, and deceive one another". Xenophanes of Colophon ( Greek ( 570 – 480 BC was a Greek Philosopher, Poet, and social and religious Critic. [68] This line of thought found its most sweeping expression in Plato's Republic and Laws. Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece The Republic ( Greek: / Politeía, meaning "political system" Latin: Res Publica, meaning "public business" or The Laws is Plato 's last and longest Dialogue. The question asked at the beginning is not "What is law?" as one would expect- that is the question Plato created his own allegorical myths (such as the vision of Er in the Republic), attacked the traditional tales of the gods' tricks, thefts and adulteries as immoral, and objected to their central role in literature. [6] Plato's criticism (he called the myths "old wives' chatter")[69] was the first serious challenge to the Homeric mythological tradition. [66] For his part Aristotle criticized the Pre-socratic quasi-mythical philosophical approach and underscored that "Hesiod and the theological writers were concerned only with what seemed plausible to themselves, and had no respect for us [. . . ] But it is not worth taking seriously writers who show off in the mythical style; as for those who do proceed by proving their assertions, we must cross-examine them". [67]
Nevertheless, even Plato did not manage to wean himself and his society from the influence of myth; his own characterization for Socrates is based on the traditional Homeric and tragic patterns, used by the philosopher to praise the righteous life of his teacher:[70]
| “ | But perhaps someone might say: "Are you then not ashamed, Socrates, of having followed such a pursuit, that you are now in danger of being put to death as a result?" But I should make to him a just reply: "You do not speak well, Sir, if you think a man in whom there is even a little merit ought to consider danger of life or death, and not rather regard this only, when he does things, whether the things he does are right or wrong and the acts of a good or a bad man. For according to your argument all the demigods would be bad who died at Troy, including the son of Thetis, who so despised danger, in comparison with enduring any disgrace, that when his mother (and she was a goddess) said to him, as he was eager to slay Hector, something like this, I believe,
|
” |
Hanson and Heath estimate that Plato's rejection of the Homeric tradition was not favorably received by the grassroots Greek civilization. [66] The old myths were kept alive in local cults; they continued to influence poetry, and to form the main subject of painting and sculpture. [67]
More sportingly, the 5th century BC tragedian Euripides often played with the old traditions, mocking them, and through the voice of his characters injecting notes of doubt. Yet the subjects of his plays were taken, without exception, from myth. Many of these plays were written in answer to a predecessor's version of the same or similar myth. Euripides impugns mainly the myths about the gods and begins his critique with an objection similar to the one previously expressed by Xenocrates: the gods, as traditionally represented, are far too crassly anthropomorphic. Anthropomorphism is the attribution of uniquely Human characteristics to non-human creatures and beings natural and supernatural phenomena material states and objects [68]
Hellenistic and Roman rationalism
During the Hellenistic period, mythology took on the prestige of elite knowledge that marks its possessors as belonging to a certain class. This article focuses on the historical aspects of the Hellenistic age for the cultural aspects see Hellenistic civilisation. At the same time, the skeptical turn of the Classical age became even more pronounced. [71] Greek mythographer Euhemerus established the tradition of seeking an actual historical basis for mythical beings and events. Euhemerus (Εὐήμερος (working late fourth century BC was a Greek mythographer at the court of Cassander, the king of Macedon. [72] Although his original work (Sacred Scriptures) is lost, much is known about it from what is recorded by Diodorus and Lactantius. Lucius Caelius (or Caecilius? Firmianus Lactantius was an Early Christian author (ca [73]
Rationalizing hermeneutics of myth became even more popular under the Roman Empire, thanks to the physicalist theories of Stoic and Epicurean philosophy. Hermeneutics may be described as the development and study of Theories of the interpretation and understanding of texts The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Stoicism, a school of Hellenistic philosophy, was founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early third century BC Stoics presented explanations of the gods and heroes as physical phenomena, while the euhemerists rationalized them as historical figures. Euhemerus (Εὐήμερος (working late fourth century BC was a Greek mythographer at the court of Cassander, the king of Macedon. At the same time, the Stoics and the Neoplatonists promoted the moral significations of the mythological tradition, often based on Greek etymologies. Neoplatonism (also Neo-Platonism) is the modern term for a school of religious and mystical Philosophy that took shape in the 3rd century AD founded by [74] Through his Epicurean message, Lucretius had sought to expel superstitious fears from the minds of his fellow-citizens. Titus Lucretius Carus (ca 99 BC- ca 55 BC was a Roman Poet and Philosopher. [75] Livy, too, is sceptical about the mythological tradition and claims that he does not intend to pass judgement on such legends (fabulae). Titus Livius (traditionally 59 BC &ndash AD 17 known as Livy in English, was a Roman historian who wrote a monumental history of Rome [76] The challenge for Romans with a strong and apologetic sense of religious tradition was to defend that tradition while conceding that it was often a breeding-ground for superstition. Ancient Roman religion encompasses the collection of Beliefs and Rituals practised in Ancient Rome in the form of Cult practices The antiquarian Varro, who regarded religion as a human institution with great importance for the preservation of good in society, devoted rigorous study to the origins of religious cults. Marcus Terentius Varro (116 BC &ndash 27 BC also known as Varro Reatinus to distinguish him from his younger contemporary Varro Atacinus, was a Roman In his Antiquitates Rerum Divinarum (which has not survived, but Augustine's City of God indicates its general approach) Varro argues that whereas the superstitious man fears the gods, the truly religious person venerates them as parents. [75] In his work he distinguished three kinds of gods:
- The gods of nature: personifications of phenomena like rain and fire.
