Gray Wolf Fossil range: Late Pleistocene - Recent
Iberian Wolf (Canis lupus signatus)
Conservation status
Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)[1]
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Carnivora Family: Canidae Genus: Canis Species: C. The Pleistocene ('plaɪstəsin is the epoch from 18 million to 10000 years BP covering the world's recent period The Iberian wolf ( Canis lupus signatus) is a Subspecies of Grey wolf that inhabits the forest and plains of northern Portugal and northwestern The conservation status of a Species is an indicator of the likelihood of that species remaining extant either in the present day or the near future Least Concern ( LC) is an IUCN category assigned to extant species or lower taxa which have been evaluated but do not qualify for any other category The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (also known as the IUCN Red List or Red Data List) created in 1963 is the world's most comprehensive inventory of the global Chordates ( Phylum Chordata) are a group of Animals that includes the Vertebrates together with several closely related Invertebrates Mammals ( class Mammalia) are a class of Vertebrate Animals characterized by the presence of Sweat glands, including sweat glands The diverse order Carnivora (kɑrˈnɪvərə or sometimes /ˌkɑrnɪˈvɔərə/ from Latin carō (stem carn-) "flesh" + vorāre The Canidae (ˈkænədiː ′kanə′dē family is a part of the order Carnivora within the Mammals (Class Mammalia Canis is a Genus containing 7 to 10 extant species and many extinct species including wolves, Coyotes, and Jackals. lupus
Binomial name
Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758
Range map. Carl Linnaeus (Latinized as Carolus Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as, May 23 new style (13 May old style 1707 who laid the foundations for Green, present; red, former.

The gray wolf (Canis lupus), also known as the timber wolf or wolf, is a mammal of the order Carnivora. Mammals ( class Mammalia) are a class of Vertebrate Animals characterized by the presence of Sweat glands, including sweat glands The diverse order Carnivora (kɑrˈnɪvərə or sometimes /ˌkɑrnɪˈvɔərə/ from Latin carō (stem carn-) "flesh" + vorāre The gray wolf is the largest wild member of the Canidae family and an ice age survivor originating during the Late Pleistocene around 300,000 years ago. The Canidae (ˈkænədiː ′kanə′dē family is a part of the order Carnivora within the Mammals (Class Mammalia An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the Temperature of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere resulting in an expansion of continental Ice sheets The Late Pleistocene (also known as Upper Pleistocene or the Tarantian) is a stage of the Pleistocene Epoch. ^[2] DNA sequencing and genetic drift studies indicate that the gray wolf shares a common ancestry with the domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris) and might be its ancestor. The term DNA sequencing encompasses biochemical methods for determining the order of the Nucleotide bases Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine In Population genetics, genetic drift is the accumulation of random events that change the makeup of a gene pool slightly but often compound over time The dog ( Canis lupus familiaris) is a domesticated Subspecies of the gray wolf, a Mammal of the Canidae family of the order ^[3] A number of other gray wolf subspecies have been identified, though the actual number of subspecies is still open to discussion. Gray wolves play an important role as apex predators in the ecosystems they typically occupy. An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants animals and micro-organisms( Biotic factors in an area functioning together with all of the non-living physical ( Gray wolves are highly adaptable and have thrived in temperate forests, deserts, mountains, tundra, taiga, grasslands and urban areas. A forest is an area with a high density of Trees There are many definitions of a forest based on various criteria A desert is a Landscape or region that receives very little precipitation. A mountain is a Landform that extends above the surrounding Terrain in a limited area with a peak In physical Geography, tundra is an area where the Tree growth is hindered by low temperatures and short growing seasons Taiga (ˈtaɪgə from Turkic or Mongolian) is a Biome characterized by Coniferous forests Grasslands (also called greenswards) are areas where the Vegetation is dominated by Grasses ( Poaceae) and other Herbaceous (non-woody

Though once abundant over much of North America and Eurasia, the gray wolf inhabits a very small portion of its former range because of widespread destruction of its habitat, human encroachment of its habitat, and the resulting human-wolf encounters that sparked broad extirpation. For the superstate in George Orwell 's novel see Nations of Nineteen Eighty-Four. Local extinction is where a Species (or other Taxon) ceases to exist in the chosen area of study but still exists elsewhere Considered as a whole, however, the gray wolf is regarded as being of least concern for extinction according to the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Today, wolves are protected in some areas, hunted for sport in others, or may be subject to extermination as perceived threats to livestock and pets.

In areas where humans and wolves have been historically sympatric, wolves have frequently featured in the folklore and mythology of many cultures throughout history in both positive and negative lights.

Physiology

Physical characteristics

Wolf weight and size can vary greatly worldwide, tending to increase proportionally with latitude as predicted by Bergmann's Rule. Latitude, usually denoted symbolically by the Greek letter phi ( Φ) gives the location of a place on Earth (or other planetary body north or south of the In Zoology, Bergmann's rule is an ecogeographic rule that correlates Latitude with body mass in animals In general, height varies from 0. 6 to . 95 meters (26–38 inches) at the shoulder and weight ranges from 20 (44 lb. The metre or meter is a unit of Length. It is the basic unit of Length in the Metric system and in the International Inches redirects here To see the Les Savy Fav album see Inches. In Human anatomy, the shoulder joint comprises the part of the body where the Humerus attaches to the Scapula. ) to 62 (137 lb. ) kilograms, which together make the gray wolf the largest of all wild canids. ^[4] Although rarely encountered, extreme specimens of more than 77 kg (170 lb. ) have been recorded in Alaska, Canada^[5] and Russia. Alaska ( Аляска Alyaska) is a state in the United States of America, in the northwest of the North American continent Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending ^[6] The heaviest recorded wild wolf in the New World was killed on 70 Mile River in east central Alaska on July 12, 1939 and weighed 79 kg (175 lb. The New World is one of the names used for the non-Eurasian/non-African parts of the Earth specifically the Americas and Australia. )^[7], while the heaviest recorded wild wolf in the Old World was killed after WWII in the kobelyakski Area of the Poltavskij Region in the Russian SFSR and weighed 86 kg (189 lb. The Old World consists of those parts of Earth known to Europeans Asians and Africans in the 15th century World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including ). ^[6] The smallest wolves come from the Arabian Wolf subspecies, the females of which may weigh as little as 10 kg (22 lb) at maturity. The Arabian wolf ( Canis lupus arabs) is a Subspecies of Gray Wolf which was once found throughout the Arabian Peninsula, but now only lives Wolves are sexually dimorphic, with females in any given wolf population typically weighing 20% less than males^[8]. Sexual dimorphism is the systematic difference in form between individuals of different Sex in the same Species. They also have narrower muzzles and foreheads, slightly shorter, smoother furred legs and less massive shoulders^[7]. Wolves can measure anywhere from 1. 3 to 2 meters (4. 5–6. 5 feet) from nose to the tip of the tail, which itself accounts for approximately one quarter of overall body length. A foot (plural feet or foot; symbol or abbreviation ft or sometimes &prime – the prime symbol) is a non-SI unit The tail is the section at the rear end of an Animal 's Body; in general the term refers to a distinct flexible Appendage to the Torso. ^[9]