- The gods of the poets: invented by unscrupulous bards to stir the passions.
- The gods of the city: invented by wise legislators to soothe and enlighten the populace.
Roman Academic Cotta ridicules both literal and allegorical acceptance of myth, declaring roundly that myths have no place in philosophy. [77] Cicero is also generally disdainful of myth, but, like Varro, he is emphatic in his support for the state religion and its institutions. Marcus Tullius Cicero ( Classical Latin ˈkikeroː usually ˈsɪsərəʊ in English January 3, 106 BC &ndash December 7, 43 BC was a Roman It is difficult to know how far down the social scale this rationalism extended. [76] Cicero asserts that no one (not even old women and boys) is so foolish as to believe in the terrors of Hades or the existence of Scyllas, centaurs or other composite creatures,[78] but, on the other hand, the orator elsewhere complains of the superstitious and credulous character of the people. Scylla (ˈsɪlə Σκύλλα Skulla) also known as Scylle (ˈsɪli Σκύλλη Skullē) was one In Greek mythology, the centaurs (from Ancient Greek: Κένταυροι - Kéntauroi are a race of creatures composed of part Human [79] De Natura Deorum is the most comprehensive summary of Cicero's line of thought. [80]
Syncretizing trends
During the Roman era appears a popular trend to syncretize multiple Greek and foreign gods in strange, nearly unrecognizable new cults. Syncretization was also due to the fact that the Romans had little mythology of their own, and inherited the Greek mythological tradition; therefore, the major Roman gods were syncretized with those of the Greeks. Roman mythology, or more appropriately Latin mythology, refers to the mythological beliefs of the Italic people inhabiting the region of Latium and its [76] In addition to the combination of the two mythological traditions, the association of the Romans with eastern religions led to further syncretizations. [81] For instance, the cult of Sun was introduced in Rome after Aurelian's successful campaigns in Syria. Lucius Domitius Aurelianus ( September 9, 214 or 215 &ndashSeptember or October 275 known in English as Aurelian, Roman Emperor (270&ndash275 Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية The Asiatic divinities Mithras (that is to say, the Sun) and Ba'al were combined with Apollo and Helios into one Sol Invictus, with conglomerated rites and compound attributes. The Mithraic Mysteries or Mysteries of Mithras (also Mithraism) was a Roman mystery religion which became popular among the military in the late Sol Invictus ("Unconquered Sun" or more fully Deus Sol Invictus ("Unconquered Sun God" was the late Roman state Sun god. [82] Apollo might be increasingly identified in religion with Helios or even Dionysus, but texts retelling his myths seldom reflected such developments. The traditional literary mythology was increasingly dissociated from actual religious practice.
The surviving 2nd century collection of Orphic Hymns and Macrobius's Saturnalia are influenced by the theories of rationalism and the syncretizing trends as well. This article is about Macrobius the author for Macrobius the bishop of Seleucia and Calycadnum see Macrobius of Seleucia Ambrosius Theodosius Macrobius The Orphic Hymns are a set of pre-classical poetic compositions, attributed to Orpheus, himself the subject of a renowned myth. In reality, these poems were probably composed by several different poets, and contain a rich set of clues about prehistoric European mythology. [83] The stated purpose of the Saturnalia is to transmit the Hellenic culture he has derived from his reading, even though much of his treatment of gods is colored by Egyptian and North African mythology and theology (which also affect the interpretation of Virgil). In Saturnalia reappear mythographical comments influenced by the euhemerists, the Stoics and the Neoplatonists. [74]
Modern interpretations
-
For more details on this topic, see Modern understanding of Greek mythology. The genesis of modern understanding of Greek mythology is regarded by some scholars as a double reaction at the end of the 18th century against "the traditional attitude
The genesis of modern understanding of Greek mythology is regarded by some scholars as a double reaction at the end of the eighteenth century against "the traditional attitude of Christian animosity", in which the Christian reinterpretation of myth as a "lie" or fable had been retained. A fable is a succinct story in prose or verse that features Animals Plants inanimate objects, or forces of nature which are [84] In Germany, by about 1795, there was a growing interest in Homer and Greek mythology. In Göttingen Johann Matthias Gesner began to revive Greek studies, while his successor, Christian Gottlob Heyne, worked with Johann Joachim Winckelmann, and laid the foundations for mythological research both in Germany and elsewhere. Göttingen ( ˈgœtɪŋən, Low German: Chöttingen is a College town in Lower Saxony, Germany. Johann Matthias Gesner ( 9 April 1691 - 3 August 1761) was a German Classical scholar and Schoolmaster. Christian Gottlob Heyne ( September 25, 1729 – July 14, 1812) was a German Classical scholar and Archaeologist Johann Joachim Winckelmann ( December 9, 1717 - June 8, 1768) a German Art historian and Archaeologist, [85]
Comparative and psychoanalytic approaches
- See also: Comparative mythology
The development of comparative philology in the 19th century, together with ethnological discoveries in the 20th century, established the science of myth. Comparative mythology is the comparison of Myths from different cultures in an attempt to identify shared themes and characteristics Since the Romantics, all study of myth has been comparative. Wilhelm Mannhardt, Sir James Frazer, and Stith Thompson employed the comparative approach to collect and classify the themes of folklore and mythology. Wilhelm Mannhardt ( March 26, 1831, Friedrichstadt - December 25, 1880, Danzig) was a German scholar and Folklorist Stith Thompson ( March 7, 1885 – 1976 was an American scholar of Folklore and the "Thompson" of the Aarne-Thompson classification system [86] In 1871 Edward Burnett Tylor published his Primitive Culture, in which he applied the comparative method and tried to explain the origin and evolution of religion. Sir Edward Burnett Tylor ( October 2 1832 &ndash January 2 1917) was an English Anthropologist. [87] Tylor's procedure of drawing together material culture, ritual and myth of widely separated cultures influenced both Carl Jung and Joseph Campbell. Joseph John Campbell ( March 26, 1904 – October 30, 1987) was an American Mythology Professor, Writer Max Müller applied the new science of comparative mythology to the study of myth, in which he detected the distorted remains of Aryan nature worship. For the Danish Colonel Max Müller see Second War of Schleswig. Aryan is an English word derived from the Sanskrit " Ārya " meaning "noble" or "honorable" Bronisław Malinowski emphasized the ways myth fulfills common social functions. For the Olympic champion athlete see Bronisław Malinowski (athlete. Claude Lévi-Strauss and other structuralists have compared the formal relations and patterns in myths throughout the world. Claude Lévi-Strauss (klod levi stʁos born 28 November 1908 is a French Anthropologist. For the use of structuralism in biology see Structuralism (biology Structuralism is an approach to the human sciences that attempts to analyze [86]
Sigmund Freud introduced a transhistorical and biological conception of man and a view of myth as an expression of repressed ideas. Sigmund Freud (ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt born Sigismund Shlomo Freud (May 6 1856 &ndash September 23 1939 was an Austrian Psychiatrist who founded Dream interpretation is the basis of Freudian myth interpretation and Freud's concept of dreamwork recognizes the importance of contextual relationships for the interpretation of any individual element in a dream. This suggestion would find an important point of rapprochment between the structuralist and psychoanalytic approaches to myth in Freud's thought. [89] Carl Jung extended the transhistorical, psychological approach with his theory of the "collective unconscious" and the archetypes (inherited "archaic" patterns), often encoded in myth, that arise out of it. [2] According to Jung, "myth-forming structural elements must be present in the unconscious psyche". [90] Comparing Jung's methodology with Joseph Campbell's theory, Robert A. Joseph John Campbell ( March 26, 1904 – October 30, 1987) was an American Mythology Professor, Writer Segal concludes that "to interpret a myth Campbell simply identifies the archetypes in it. An interpretation of the Odyssey, for example, would show how Odysseus’s life conforms to a heroic pattern. Jung, by contrast, considers the identification of archetypes merely the first step in the interpretation of a myth". [91] Karl Kerenyi, one of the founders of modern studies in Greek mythology, gave up his early views of myth, in order to apply Jung's theories of archetypes to Greek myth. One of the founders of modern studies in Greek mythology, Károly (Carl Karl Kerényi ( January 19, 1897 &ndash April 14 1973 [92]
Origin theories
There are various modern theories about the origins of Greek mythology. According to the Scriptural Theory, all mythological legends are derived from the narratives of the Scriptures, although the real facts have been disguised and altered. [93] According to the Historical Theory all the persons mentioned in mythology were once real human beings, and the legends relating to them are merely the additions of later times. Thus the story of Aeolus is supposed to have risen from the fact that Aeolus was the ruler of some islands in the Tyrrhenian Sea. For the Click beetle Genus, see Aeolus (beetle. Aeolus ( Greek:, Ailos Modern Greek The Tyrrhenian Sea (Mar Tirreno is part of the Mediterranean Sea off of the western coast of Italy. [94] The Allegorical Theory supposes that all the ancient myths were allegorical and symbolical. While the Physical Theory subscribed to the idea that the elements of air, fire, and water were originally the objects of religious adoration, thus the principal deities were personifications of these powers of nature. [95] Max Müller attempted to understand an Indo-European religious form by tracing it back to its Aryan, "original" manifestation. In 1891, he claimed that "the most important discovery which has been made during the nineteenth century with respect to the ancient history of mankind [. . . ] was this sample equation: Sanskrit Dyaus-pitar = Greek Zeus = Latin Jupiter = Old Norse Tyr". Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical In the Vedic religion Dyauṣ Pitar is the Sky Father, husband of Prithvi and father of Agni and Indra ( RV 4 In Roman mythology, Jupiter was the king of the gods and the god of Sky and Thunder. [96] In other cases, close parallels in character and function suggest a common heritage, yet lack of linguistic evidence makes it difficult to prove, as in the comparison between Uranus and the Sanskrit Varuna or the Moirae and the Norns. In Vedic religion, Varuna or Waruna ( Devanagari:वरुण IAST: varuṇa) is a god of the Sky, of Rain and The Moirae or Moerae (in Greek – the " apportioners " often called the The Fates) in Greek mythology, were the white-robed The Norns ( Old Norse: norn, plural nornir) are a kind of Dísir, numerous female beings who rule the fates of the various races of Norse [97]