Wolves are built for stamina, possessing features ideal for long-distance travel. Endurance (also called sufferance) is the ability for humans to exert themselves through aerobic or Anaerobic exercise for relatively long periods of time Their narrow chests and powerful backs and legs facilitate efficient locomotion. Terrestrial locomotion has Evolved as Animals adapted from aquatic to terrestrial environments They are capable of covering several miles trotting at about a pace of 10 km/h (6 mph), and have been known to reach speeds approaching 65 km/h (40 mph) during a chase. The kilometre ( American spelling: kilometer) symbol km is a unit of Length in the Metric system, equal to one thousand ^[10] One female wolf was recorded to have made 7 metre bounds when chasing prey. ^[6]

Wolf paws are able to tread easily on a wide variety of terrains, especially snow. paw is the soft Foot of a Mammal, generally a Quadruped, that has Claws or nails There is a slight webbing between each toe, which allows them to move over snow more easily than comparatively hampered prey. Wolves are digitigrade, which, with the relative largeness of their feet, helps them to distribute their weight well on snowy surfaces. A digitigrade is an animal that stands or walks on its digits or toes The front paws are larger than the hind paws, and have a fifth digit, the dewclaw, that is absent on hind paws. A dewclaw is a vestigial digit of the Foot of many Mammals Birds and Reptiles (including some extinct orders like certain ^[11] Bristled hairs and blunt claws enhance grip on slippery surfaces, and special blood vessels keep paw pads from freezing. The blood vessels are part of the Circulatory system and function to transport Blood throughout the body ^[12] Scent glands located between a wolf's toes leave trace chemical markers behind, helping the wolf to effectively navigate over large expanses while concurrently keeping others informed of its whereabouts. Scent glands are found in the genital area of most Mammals and in various other parts of the body such as the underarms of Humans and the Preorbital ^[12] Unlike dogs and coyotes, wolves lack sweat glands on their paw pads. The coyote (kaɪˈoʊti ˈkaɪoʊt ( Canis latrans) also known as the prairie wolf, is a Mammal of the order Carnivora This trait is also present in Eastern Canadian Coyotes which have been shown to have recent wolf ancestry. ^[13] Wolves in Israel are unique due to the middle two toes of their paws being fused, a trait originally thought to be unique to the African Wild Dog. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. The African wild dog ( Lycaon pictus) is a carnivorous mammal of the Canidae family found only in Africa, especially in scrub Savanna ^[14]

Wolves have bulky coats consisting of two layers. Coat, or the nature and quality of a show Mammal 's Pelage, is important to the Animal fancy in the judging of the animal particularly at conformation The first layer is made up of tough guard hairs that repel water and dirt. Guard hairs are the longest most coarse hairs in a Mammal 's coat forming the topcoat (or outer coat) The second is a dense, water-resistant undercoat that insulates. Down hairs, also called the ground hairs, are the very fine fluffy hairs closest to the Skin on some Mammals The hairs are short and crimped The undercoat is shed in the form of large tufts of fur in late spring or early summer (with yearly variations). A wolf will often rub against objects such as rocks and branches to encourage the loose fur to fall out. The undercoat is usually gray regardless of the outer coat's appearance. Wolves have distinct winter and summer pelages that alternate in spring and autumn. In Mammals pelage is the Hair, Fur, or Wool that covers the Animal. Females tend to keep their winter coats further into the spring than males. North American wolves typically have longer, silkier fur than their Eurasian counterparts. ^[15]

Fur coloration varies greatly, running from gray to gray-brown, all the way through the canine spectrum of white, red, brown, and black. Fur is a body hair of any non-human Mammal, also known as the Pelage. These colors tend to mix in many populations to form predominantly blended individuals, though it is not uncommon for an individual or an entire population to be entirely one color (usually all black or all white). A multicolor coat characteristically lacks any clear pattern other than it tends to be lighter on the animal's underside. Fur color sometimes corresponds with a given wolf population's environment; for example, all-white wolves are much more common in areas with perennial snow cover. Aging wolves acquire a grayish tint in their coats. It is often thought that the coloration of the wolf's pelage serves as a functional form of camouflage. This may not be entirely correct, as some scientists have concluded that the blended colors have more to do with emphasizing certain gestures during interaction. ^[7]

At birth, wolf pups tend to have darker fur and blue irises that will change to a yellow-gold or orange color when the pups are between 8 and 16 weeks old. The colour orange occurs ^[16] Though extremely unusual, it is possible for an adult wolf to retain its blue-colored irises. ^[17]

Wolves' long, powerful muzzles help distinguish them from other canids, particularly coyotes and golden jackals, which have more narrow, pointed muzzles. A snout is the protruding portion of an animal's face consisting of its nose mouth and jaw The coyote (kaɪˈoʊti ˈkaɪoʊt ( Canis latrans) also known as the prairie wolf, is a Mammal of the order Carnivora The Golden Jackal ( Canis aureus) also called the Asiatic, Oriental or Common Jackal is a carnivorous Mammal of the Wolves differ from domestic dogs in a more varied nature. Anatomically, wolves have smaller orbital angles than dogs (>53 degrees for dogs compared with <45 degrees for wolves) and a comparatively larger brain capacity. In Mathematics, an inequality is a statement about the relative size or order of two objects or about whether they are the same or not (See also equality This article describes the unit of angle For other meanings see Degree. ^[18] Larger paw size, yellow eyes, longer legs, and bigger teeth further distinguish adult wolves from other canids, especially dogs. Also, precaudal glands at the base of the tail are present in wolves but not in dogs.

Wolves and most larger dogs share identical dentition. Dentition is the development of Teeth and their arrangement in the Mouth. The maxilla has six incisors, two canines, eight premolars, and four molars. This article is about the Mammal maxilla For Arthropod maxillae see Mouthparts; for Insect maxillae in particular see Insect mouthparts Incisors (from Latin incidere, "to cut" are the first kind of Tooth in Heterodont Mammals They are located in the Premaxilla "Cuspid" redirects here For the heart valves see Bicuspid valve and Tricuspid valve. Molars are the rearmost and most complicated kind of Tooth in most Mammals In many mammals they grind food hence the Latin name mola, " Millstone The mandible has six incisors, two canines, eight premolars, and six molars. The mandible (from Latin mandibula, "jawbone" or inferior maxillary bone forms the lower Jaw and holds the lower teeth in place ^[19] The fourth upper premolars and first lower molars constitute the carnassial teeth, which are essential tools for shearing flesh. Carnassials are large teeth found in many Carnivorous Mammals, used for shearing flesh and bone in a Scissor or Shear -like way The long canine teeth are also important, in that they hold and subdue the prey. Capable of delivering up to 10,000 kPa (1450 lbf/in²) of pressure, a wolf's teeth are its main weapons as well as its primary tools. The pound per square inch or more accurately pound-force per square inch (symbol psi or lbf/in² or lbf/in²) is a unit of Pressure (symbol 'p' is the force per unit Area applied to an object in a direction perpendicular to the surface ^[7] The dentition of grey wolves is better suited to bone crushing than those of other modern canids, though it is not as specialised as that found in hyenas. The Hyaenidae is a Mammalian family of order Carnivora. The Hyaenidae family native to both African and Asian continents consists of four ^[20]