Archaeology and mythography, on the other hand, has revealed that the Greeks were inspired by some of the civilizations of Asia Minor and the Near East. Adonis seems to be the Greek counterpart — more clearly in cult than in myth — of a Near Eastern "dying god". Adonis (Άδωνης also Άδωνις is a figure of West Semitic origin where he is a central cult figure in various Mystery religions, who enters Cybele is rooted in Anatolian culture while much of Aphrodite's iconography springs from Semitic goddesses. Originally a Hittite and Phrygian Goddess, Cybele (Κυβέλη was a deification of the Earth Mother and was worshipped in Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black Iconography is the branch of Art history which studies the identification description and the interpretation of the content of images There are also possible parallels between the earliest divine generations (Chaos and its children) and Tiamat in the Enuma Elish. In Babylonian mythology, Tiamat is the sea personified as a Goddess, and a monstrous embodiment of Primordial chaos. The akk Enûma Eliš is the Babylonian Creation myth (named for its Incipit) [98] According to Meyer Reinhold, "near Eastern theogonic concepts, involving divine succession through violence and generational conflicts for power, found their way [. . . ] into Greek mythology". [99] In addition to Indo-European and Near Eastern origins, some scholars have speculated on the debts of Greek mythology to the pre-Hellenic societies: Crete, Mycenae, Pylos, Thebes and Orchomenos. This article is about the Greek geographical feature and town [100] Historians of religion were fascinated by a number of apparently ancient configurations of myth connencted with Crete (the god as bull, Zeus and Europa, Pasiphaë who yields to the bull and gives birth to the Minotaur etc. In Greek mythology, Pasiphaë (English pəˈsɪfeɪiː Greek: Πασιφάη Pasipháē "wide-shining" was the daughter of Helios In Greek mythology, the Minotaur ( Greek:, Mīnṓtauros) was a creature that was part man and part bull. ) Professor Martin P. Nilsson concluded that all great classical Greek myths were tied to Mycenaen centres and were anchored in prehistoric times. [101] Nevertheless, according to Burkert, the iconography of the Cretan Palace Period has provided almost no confirmation for these theories. [102]
Motifs in Western art and literature
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For more details on this topic, see Greek mythology in western art and literature. The widespread adoption of Christianity would not curb the popularity of the myths and their continual recycling in art music and literature
- See also: List of movies based on Greco-Roman mythology
The widespread adoption of Christianity did not curb the popularity of the myths. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings With the rediscovery of classical antiquity in the Renaissance, the poetry of Ovid became a major influence on the imagination of poets, dramatists, musicians and artists. The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere [103] From the early years of Renaissance, artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael, portrayed the pagan subjects of Greek mythology alongside more conventional Christian themes. Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci ( April 15 1452 – May 2 1519 was an Italian Polymath, having been a scientist Mathematician, Engineer Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni Two biographies were published of him during his lifetime One of them by Giorgio Vasari, proposed that he was the pinnacle of all Raphael Sanzio, usually known by his first name alone (in Italian Raffaello) (April 6 or March 28 1483 – April 6 1520 was an Italian painter and Paganism (from Latin paganus, meaning "country dweller rustic" is a word used to refer to various religions and religious beliefs from across the world [103] Through the medium of Latin and the works of Ovid, Greek myth influenced medieval and Renaissance poets such as Petrarch, Boccaccio and Dante in Italy. Francesco Petrarca ( July 20, 1304 – July 19, 1374) known in English as Petrarch, was an Italian scholar [2]
In Northern Europe, Greek mythology never took the same hold of the visual arts, but its effect was very obvious on literature. The English imagination was fired by Greek mythology starting with Chaucer and John Milton and continuing through Shakespeare to Robert Bridges in the 20th century. Geoffrey Chaucer (c 1343 – 25 October 1400? was an English author poet Philosopher, bureaucrat, courtier and Diplomat. John Milton ( 9 December, 1608 – 8 November, 1674) was an English Poet, Prose Polemicist and William Shakespeare ( baptised Robert Seymour Bridges, OM, ( 23 October 1844 &ndash 21 April 1930) was an Racine in France and Goethe in Germany revived Greek drama, reworking the ancient myths. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. ˈjoːhan ˈvɔlfgaŋ fɔn ˈgøːtə (in English generally ˈgɝːtə 28 August 1749 22 March 1832 was a German writer Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. [103] Although during the Enlightenment of the 18th century reaction against Greek myth spread throughout Europe, the myths continued to provide an important source of raw material for dramatists, including those who wrote the libretti for many of Handel's and Mozart's operas. The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century A libretto is the text used in an extended Musical work such as an Opera, Operetta, Masque, sacred or secular Oratorio and [104] By the end of the 18th century, Romanticism initiated a surge of enthusiasm for all things Greek, including Greek mythology. Romanticism is a complex artistic literary and intellectual movement that originated in the second half of the 18th century in Western Europe, and gained strength during the In Britain, new translations of Greek tragedies and Homer inspired contemporary poets (such as Alfred Lord Tennyson, Keats, Byron and Shelley) and painters (such as Lord Leighton and Lawrence Alma-Tadema). Alfred Tennyson 1st Baron Tennyson (6 August 1809 – 6 October 1892 was Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom and remains one of the most popular English poets Percy Bysshe Shelley (August 4 1792 – July 8 1822 ˈpɝːsɪ ˈbɪʃ ˈʃɛlɪ was one of the major English Romantic poets and is widely considered to be among Frederic Leighton 1st Baron Leighton PRA ( 3 December 1830 &ndash 25 January 1896) was an English painter and sculptor Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema, OM, RA ( January 8, 1836, Dronrijp, the Netherlands. [105] Christoph Gluck, Richard Strauss, Jacques Offenbach and many others set Greek mythological themes to music. Richard Georg Strauss (11 June 1864 &ndash 8 September 1949 was a German Composer of the late Romantic era and early modern era particularly noted Jacques Offenbach (born Jacob Offenbach 20 June 1819 in Cologne &ndash 5 October 1880 in Paris) was a German [2] American authors of the 19th century, such as Thomas Bulfinch and Nathaniel Hawthorne, held that the study of the classical myths was essential to the understanding of English and American literature. Thomas Bulfinch ( July 15 1796 - May 27, 1867) was an American writer born in Newton Massachusetts. Nathaniel Hawthorne (born Nathaniel Hathorne; July 4 1804 – May 19 1864 was an American novelist and Short story writer [106] In more recent times, classical themes have been reinterpreted by dramatists Jean Anouilh, Jean Cocteau, and Jean Giraudoux in France, Eugene O'Neill in America, and T. S. Eliot in Britain and by novelists such as James Joyce and André Gide. Jean Marie Lucien Pierre Anouilh (ʒɑ̃ anwi June 23, 1910 &ndash October 3, 1987) was a French Dramatist. Jean Maurice Eugène Clément Cocteau (5 July 1889 &ndash 11 October 1963 was a French Poet, Novelist, Dramatist, Designer, Boxing Hippolyte Jean Giraudoux ( August 15, 1882 &ndash January 31, 1944) was a French Novelist, Essayist, Diplomat Eugene Gladstone O'Neill (October 16 1888–November 27 1953 was a Nobel -prize winning American playwright Thomas Stearns Eliot, OM (September 26 1888 – January 4 1965 was a poet Dramatist, and Literary critic. James Augustine Aloysius Joyce (2 February 1882 &ndash 13 January 1941 was an Irish expatriate writer widely considered to be one of the most influential writers of the [2]
Notes
- ^ "Volume: Hellas, Article: Greek Mythology". Encyclritualopaedia The Helios. A ritual is a set of actions often thought to have Symbolic value the performance of which is usually prescribed by a Religion or by the Traditions (1952).
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j "Greek Mythology". Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2002).
- ^ J. M. Foley, Homer's Traditional Art, 43
- ^ a b F. Graf, Greek Mythology, 200
- ^ R. Hard, The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology, 1
- ^ a b c Miles, Classical Mythology in English Literature, 7
- ^ a b Klatt-Brazouski, Ancient Greek nad Roman Mythology, xii
- ^ Miles, Classical Mythology in English Literature, 8
- ^ P. Cartledge, The Spartans, 60, and The Greeks, 22
- ^ Pasiphae, Encyclopedia: Greek Gods, Spirits, Monsters
- ^ Homer, Iliad, 8. An epic poem about the Battle of Troy. 366–369
- ^ Cuthbertson, Political Myth and Epic (Michigan State university Press) 1975 has selected a wider range of epic, from Gilgamesh to Voltaire's Henriade , but his central theme, that myths encode mechanisms of cultural dynamics, structuring a community by creating a moral consensus, is a familiar mainstream view that applies to Greek myth. Gilgamesh was the son of Lugalbanda and the fifth king of Uruk (Early Dynastic II first dynasty of Uruk ruling circa 2600 BC according to the Sumerian king right|thumb|Title page of ''La Henriade'' (1778 [[Geneva]] Edition
- ^ Albala-Johnson-Johnson, Understanding the Odyssey, 17
- ^ Albala-Johnson-Johnson, Understanding the Odyssey, 18
- ^ A. Calimach, Lovers' Legends: The Gay Greek Myths;, 12–109
- ^ W. A. Percy, Pederasty and Pedagogy in Archaic Greece, 54
- ^ a b K. Dowden, The Uses of Greek Mythology, 11
- ^ G. Miles, Classical Mythology in English Literature, 35
- ^ a b c W. Burkert, Greek Religion, 205
- ^ Hesiod, Works and Days, 90–105
- ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses, I, 89–162
- ^ Klatt-Brazouski, Ancient Greek and Roman Mythology, 10
- ^ a b Hesiod, Theogony, 116–138
- ^ Hesiod, Theogony, 713–735
- ^ Homeric Hymn to Hermes, 414–435
- ^ G. Betegh, The Derveni Papyrus, 147
- ^ W. Burkert, Greek Religion, 236
* G. Betegh, The Derveni Papyrus, 147 - ^ "Greek Mythology". Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2002).