Reproduction and life cycle

Usually, the instinct to reproduce drives young wolves away from their birth packs, leading them to seek out mates and territories of their own. In Ethology, Sociobiology and Behavioral ecology, the term territory refers to any sociographical area that an Animal of a particular Species Dispersals occur at all times during the year, typically involving wolves that have reached sexual maturity prior to the previous breeding season. Biological dispersal refers to those processes by which a Species maintains ecosystem Sexual maturity is the age or stage when an Organism can reproduce. The breeding season is the most suitable season usually with favorable conditions and abundant food and water for breeding among some wild animals and birds (wildlife It takes two such dispersals from two separate packs for a new breeding pair to be formed, for dispersing wolves from the same maternal pack tend not to mate. ^[21] Once two dispersing wolves meet and begin traveling together, they immediately begin the process of seeking out territory, preferably in time for the next mating season. The bond that forms between these wolves often lasts until one of them dies. ^[22]

Generally, mating occurs between January and April — the higher the latitude, the later it occurs. In Biology, mating is the pairing of opposite- Sex or hermaphroditic Organisms for copulation and in Social animals also to raise their ^[22] A pack usually produces a single litter unless the breeding male mates with one or more subordinate females. During the mating season, breeding wolves become very affectionate with one another in anticipation of the female's ovulation cycle. The menstrual cycle is a recurring cycle of physiologic changes that occurs in reproductive-age Females Overt menstruation (where there is blood flow from the The pack tension rises as each mature wolf feels urged to mate. During this time, the breeding pair may be forced to prevent other wolves from mating with one another. ^[21] Under normal circumstances, a pack can only support one litter per year, so this dominance behavior is beneficial in the long run. For other meanings of litter see Litter (disambiguation. A litter is the offspring at one birth of Animals from the same mother and usually

When the breeding female goes into estrus (which occurs once per year and lasts 5–14 days),^[23] she and her mate will spend an extended time in seclusion. Oestrus is also the biological genus name of the gadfly. The estrous cycle (also oestrous cycle; derived from Latin Pheromones in the female's urine and the swelling of her vulva make known to the male that the female is in heat. A pheromone (from Greek φέρω phero "to bear" + ‘ορμόνη " Hormone " is a Chemical that triggers a natural Urine is a liquid waste product of the body secreted by the Kidneys by a process of filtration from Blood and Excreted through the Urethra. The vulva (from Latin, vulva, plural vulvae or vulvas; see etymology) is the region of the external genital organs The female is unreceptive for the first few days of estrus, during which time she sheds the lining of her uterus; but when she begins ovulating again, the two wolves mate. The uterus (from the Latin word for womb) is the major Female reproductive organ of most Mammals including Humans One end the

The male wolf will mount the female firmly from behind. After achieving coitus, the two form a copulatory tie once the male's bulbus glandis—an erectile tissue located near the base of the canine penis—swells and the female's vaginal muscles tighten. Sexual intercourse, in its biological sense is the act in which the male reproductive organ (in humans and other higher animals enters the female reproductive tract The bulbus glandis (also called a knot) is an Erectile tissue structure on the penis of Canid Mammals. Erectile tissue is tissue in the body that can become erect usually by becoming engorged with Blood. The penis (plural penises, penes The vagina (from Latin, literally " Sheath " or " Scabbard " is a fibromuscular tubular tract leading from the Uterus Ejaculation is induced by the thrusting of the male's pelvis and the undulation of the female's cervix. Ejaculation is the ejecting of Semen from the Penis, and is usually accompanied by Orgasm. The pelvis (pl pelvises or pelves) or pelvic girdle is the irregular bony structure located at the base of the spine (properly known The cervix (from Latin "neck" is the lower narrow portion of the Uterus where it joins with the top end of the Vagina. The two become physically inseparable for anywhere from 10 to 30 minutes, during which the male will ejaculate multiple times. ^[24] After the initial ejaculation, the male may lift one of his legs over the female such that they are standing end-to-end; this is believed to be a defensive measure. The mating ritual is repeated many times throughout the female's brief ovulation period, which occurs once per year per female—unlike female dogs, whose estrus usually occurs twice per year.

The gestation period lasts between 60 and 63 days. The gestation period in a Viviparous Animal is the length of its Gestation. The pups, at a weight of 0. 5 kg (1 lb), are born blind, deaf, and completely dependent on their mother. ^[22][4] The average litter size is 5-6 pups Pups, though litters of 14-17 occur 1% of the time. ^[6] The pups reside in the den and stay there for two months. DEN may refer to The country The IATA code for Denver International Airport (also the former IATA code of Stapleton International Airport The den is usually on high ground near an open water source, and has an open chamber at the end of an underground or hillside tunnel that can be up to a few meters long. Underground living refers simply to living below the ground's surface whether in naturally occurring caves or in built structures A tunnel is an underground passageway The definition of what constitutes a tunnel is not universally agreed upon ^[12] During this time, the pups will become more independent, and will eventually begin to explore the area immediately outside the den before gradually roaming up to a mile away from it at around 5 weeks of age. A mile is a unit of Length, usually used to measure Distance, in a number of different systems including Imperial units United States Wolf growth rate is slower than that of coyotes and dholes. The Dhole ( Cuon alpinus) also known as the Asiatic Wild Dog, Indian Wild Dog or Red Dog is a Mammal of the order Carnivora ^[25] They begin eating regurgitated foods after 2 weeks of feeding on milk, which in wolves has less fat and more protein and arginine than dog milk. Regurgitation is the controlled flow of Stomach contents back into the Esophagus and Mouth. Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and largely insoluble in water Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl Arginine (abbreviated as Arg or R) is an α- Amino acid. The L-form is one of the 20 most common natural amino acids ^[8] By this time, their milk teeth have emerged — and are fully weaned by 10 weeks. During the first weeks of development, the mother usually stays with her litter alone, but eventually most members of the pack will contribute to the rearing of the pups in some way. ^[22]

After two months, the restless pups will be moved to a rendezvous site, where they can stay safely while most of the adults go out to hunt. One or two adults stay behind to ensure the safety of the pups. After a few more weeks, the pups are permitted to join the adults if they are able, and will receive priority on anything killed, their low ranks notwithstanding. Letting the pups fight for eating privileges results in a secondary ranking being formed among them, and allows them to practice the dominance/submission rituals that will be essential to their future survival in pack life. ^[22] During hunts, the pups remain ardent observers until they reach about 8 months of age, by which time they are large enough to participate actively.

Wolves typically reach sexual maturity after two or three years, at which point many of them will be compelled to leave their birth packs and seek out mates and territories of their own. Sexual maturity is the age or stage when an Organism can reproduce. ^[22][26] Wolves that reach maturity generally live 6 to 8 years in the wild, although in captivity they can live to twice that age. ^[27] High mortality rates give them a low overall life expectancy. Mortality rate is a measure of the number of Deaths (in general or due to a specific cause in some population scaled to the size of that population per unit time Pups die when food is scarce; they can also fall prey to predators such as bears, or, less often, coyotes, or other wolves. The coyote (kaɪˈoʊti ˈkaɪoʊt ( Canis latrans) also known as the prairie wolf, is a Mammal of the order Carnivora The most significant causes of mortality for grown wolves are hunting and poaching, car accidents, and wounds inflicted while hunting prey. Poaching is the illegal Hunting, Fishing or Harvesting of wild plants or animals Although adult wolves may occasionally be killed by other predators, rival wolf packs are often their most dangerous non-human enemy. A study on wolf mortality in Minnesota and the Denali National Park and Preserve concluded that 14–65% of wolf deaths were due to predation by other wolves. Denali National Park and Preserve is located in Interior Alaska and contains Mount McKinley (Denali the tallest mountain in North America. ^[28]