* K. Algra, The Beginnings of Cosmology, 45 - ^ H. W. Stoll, Religion and Mythology of the Greeks, 8
- ^ "Greek Religion". Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2002).
- ^ J. Cashford, The Homeric Hymns, vii
- ^ G. Nagy, Greek Mythology and Poetics, 54
- ^ W. Burkert, Greek Religion, 182
- ^ H. W. Stoll, Religion and Mythology of the Greeks, 4
- ^ H. W. Stoll, Religion and Mythology of the Greeks, 20ff
- ^ G. Mile, Classical Mythology in English Literature, 38
- ^ G. Mile, Classical Mythology in English Literature, 39
- ^ Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite, 75–109
- ^ I. Morris, Archaeology As Cultural History, 291
- ^ J. Weaver, Plots of Epiphany, 50
- ^ R. Bushnell, A Companion to Tragedy, 28
- ^ K. Trobe, Invoke the GOds, 195
- ^ M. P. Nilsson, Greek Popular Religion, 50
- ^ Homeric Hymn to Demeter, 255–274
- ^ F. W. Kelsey, An Outline of Greek and Roman Mythology, 30
- ^ F. W. Kelsey, An Outline of Greek and Roman Mythology, 30
* H. J. Rose, A Handbook of Greek Mythology, 340 - ^ C. F. Dupuis, The Origin of All Religious Worship, 86
- ^ a b "Heracles". Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2002).
- ^ W. Burkert, Greek Religion, 211
* T. Papadopoulou, Heracles and Euripidean Tragedy, 1 - ^ a b W. Burkert, Greek Religion, 211
- ^ Herodotus, The Histories, I, 6–7
* W. Burkert, Greek Religion, 211 - ^ G. S. Kirk, Myth, 183
- ^ Apollodorus, Library and Epitome, 1. 9. 16
* Apollonius, Argonautica, I, 20ff
* Pindar, Pythian Odes, Pythian 4. 1 - ^ "Argonaut". Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2002).
* P. Grimmal, The Dictionary of Classical Mythology, 58 - ^ "Argonaut". Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2002).
- ^ P. Grimmal, The Dictionary of Classical Mythology, 58
- ^ Y. Bonnefoy, Greek and Egyptian Mythologies, 103
- ^ R. Hard, The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology, 317
- ^ R. Hard, The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology, 311
- ^ "Trojan War". Encyclopaedia The Helios. (1952).
* "Troy". Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2002). - ^ J. Dunlop, The History of Fiction, 355
- ^ a b "Troy". Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2002).
- ^ a b "Trojan War". Encyclopaedia The Helios. (1952).
- ^ D. Kelly, The Conspiracy of Allusion, 121
- ^ Albala-Johnson-Johnson, Understanding the Odyssey, 15
- ^ a b c Hanson-Heath, Who Killed Homer, 37
- ^ a b c J. Griffin, Greek Myth and Hesiod, 80
- ^ a b F. Graf, Greek Mythology, 169–170
- ^ Plato, Theaetetus, 176b
- ^ Plato, Apology, 28b-c
- ^ M. R. Gale, Myth and Poetry in Lucretius, 89
- ^ "Eyhemerus". Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2002).
- ^ R. Hard, The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology, 7
- ^ a b J. Chance, Medieval Mythography, 69
- ^ a b P. G. Walsh, The Nature of Gods (Introduction), xxvi
- ^ a b c M. R. Gale, Myth and Poetry in Lucretius, 88
- ^ M. R. Gale, Myth and Poetry in Lucretius, 87
- ^ Cicero, Tusculanae Disputationes, 1. 11
- ^ Cicero, De Divinatione, 2. 81
- ^ P. G. Walsh, The Nature of Gods (Introduction), xxvii
- ^ North-Beard-Price, Religions of Rome, 259
- ^ J. Hacklin, Asiatic Mythology, 38
- ^ Sacred Texts, Orphic Hymns
- ^ Robert Ackerman, 1991. Introduction to Jane Ellen Harrison's "A Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion", xv
- ^ F. Jane Ellen Harrison ( September 9, 1850 &ndash April 5, 1928) was a ground-breaking British classical scholar linguist Graf, Greek Mythicalically, 9
- ^ a b "myth". Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2002).