Diseases

Diseases recorded to be carried by wolves include rabies, brucella, deerfly fever, listerosis, foot and mouth disease and anthrax. Rabies (from rabies “madness rage fury” Also known as “ hydrophobia ” is a viral Zoonotic neuroinvasive disease that Brucella is a Genus of Gram-negative bacteria. They are small (0 Tularemia (also known as "rabbit fever" "deer-fly fever" "Ohara fever" and "Francis disease" is a serious Infectious disease Foot-and-mouth disease ( FMD) or hoof-and-mouth disease ( Aphtae epizooticae) is a highly contagious and sometimes fatal viral Anthrax is an acute Disease in humans and animals caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis which is highly lethal in some forms Wolves are major hosts for rabies in Russia, Iran, Afghanistan, Iraq and India. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Wolves in Russia have been recorded to carry over 50 different kinds of harmful parasites, including echinococcia, cysticercocci and coenuri. Despite their habit of carrying harmful diseases, large wolf populations are not heavily regulated by epizootic outbreaks as with other social canids. This is largely due to the habit of infected wolves vacating their packs, thus preventing mass contagion. ^[6]

Behavior

Social structure

Wolves function as social predators and hunt in packs organized according to strict, rank-oriented social hierarchies. Social hierarchy is a multi-tiered pyramid-like social or functional structure having an apex as the centralization of power ^[22] It was originally believed that this comparatively high level of social organization was related to hunting success, and while this still may be true to a certain extent, emerging theories suggest that the pack has less to do with hunting and more to do with reproductive success. Reproduction is the Biological process by which new individual Organisms are produced

The pack is led by the two breeding individuals that sit atop the social hierarchy. The breeding pair has the greatest amount of social freedom compared to the rest of the pack. Although they are not "leaders" in the human sense of the term, they help to resolve any disputes within the pack, have the greatest amount of control over resources (such as food), and have exclusive rights to mating. While most breeding pairs are monogamous, there are exceptions. Monogamy is the custom or condition of having only one mate in a Relationship, thus forming a Couple. ^[29] An alpha animal may preferentially mate with a lower-ranking animal, especially if the other alpha is closely related (a brother or sister, for example). In Biology, mating is the pairing of opposite- Sex or hermaphroditic Organisms for copulation and in Social animals also to raise their The death of one breeding wolf does not affect the status of the other, who will quickly take another mate. ^[22] Usually, only the breeding pair is able to rear a litter of pups successfully. Parenting is the process of raising and educating a Child from birth, or before until Adulthood In the case of humans it is usually Other wolves in a pack may breed, but when resources are limited, time, devotion, and preference will be given to the alpha pair's litter. Therefore, non-alpha parents of other litters within a single pack may lack the means to raise their pups to maturity of their own accord. All wolves in a pack assist in raising wolf pups. Some mature individuals choosing not to disperse may stay in their original packs so as to reinforce it and help rear more pups.

After the breeding pair, there may also be a beta wolf whose rank is above that of the others save for the breeding pair. Betas typically assume a more prominent role in assisting with the upbringing of the breeding pair's litter, often serving as surrogate mothers or fathers while the breeding pair is away. Surrogacy is a method of Reproduction whereby a woman agrees to become pregnant and deliver a child for a contracted party Beta wolves are the most likely to challenge their superiors for the role of dominance, though some betas seem content with being second, and will sometimes even let lower ranking wolves leapfrog them for the position of breeding animal should circumstances necessitate such a happening, such as the death of the previous breeding animal. Leapfrog is a Children's game in which players vault over each other's stooped Backs The first participant rests hands on knees and bends over this is called More ambitious beta wolves, however, will only wait so long before contending for breeding position unless they choose to disperse and create their own pack instead.

Loss of rank can happen gradually or suddenly. An older wolf may simply choose to give way when a motivated challenger presents itself, yielding its position without bloodshed. Motivation is the reason or reasons for engaging in a particular behavior especially Human behavior as studied in Philosophy, Conflict, Economics On the other hand, the challenged individual may choose to fight back with varying degrees of intensity. While the majority of wolf aggression is ritualized and non-injurious, a high-stakes fight can easily result in injury for either or both parties. In Psychology and other social and Behavioral sciences aggression refers to behavior that is intended to cause harm Injury or bodily injury is Damage or Harm caused to the Structure or function of the Body caused by an outside agent or The loser of such a confrontation is frequently chased away from the pack or, rarely, may be killed as other aggressive wolves contribute to the insurgency. These types of confrontations are more common during the mating season. Deaths occasionally happen, with some dominant male wolves having been known to kill two to four wolves in his lifetime. ^[30]

Rank order within a pack is established and maintained through a series of ritualized fights and posturing best described as "ritual bluffing". Ritualization is a behavior that occurs typically in the member of a given Species in a highly Stereotyped fashion and independent of any direct Physiological The ComBat was an Aluminium Cricket bat and the subject of an incident that occurred at the WACA cricket ground in Perth in December 1979. Wolves prefer ritualised displays of aggression to physical confrontations, meaning that high-ranking status is based more on personality or attitude than on size or physical strength. Physical strength is the ability of a person or animal to exert Force on physical objects using muscles. Rank, who holds it, and how it is enforced varies widely between packs and between individual animals. In large packs full of easy going wolves or in a group of juvenile wolves, rank order may shift almost constantly, or even be circular (for instance, animal A dominates animal B, who dominates animal C, who dominates animal A). A juvenile is an individual Organism that has not yet reached its Adult form Sexual maturity or size

In a more typical pack, only one wolf will assume the role of the omega: the lowest-ranking member of a pack. ^[31] Omegas receive the most aggression from the rest of the pack, and may be subjected to different forms of truculence at any time—anything from constant dominance from other pack members to inimical, physical harassment. Submissive individuals are better suited for constant displays of active and passive submission than they are for living alone. Any form of camaraderie is preferable to solitude and, indeed, submissive wolves tend to choose low rank over potential starvation. Despite the aggression to which they are often subjected, omega wolves have also been observed to be among the most playful wolves in the pack, often enticing all of the members in a pack into chasing games and other forms of play. In general, omega wolves exist to help relieve pack tension.

The size of the pack may change over time and is controlled by several factors, including habitat, personalities of individual wolves within a pack, and food supply. Packs can contain between 2 and 20 wolves, though 8 is a more typical size. ^[32] New packs are formed when a wolf leaves its birth pack, finds a mate, and claims a territory. Lone wolves searching for other individuals can travel very long distances seeking out suitable territories. Dispersing individuals must avoid the territories of other wolves because intruders on occupied territories are chased away or killed.