- ^ D. Allen, Structure and Creativity in Religion, 9
* R. A. Segal, Theorizing about Myth, 16 - ^ Jung-Kerényi, Essays on a Science of Mythology, 1–2
- ^ R. Caldwell, The Psychoanalytic Interpretation of Greek Myth, 344
- ^ C. Jung, The Psychology of the Child Archetype, 85
- ^ R. Segal, The Romantic Appeal of Joseph Campbell, 332–335
- ^ F. Graf, Greek Mythology, 38
- ^ T. Bulfinch, Bulfinch's Greek and Roman Mythology, 241
- ^ T. Bulfinch, Bulfinch's Greek and Roman Mythology, 241–242
- ^ T. Bulfinch, Bulfinch's Greek and Roman Mythology, 242
- ^ D. Allen, Religion, 12
- ^ H. I. Poleman, Review, 78–79
* A. Winterbourne, When the Norns Have Spoken, 87 - ^ L. Edmunds, Approaches to Greek Myth, 184
* R. A. Segal, A Greek Eternal Child, 64 - ^ M. Reinhold, The Generation Gap in Antiquity, 349
- ^ W. Burkert, Greek Religion, 23
- ^ M. Wood, In Search of the Trojan War, 112
- ^ W. Burkert, Greek Religion, 24
- ^ a b c "Greek mythology". Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2002).
* L. Burn, Greek Myths, 75 - ^ l. Burn, Greek Myths, 75
- ^ l. Burn, Greek Myths, 75–76
- ^ Klatt-Brazouski, Ancient Greek and Roman Mythology, 4
References
Primary sources (Greek and Roman)
- Aeschylus, The Persians. The Persians (Πέρσαι Persai) is an Athenian Tragedy by the ancient Greek playwright Aeschylus. See original text in Perseus program.
- Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound. Prometheus Bound (Προμηθεύς Δεσμώτης / Promētheus Desmōtēs) is an Ancient Greek tragedy. See original text in Perseus program.
- Apollodorus, Library and Epitome. See original text in Perseus program.
- Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica, Book I. See original text in Sacred Texts.
- Cicero, De Divinatione. Cicero 's De Divinatione (Latin "Concerning Divination " is a philosophical treatise in two books written in 44 BC. See original text in the Latin Library.
- Cicero, Tusculanae resons. See original text in the Latin Library.
- Herodotus, The Histories, I. See original text in the Sacred Texts.
- Hesiod, Works and Days. Translated in English by Hugh G. Evelyn-White.
Hesiod: Theogony on Wikisource- Homer, Iliad. Wikisource is a Wikimedia project to build a free, Wiki Library of Source texts along with translations into any language See original text in Perseus program.
- Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite. Translated in English by Gregory Nagy.
- Homeric Hymn to Demeter. See original text in Perseus project.
- Homeric Hymn to Hermes. See the English translation in the Online Medieval and Classical Library.
- Ovid, Metamorphoses. See original text in the Latin Library.
- Pausanias.
- Pindar, Pythian Odes, Pythian 4: For Arcesilas of Cyrene Chariot Race 462 BC. See original text in the Perseus program.
- Plato, Apology. See original text in Perseus program.
- Plato, Theaetetus. See original text in Perseus program.
Secondary sources
- Ackerman, Robert (1991—Reprint edition). "Introduction", Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion by Jane Ellen Harrison. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01514-7.
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- Calimach, Andrew (2002). "The Cultural Background", Lovers' Legends: The Gay Greek Myths. Haiduk Press. ISBN 0-9714686-0-5.
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- Cartledge, Paul A. (2004). The Spartans (translated in Greek). Livanis. ISBN 960-14-0843-6.
- Cashford, Jules (2003). "Introduction", The Homeric Hymns. Penguin Classics. ISBN 0-14-043782-7.
- Dowden, Ken (1992). "Myth and Mythology", The Uses of Greek Mythology. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-415-06135-0.
- Dunlop, John (1842). "Romances of Chivalry", The History of Fiction. Carey and Hart.
- Edmunds, Lowell (1980). "Comparative Approaches", Approaches to Greek Myth. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-3864-9.
- "Euhemerus". Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2002).
- Foley, John Miles (1999). "Homeric and South Slavic Epic", Homer's Traditional Art. Penn State Press. ISBN 0-271-01870-4.
- Gale, Monica R. (1994). "The Cultural Background", Myth and Poetry in Lucretius. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-45135-3.
- "Greek Mythology". Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2002).
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- Griffin, Jasper (1986). "Greek Myth and Hesiod", The Oxford Illustrated History of Greece and the Hellenistic World edited by John Boardman, Jasper Griffin and Oswyn Murray. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-285438-0.
- Grimal, Pierre (1986). "Argonauts", The Dictionary of Classical Mythology. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-20102-5.
- Hacklin, Joseph (1994). "The Mythology of Persia", Asiatic Mythology. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 81-206-0920-4.
- Hanson Victor Davis, Heath John (1999). Who Killed Homer (translated in Greek by Rena Karakatsani). Kaktos. ISBN 960-352-545-6.
- Hard, Robin (2003). "Sources of Greek Myth", The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology: based on H. J. Rose's "Handbook of Greek mythology". Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-415-18636-6.
- "Heracles". Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2002).
- Jung Carl Gustav, Kerényi Karl (2001—Reprint edition). "Prolegomena", Essays on a Science of Mythology. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01756-5.