Wolves acting unusually within the pack, such as epileptic pups or thrashing adults crippled by a trap or a gunshot, are usually killed by other members of their own pack. Epilepsy is a common chronic Neurological disorder that is characterized by recurrent unprovoked seizures. ^[7]

Body language

See also: Dog communication

Wolves can communicate visually through a wide variety of expressions and moods ranging from subtle signals, such as a slight shift in weight, to more obvious ones, such as rolling on their backs to indicate complete submission. Animal communication is any Behaviour on the part of one Animal that has an effect on the current or future behaviour of another animal ^[33]

• Dominance – A dominant wolf stands stiff legged and tall. The ears are erect and forward, and the hackles bristle slightly. Often the tail is held vertically and curled toward the back. This display asserts the wolf's rank to others in the pack. A dominant wolf may stare at a submissive one, pin it to the ground, "ride up" on its shoulders, or even stand on its hind legs.
• Submission (active) – During active submission, the entire body is lowered, and the lips and ears are drawn back. Sometimes active submission is accompanied by muzzle licking, or the rapid thrusting out of the tongue and lowering of the hindquarters. The tongue is the large bundle of Skeletal muscles on the floor of the Mouth that manipulates Food for chewing and swallowing (deglutition The tail is placed down, or halfway or fully between the legs, and the muzzle often points up to the more dominant animal. The back may be partly arched as the submissive wolf humbles itself to its superior; a more arched back and more tucked tail indicate a greater level of submission.
• Submission (passive) – Passive submission is more intense than active submission. The wolf rolls on its back and exposes its vulnerable throat and underside. In Anatomy, the throat is the anterior part of the Neck, in front of the vertebral column. The paws are drawn into the body. This posture is often accompanied by whimpering.
• Anger – An angry wolf's ears are erect, and its fur bristles. The lips may curl up or pull back, and the incisors are displayed. The wolf may also arch its back, lash out, or snarl. A snarl is a Facial expression, where the upper lip is raised and the nostrils widen generally indicating Hate, Anger or Pain.
• Fear – A frightened wolf attempts to make itself look small and less conspicuous; the ears flatten against the head, and the tail may be tucked between the legs, as with a submissive wolf. There may also be whimpering or barks of fear, and the wolf may arch its back.
• Defensive – A defensive wolf flattens its ears against its head.
• Aggression – An aggressive wolf snarls and its fur bristles. The wolf may crouch, ready to attack if necessary.
• Suspicion – Pulling back of the ears shows a wolf is suspicious. The wolf also narrows its eyes. The tail of a wolf that senses danger points straight out, parallel to the ground.
• Relaxation – A relaxed wolf's tail points straight down, and the wolf may rest sphinx-like or on its side. A Sphinx is a Zoomorphic mythological figure which is depicted as a recumbent lion with a human head The wolf may also wag its tail. The further down the tail droops, the more relaxed the wolf is.
• Tension – An aroused wolf's tail points straight out, and the wolf may crouch as if ready to spring.
• Happiness – As dogs do, a wolf may wag its tail if in a joyful mood. The tongue may loll out of the mouth.
• Hunting – A wolf that is hunting is tensed, and therefore the tail is horizontal and straight.
• Playfulness – A playful wolf holds its tail high and wags it. The wolf may frolic and dance around, or bow by placing the front of its body down to the ground, while holding the rear high, sometimes wagged. This resembles the playful behavior of domestic dogs.

Howling and other vocalisations

Howling helps pack members keep in touch, allowing them to communicate effectively in thickly forested areas or over great distances. The UK Wolf Conservation Trust is a non-profit organisation based in Berkshire England A forest is an area with a high density of Trees There are many definitions of a forest based on various criteria Howling also helps to call pack members to a specific location. Howling can also serve as a declaration of territory, as shown in a dominant wolf's tendency to respond to a human imitation of a "rival" wolf in an area the wolf considers its own. This behavior is stimulated when a pack has something to protect, such as a fresh kill. As a rule of thumb, large packs will more readily draw attention to themselves than will smaller packs. Adjacent packs may respond to each others' howls, which can mean trouble for the smaller of the two. Wolves therefore tend to howl with great care. ^[34] Wolves will also howl for communal reasons. Some scientists speculate that such group sessions strengthen the wolves' social bonds and camaraderie—similar to community singing among humans. Singing is the act of producing musical sounds with the voice, which is often contrasted with Speech. ^[34] During such choral sessions, wolves will howl at different tones and varying pitches, making it difficult to estimate the number of wolves involved. In Music, timbre (ˈtæm-bər' like timber, or, from Fr timbre tɛ̃bʁ is the quality of a Musical note or sound that distinguishes different Pitch represents the perceived Fundamental frequency of a sound This confusion of numbers makes a listening rival pack wary of what action to take. For example, confrontation could be disastrous if the rival pack gravely underestimates the howling pack's numbers. A wolf's howl may be heard from up to ten miles away, depending on weather conditions. Observations of wolf packs suggest that howling occurs most often during the twilight hours, preceding the adults' departure to the hunt and following their return. Twilight is the time before Sunrise, called Dawn, and the time after Sunset, called Dusk. Studies also show that wolves howl more frequently during the breeding season and subsequent rearing process. The breeding season is the most suitable season usually with favorable conditions and abundant food and water for breeding among some wild animals and birds (wildlife The pups themselves begin howling soon after emerging from their dens and can be provoked into howling sessions easily over the following two months. Such indiscriminate howling usually is intended for communication, and does not harm the wolf so early in its life. ^[34] Howling becomes less indiscriminate as wolves learn to distinguish howling pack members from rival wolves. The Arabian and Iranian wolf subspecies are unusual as they are not known to howl. ^[7][35]

Growling, while teeth are bared, is the most visual warning wolves use. Growling or growl is a low Guttural Vocalization produced by Predatory animals as a Warning to others as a sign of Aggression Wolf growls have a distinct, deep, bass-like quality, and are often used to threaten rivals, though not necessarily to defend themselves. Bass (ˈbɛɪs as in base) when used as an adjective is used to describe tones of low Frequency or range. Wolves also growl at other wolves while being aggressively dominant. Wolves bark when nervous or when they want to warn other wolves of danger but do so very discreetly and will not generally bark loudly or repeatedly as dogs do. Barking is a noise most commonly produced by Dogs Woof is the most common representation in the English language for this sound (especially for large dogs Instead they use a low-key, breathy "whuf" sound to immediately get attention from other wolves. Wolves also "bark-howl" by adding a brief howl to the end of a bark. Wolves bark-howl for the same reasons they normally bark. Generally, pups bark and bark-howl much more frequently than adults, using these vocalizations to cry for attention, care, or food. A lesser known sound is the rally. Wolves will gather as a group and, amidst much tail-wagging and muzzle licking, emit a high-pitched wailing noise interspersed with something similar to (but not the same as) a bark. Rallying is often a display of submission to an alpha by the other wolves. ^[36] Wolves also whimper, usually when submitting to other wolves. Wolf pups whimper when they need a reassurance of security from their parents or other wolves.

Scent marking

Wolves, like other canines, use scent marking to lay claim to anything—from territory to fresh kills. Territorial marking is Behavior used by Animals to identify their territory. ^[31] Alpha wolves scent mark the most often, with males doing so more than females. The most widely used scent marker is urine. Male and female alpha wolves urine-mark objects with a raised-leg stance (all other pack members squat) to enforce rank and territory. They also use marks to identify food caches and to claim kills on behalf of the pack. Defecation markers are used for the same purpose as urine marks, and serve as a more visual warning, as well. Defecation is the final act of Digestion by which organisms eliminate solid semisolid or liquid Waste material ( Faeces) from the Digestive tract ^[31] Defecation markers are particularly useful for navigation, keeping the pack from traversing the same terrain too often and also allowing each wolf to be aware of the whereabouts of its pack members. Above all, though, scent marking is used to inform other wolves and packs that a certain territory is occupied, and that they should therefore tread cautiously.

Wolves have scent glands all over their bodies, including at the base of the tail, between toes, and in the eyes, genitalia, and skin. Scent glands are found in the genital area of most Mammals and in various other parts of the body such as the underarms of Humans and the Preorbital A sex organ, or primary sexual characteristic, as narrowly defined is any of the anatomical parts of the body which are involved in sexual reproduction and constitute ^[31] Pheromones secreted by these glands identify each individual wolf. A dominant wolf will "rub" its body against subordinate wolves to mark such wolves as being members of a particular pack. Wolves may also "paw" dirt to release pheromones instead of urine marking. ^[37]

Dietary habits

Packs of wolves hunt any large herbivores in their range. Herbivory is a form of Predation in which an Organism, known as a herbivore, consumes principally Autotrophs ref name=Campbell>Campbell Pack hunting revolves around the chase, as wolves are able to run for long periods before relenting. It takes careful cooperation for a pack to take down large prey, and the rate of success for such chase is very low. Wolves, in the interest of saving energy, will only chase one potential prey for the first thousand or so meters before giving up and trying at a different time against a different prey. ^[38] Wolf packs show little strategic cooperation in hunting unlike lionesses, though wolf pairs have been shown to strategize when attacking large prey. The lion ( Panthera leo) is a member of the family Felidae and one of four Big cats in the Genus Panthera. ^[8]

Wolves feed primarily on medium to large sized ungulates, including sheep, goats, chamois, pigs, deer, antelope, caribou, horses, moose, yak, and bison. Ungulates (meaning roughly "being Hoofed quot or "hoofed animal" are several groups of Mammals most of which use the tips of their toes usually This article refers to the sheep genus For the species commonly referred to simply as "sheep" see Domestic sheep. The chamois ( Rupicapra rupicapra) is a Goat -like animal native to the Carpathian Mountains of Romania the European Alps, the Gran Pigs, also called hogs or' swine', are Ungulates which have been domesticated as sources of food leather and similar products since ancient times A deer is a Ruminant Mammal belonging to the family Cervidae. Antelope are Ruminant hoofed Mammals of the family Bovidae in the order of Even-toed ungulates. The horse ( Equus caballus) is a hoofed ( Ungulate) Mammal, one of eight living species of the family Equidae. The moose (North America or elk (Europe Alces alces, is the largest extant Species in the Deer family. The yak ( Bos grunniens) is a long-haired Bovine found throughout the Himalayan region of south Central Asia, the Qinghai - This is an article about an animal For other uses see Bison (disambiguation. The American Bison is probably the heaviest land animal wolves prey on — bison weighing more than a ton having been taken down by a pack. The American bison ( Bison bison) is a Bovine Mammal, also commonly known as the American buffalo. Other recorded large prey include marine mammals such as seals^[6] and beached whales. Marine mammals are a diverse group of roughly 120 species of Mammal that are primarily Ocean -dwelling or depend on the ocean for food Pinnipeds ("fin-feet" lit "winged feet" or fin-footed mammals are a widely distributed and diverse group of semi-aquatic marine Mammals comprising ^[39] Solitary wolves depend more on smaller animals, which they capture by pouncing and pinning with their front paws, though lone wolves have been recorded to bring down prey as large as bison unaided. ^[8] Some wolf packs in Alaska have been observed to feed on salmon. Salmon is the common name for several species of Fish of the family Salmonidae. ^[40] They also prey on rodents, game birds and other small animals in a limited manner, as a typical adult wolf requires a minimum of 1. Rodentia is an order of Mammals also known as rodents, characterised by two continuously-growing incisors in the upper and lower jaws which must Game is any Animal hunted for Food or not normally domesticated (such as Venison) 1 kg (2. 5 lb) of food each day for sustenance, and approximately 2. 2 kg (5lb) to reproduce successfully. ^[27] Wolves rarely eat each day, but compensate by eating up to 10 kg (22 lb) at a time. ^[27] Wolves will on occasion supplement their diet with vegetation, with some areas of the former Soviet Union reporting that wolves cause serious damage to watermelon plantations. Watermelon ( Citrullus lanatus ( Thunb) Matsum & Nakai family Cucurbitaceae) refers to both Fruit and Plant of a vine-like (climber ^[6]

Wolves typically kill large prey by tearing at their haunches and perinium areas, causing massive bleeding. In Human anatomy, the perineum is generally defined as the surface region in both males and females between the Pubic symphysis and the Coccyx. Bleeding, technically known as hemorrhaging / haemorrhaging (see American and British spelling differences) is the loss of Blood from A single bite can cause a wound up to 10-15 cm in length. A large deer in optimum health will succumb to three bites at the perinium area after a chase of 150 metres. Once the prey collapses, the wolves will tear open the abdominal cavity and commence feeding on the animal, sometimes whilst it is still alive. ^[6] The breeding pair usually eat first. The heart, liver and lungs are usually eaten first. The heart is a muscular organ in all Vertebrates responsible for pumping Blood through the Blood vessels by repeated rhythmic The liver is a vital organ in the human body and is present in Vertebrates and some other animals lung is the essential Respiration organ in air-breathing Animals including most Tetrapods a few Fish and a few Snails The most primitive The stomach is eaten, though the contents are left untouched. In Human anatomy, the stomach is a J-shaped hollow muscular organ of the Gastrointestinal tract involved in the second phase of Digestion, following The leg muscles are eaten next, with the hide and bones being the last to be eaten. ^[8] Though commonly portrayed as targetting solely sick or infirm animals^[26], there is little evidence that they limit themselves to such targets. Research from the former Soviet Union for example shows that in some cases, 93% of all killed prey have no illnesses or infirmities. In the Nenets Autonomous Okrug, wolves were shown to select pregnant female domestic caribou and calves rather than infirm specimens, with some reports showing that wolves bypassed emaciated, sickly animals altogether in favour of well fed ones. Nenets Autonomous Okrug (Нене́цкий автоно́мный о́круг Nenets: Ненёцие автономной ӈокрук or Nenetsia, is a ^[6] However, most healthy, fit individuals will not run from wolves and will instead choose to stand their ground, thus increasing the possibility of injury to the attacking wolves. The wolves are more likely to yield when confronted by bold prey. Wolves are generally inefficient at killing large, assertive prey, with success rates as low as 20% which is due, in part, to the large size and defensive capabilities of their prey. ^[41]

Wolves have on occasion been observed to engage in acts of surplus killing. Surplus killing is the behavior Predators exhibit when they kill more prey than they can immediately use An instance of surplus killing by wolves was witnessed in Canada's Northwest Territories by researchers coming across 34 neonatal caribou calves, scattered over three square kilometres. The wolves had eaten only a few parts from half the calves and not touched the rest. Wolves sometimes only eat a part of their surplus-killed prey, like the tail or the internal organs. However, conditions in nature which favour surplus killing are unusual. Consequently surplus killing in the wild is rare, though fairly common in domestic situations in which the prey animals are usually confined and unable to escape the attackers. ^[42] Surplus killing in the wild peaks in winter months when heavy snow impedes the movements of large hooved prey. ^[6]

In certain localities in Eurasia where there is little natural prey, wolves will forage in garbage dumps. For other uses see Water treatment and Land reclamation. A landfill, also known as a dump (and historically as There are few cases of wolves in North America relying on garbage for food. ^[8]