- Jung, C. J. (2002). "Troy in Latin and French Joseph of Exeter's "Ylias" and Benoît de Sainte-Maure's "Roman de Troie"", Science of Mythology. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-415-26742-0.
- Kelly, Douglas (2003). "Sources of Greek Myth", An Outline of Greek and Roman Mythology. Douglas Kelly. ISBN 0-415-18636-6.
- Kelsey, Francis W. (1889). A Handbook of Greek Mythology. Allyn and Bacon.
- Kirk, Geoffrey Stephen (1973). "The Thematic Simplicity of the Myths", Myth. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-02389-7.
- Klatt J. Mary, Brazouski Antoinette (1994). "Preface", Children's Books on Ancient Greek and Roman Mythology: An Annotated Bibliography. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-28973-5.
- Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae. (1981–1999). Artemis-Verlag.
- Miles, Geoffrey (1999). "The Myth-kitty", Classical Mythology in English Literature: A Critical Anthology. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-415-14754-9.
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- Nagy, Gregory (1992). "The Hellenization of the Indo-European Poetics", Greek Mythology and Poetics. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-8048-5.
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- North John A. , Beard Mary, Price Simon R. F. (1998). "The Religions of Imperial Rome", Classical Mythology in English Literature: A Critical Anthology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-31682-0.
- Papadopoulou, Thalia (2005). "Introduction", Heracles and Euripidean Tragedy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-85126-2.
- Percy, William Armostrong III (1999). "The Institutionalization of Pederasty", Pederasty and Pedagogy in Archaic Greece. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-252-06740-1.
- Poleman, Horace I. (March 1943). "Review of "Ouranos-Varuna. Etude de mythologie comparee indo-europeenne by Georges Dumezil"". "Journal of the American Oriental Society" 63 (No. 1): 78–79. American Oriental Society.
- Reinhold, Meyer (October 20, 1970). "The Generation Gap in Antiquity". "Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society" 114 (No. 5): 347–365. American Philosophical Society.
- Rose, Herbert Jennings (1991). A Handbook of Greek Mythology. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-415-04601-7.
- Segal, Robert A. (1991). "A Greek Eternal Child", Myth and the Polis edited by Dora Carlisky Pozzi, John Moore Wickersham. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-2473-9.
- Segal, Robert A. (April 4 1990). "The Romantic Appeal of Joseph Campbell". "Christian Century". Christian Century Foundation.
- Segal, Robert A. (1999). "Jung on Mythology", Theorizing about Myth. Univ of Massachusetts Press. ISBN 1-55849-191-0.
- Stoll, Heinrich Wilhelm (translated by R. B. Paul) (1852). Handbook of the religion and mythology of the Greeks. Francis and John Rivington.
- Trobe, Kala (2001). "Dionysus", Invoke the Gods. Llewellyn Worldwide. ISBN 0-7387-0096-7.
- "Trojan War". Encyclopaedia The Helios. (1952).
- "Troy". Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2002).
- "Volume: Hellas, Article: Greek Mythology". Encyclopaedia The Helios. (1952).
- Walsh, Patrick Gerald (1998). "Liberating Appearance in Mythic Content", The Nature of the Gods. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-282511-9.
- Weaver, John B. (1998). "Introduction", The Plots of Epiphany. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-018266-1.
- Winterbourne, Anthony (2004). "Spinning and Weaving Fate", When the Norns Have Spoken. Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press. ISBN 0-8386-4048-6.
- Wood, Michael (1998). "The Coming of the Greeks", In Search of the Trojan War. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-21599-0.
Further reading
- Gantz, Timothy (1993). Timothy Nolan Gantz (born about 1946 died January 20 2004) was a classical scholar the author of Early Greek Myth A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources. John Hopkins University Press. ISBN 080184410X.
- Graves, Robert (1955—Cmb/Rep edition 1993). The Greek Myths. Penguin (Non-Classics). ISBN 0-14-017199-1.
- Hamilton, Edith (1942—New edition 1998). Mythology. Back Bay Books. ISBN 0-316-34151-7.
- Kerenyi, Karl (1951—Reissue edition 1980). The Gods of the Greeks. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-27048-1.
- Kerenyi, Karl (1959—Reissue edition 1978). The Heroes of the Greeks. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-27049-X.
- Morford M. P. O. , Lenardon L. J. (2006). Classical Mythology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-530805-0.
- Ruck Carl, Staples Blaise Daniel (1994). The World of Classical Myth. Carolina Academic Press. ISBN 0-89089-575-9.
- Smith, William (1870), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Sir William Smith (1813 &ndash 1893 English Lexicographer, was born at Enfield in 1813 of Nonconformist parents
- Veyne, Paul (1988). Did the Greeks Believe in Their Myths? An Essay on Constitutive Imagination (translated by Paula Wissing). University of Chicago. ISBN 0-226-85434-5.
External links
- Theoi Project, Guide to Greek Mythology biographies of characters from myth with quotes from original sources and images from classical art
- Library of Classical Mythology Texts translations of works of classical literature
- Timeless Myths: Classical Mythology provides information and tales from classical literature.
- LIMC-France provides databases dedicated to graeco-roman mythology and its iconography.
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