Interspecific predatory relationships

Wolves typically dominate other canid species in areas where they are sympatric. In North America, wolves are generally intolerant of coyotes in their territory; two years after their re-introduction to the Yellowstone National Park, the wolves were responsible for a near 50% drop in coyote populations through both competition and predation. The coyote (kaɪˈoʊti ˈkaɪoʊt ( Canis latrans) also known as the prairie wolf, is a Mammal of the order Carnivora ^[43] Wolves have been reported to dig coyote pups from their dens and kill them. Wolves typically do not consume the coyotes they kill. There are no records of coyotes killing wolves^[8], though they have been known to gang up on wolves if they outnumber them. ^[43] Near identical interactions have been observed in Greece between wolves and golden jackals. Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία The Golden Jackal ( Canis aureus) also called the Asiatic, Oriental or Common Jackal is a carnivorous Mammal of the ^[44] Wolves may kill foxes, though not as frequently as they do with coyotes. A fox is an Animal belonging to any one of about 27 Species (of which only 12 actually belong to the Vulpes genus or 'true foxes' of small Racoon dogs are also reportedly preyed upon. ^[8]

Cougars are encountered in North America. The cougar ( Puma concolor) also puma, mountain lion, or panther, depending on region is a Mammal of the Felidae family Wolves are usually hostile toward cougars and will kill kittens if given the opportunity. The wolf's relation to adult cougars is more complex. A pack often takes advantage of cougars, stealing kills and sometimes killing mature adults. Interactions between solitary wolves and cougars are rarer, but the two species have killed each other. ^[45] National Park Service cougar specialist Kerry Murphy stated that the cougar usually is at an advantage on a one to one basis, considering it can effectively use its claws, as well as its teeth, unlike the wolf which relies solely on its teeth. Yellowstone officials have reported that attacks between cougars and wolves are not uncommon. Multiple incidents of cougars taking wolves and vice versa have been recorded in Yellowstone National Park. However, researchers in Montana have found that wolves regularly kill cougars in the area, though they did not specify whether or not this was a pack situation. ^[46]

Brown bears are encountered in both Eurasia and North America. The Grizzly Bear (Ursus arctos horribilis, also known as the Silvertip Bear, is a Subspecies of Brown bear (Ursus arctos that lives The Brown Bear ( Ursus arctos) is an Omnivorous Mammal of the family Ursidae, distributed across much of northern Eurasia and The majority of interactions between wolves and brown bears usually amount to nothing more than mutual avoidance. Serious confrontations depend on the circumstances of the interaction, though the most common factor is defence of food and young. Brown bears will use their superior size to intimidate wolves from their kills and when sufficiently hungry, will raid wolf dens. Brown bears usually dominate wolves on kills, though they rarely prevail against wolves defending den sites. Wolves in turn have been observed killing bear cubs, to the extent of even driving off the defending mother bears. ^[8] Deaths in wolf/bear skirmishes are considered very rare occurrences, the individual power of the bear and the collective strength of the wolf pack usually being sufficient deterrents to both sides. ^[47] American black bears occur solely in the Americas, and interactions with wolves are much rarer than with brown bears, due to differences in habitat preferences. The American Black Bear ( Ursus americanus) is the most common Bear Species native to North America. The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the Continents of North America and South America The majority of black bear encounters with wolves occur in the species' northern range, with no interactions being recorded in Mexico. Wolves have been recorded to kill black bears on numerous occasions without eating them. Unlike brown bears, black bears frequently lose against wolves in disputes over kills. ^[8]

In areas where wolves and tigers share ranges such as the Russian Far East, tigers depress wolf numbers, either to the point of localized extinction or to such low numbers as to make them a functionally insignificant component of the ecosystem. The tiger ( Panthera tigris) is a member of the Felidae family the largest and the most powerful of the four " Big cats quot in the Genus Russian Far East (Да́льний Восто́к Росси́и ˈdalʲnʲɪj vʌˈstok rʌˈsʲiɪ is a term that refers to the Russian part of the Far East, i Wolves appear capable of escaping competitive exclusion from tigers only when human persecution decreases the latters numbers. ^[48]

Wolves may occasionally encounter striped hyenas in the Middle East, Central and Southern Asia, mostly in disputes over carcasses. The Striped Hyena ( Hyaena hyaena) Al Dabea' الضبع Taras तरस is an omnivorous Mammal of the family Though hyenas usually dominate wolves on a one to one basis, wolf packs have been reported to displace lone hyenas from carcasses. ^[49] Wolf remains have been found in cave hyena den sites, though it is unknown if the wolves were killed or scavenged upon. The Cave Hyena ( Crocuta crocuta spelaea) is an extinct Subspecies of Spotted hyena ( Crocuta crocuta) native to Eurasia, ranging ^[50]

Taxonomy

The gray wolf is a member of the genus Canis, which comprises between 7 and 10 species. A genus (plural genera from Γένος Latin genus "descent family type gender" is a low-level Taxonomic Canis is a Genus containing 7 to 10 extant species and many extinct species including wolves, Coyotes, and Jackals. It is one of six species termed 'wolf', the others being the Red Wolf (Canis rufus), the Indian Wolf (Canis indica), the Himalayan Wolf (Canis himalayaensis), the Eastern Wolf (Canis lycaon) and the Ethiopian Wolf (Canis simensis), although concerning a couple of these there is still some uncertainty as to whether they should be considered subspecies of Canis lupus or species in their own right. The Red Wolf ( Canis lupus rufus) is a Mammal of the order Carnivora. Recent genetic research suggests that the Indian Wolf, originally considered only as a subpopulation of the Iranian Wolf ( Canis lupus pallipes) may represent The Himalayan Wolf, originally thought to belong to Tibetan wolf ( Canis lupus chanco) which is a subspecies of the Gray wolf, may represent a The Eastern Wolf ( Canis lycaon) also know as Eastern Canadian Wolf or Eastern Canadian Red Wolf is traditionally considered | fossil_range = Pliocene - Recent| image = EthiopianWolf1jpg| image_width = 220px| status = EN| trend = up| status_system = iucn2 Recent genetic research suggests that the Indian Wolf, originally considered only as a subpopulation of the Iranian Wolf (Canis lupus pallipes), represents a distinct species (Canis indica). The Iranian wolf ( Canis lupus pallipes) is a subspecies of Grey Wolf which ranges from Lebanon, Northern Israel, Saudi Arabia Similar results were obtained for the Himalayan wolf, which is traditionally placed into the Tibetan Wolf (Canis lupus laniger) ^[51]. The Himalayan Wolf, originally thought to belong to Tibetan wolf ( Canis lupus chanco) which is a subspecies of the Gray wolf, may represent a The Tibetan wolf is a Gray wolf species ( Canis lupus chanco) found in parts of Central China, southwest Russia, Manchuria,

With respect to common names, spelling differences result in the alternative spelling grey wolf. American and British English spelling differences are one aspect of American and British English differences. As the first-named and most widespread of species termed "wolf", gray wolves are often simply referred to as wolves. It was one of the many species originally described by Carolus Linnaeus in his eighteenth-century work, Systema Naturae, and it still bears its original classification, Canis lupus. Carl Linnaeus (Latinized as Carolus Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as, May 23 new style (13 May old style 1707 who laid the foundations for The book Systema Naturae was one of the major works of the Swedish doctor of medicine Carolus Linnaeus. ^[52] The binomial name is derived from the Latin Canis, meaning "dog", and lupus, "wolf". Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. ^[53]

Classifying gray wolf subspecies can be challenging. Although scientists have proposed a host of subspecies, wolf taxonomy at this level remains controversial. In Zoology, as in other branches of Biology, subspecies is the Taxonomic rank immediately subordinate to a Species. ^[54] Indeed, only a single wolf species may exist. Taxonomic modification will likely continue for years to come.

Current theories propose that the gray wolf first evolved in Eurasia during the early Pleistocene. For the superstate in George Orwell 's novel see Nations of Nineteen Eighty-Four. The Pleistocene ('plaɪstəsin is the epoch from 18 million to 10000 years BP covering the world's recent period The rate of changes observed in DNA sequence date the Asiatic lineage to about 800,000 years, as opposed to the American and European lineages which stretch back only 150,000. Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) is a Nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known ^[55] The gray wolf migrated into North America from the Old World, probably via the Bering land bridge, around 400,000 years ago. The Old World consists of those parts of Earth known to Europeans Asians and Africans in the 15th century The Bering land bridge was a Land bridge roughly 1000 miles (1600 km north to south at its greatest extent which joined present-day Alaska and eastern Siberia The gray wolf then coexisted with the Dire Wolf (Canis dirus). The Dire Wolf ( Canis dirus) is an extinct carnivorous Mammal of the genus Canis, and was most common in North Although more heavily built and possessing a stronger bite, the dire wolf's dentition was less adept at crushing bones as the grey wolf was. ^[20] The Dire Wolf ranged from southern Canada to South America until about 8,000 years ago when climate changes are thought to have caused it to become extinct. After that the gray wolf is thought to have become the prime canine predator in North America.

Subspecies

Main article: Subspecies of Canis lupus

At one point, up to 50 gray wolf subspecies were recognized. Canis lupus has 39 Subspecies currently described including two subspecies of domestic dog ''Canis lupus dingo'' and ''Canis lupus familiaris'' Though no true consensus has been reached, this list can be condensed to 13–15 general extant subspecies. Modern classifications take into account the DNA, anatomy, distribution, and migration of various wolf colonies.

Subspecies	Classification	Status	Historic Range (see map)
Arabian Wolf	Canis lupus arabs	Critically endangered, declining	Southern Israel, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman
	A very small subspecies. The Arabian wolf ( Canis lupus arabs) is a Subspecies of Gray Wolf which was once found throughout the Arabian Peninsula, but now only lives For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, KSA ( المملكة العربية السعودية, al-Mamlaka al-ʻArabiyya as-Suʻūdiyya) or Suudi Yemen ( Arabic: اليَمَن al-Yaman officially the Republic of Yemen ( Arabic: الجمهورية اليمنية al-Jumhuuriyya Oman, officially the Sultanate of Oman ( Arabic: سلطنة عُمان) is an Arab Country in Southwest Asia on the southeast Typically blended brown or completely brown with a thin coat. Hunted regularly as a nuisance animal, though rarely encountered.
Arctic Wolf	Canis lupus arctos	Stable	Canadian Arctic, Greenland
	An average-sized subspecies. See also Gray Wolf The Arctic Wolf ( Canis lupus arctos) also called Polar Wolf or White Wolf, is a Mammal of the Canidae Northern Canada is the vast Northernmost Region of Canada variously defined by Geography and Politics. Greenland (Kalaallit Nunaat meaning "Land of the Greenlanders" Grønland is a self-governing Danish Province located between the Almost exclusively white or creamy white with a thick coat. Hunted legally, though rarely encountered.
Caspian Sea Wolf	Canis lupus campestris	Endangered, declining	Between the Caspian and Black seas
	A smaller subspecies. See also Gray Wolf The Caspian Sea Wolf ( Canis lupus campestris) also known as the Caucasian Wolf, is a Critically endangered The Caspian Sea is the largest enclosed body of water on Earth by area variously classed as the world's largest lake or a full-fledged Sea. The Black Sea is an inland Sea bounded by southeastern Europe, the Caucasus and the Anatolian peninsula ( Turkey Hunted as a nuisance animal.
Dingo	Canis lupus dingo	Vulnerable (pure breed)	Australia & southeast Asia
	Hunted as a nuisance animal. Description Appearance Adult dingoes are typically 48–58 cm (19–23 inches tall at the shoulders and weigh on average 23–32 kgs (50–70 pounds though specimens For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. Pure breed declining from interbreeding with the Domestic Dog. The dog ( Canis lupus familiaris) is a domesticated Subspecies of the gray wolf, a Mammal of the Canidae family of the order
Domestic Dog	Canis lupus familiaris	Stable	Worldwide
	Typically, a smaller subspecies, with 20% smaller brains, less powerful immune system, and less developed sense of smell [56]. The dog ( Canis lupus familiaris) is a domesticated Subspecies of the gray wolf, a Mammal of the Canidae family of the order Maintained as pets, although some small feral populations do exist. Raised for their meat in some parts of the world. In some countries apart from being kept as pets certain breeds of Dogs are raised on farms and Slaughtered for their meat
Eastern Wolf	Canis lupus lycaon	At risk	Southeastern Canada, Eastern United States
	First subspecies to be recognized in North America. The Eastern Wolf ( Canis lycaon) also know as Eastern Canadian Wolf or Eastern Canadian Red Wolf is traditionally considered Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Represents probably a distinct species (Canis lycaon).
Eurasian Wolf	Canis lupus lupus	Stable	Western Europe, Scandinavia, Russia, China, Mongolia, Himalaya Mountains
	An average to large-sized subspecies. The Eurasian Wolf ( Canis lupus lupus) also known as the Common Wolf, European Wolf, Carpathian Wolf, Steppes Wolf, Tibetan Wolf Western Europe at its most general meaning means 'all the countries in the West of Europe ' Terminology and usage As a cultural term "Scandinavia" has no official definition and is subject to usage by those who identify with the culture in question as well Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Mongolia (mɒŋˈɡoʊliə, literally Mongol country/nation,) is a Landlocked Country in East Generally short, blended gray fur. Largest range among wolf subspecies. Most common wolf subspecies in Europe and Asia. Population roughly 100,000. Hunted legally in some places, protected in others.
Great Plains Wolf	Canis lupus nubilus	Stable	Southern Rocky Mountains, Midwestern United States, Eastern and Northeastern Canada, far Southwestern Canada, and Southeastern Alaska
	An average-sized subspecies. The Great Plains Wolf ( Canis lupus nubilus) also known as the Buffalo Wolf, is a Subspecies of the Gray Wolf, native to North America Mountain peaks of the Rocky Mountains The Rocky Mountains, often called the Rockies, are a Mountain range in western North America. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page Alaska ( Аляска Alyaska) is a state in the United States of America, in the northwest of the North American continent Usually gray, black, buff, or reddish. The most common subspecies in the contiguous U.S. Hunted legally in parts of Canada. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page
Mackenzie Valley Wolf	Canis lupus occidentalis	Stable	Alaska, Northern Rockies, Western and Central Canada
	A very large subspecies. The Mackenzie Valley Wolf ( Canis lupus occidentalis) also known as the Rocky Mountain Wolf, Alaskan Timber Wolf or Canadian Timber Wolf is perhaps Alaska ( Аляска Alyaska) is a state in the United States of America, in the northwest of the North American continent Mountain peaks of the Rocky Mountains The Rocky Mountains, often called the Rockies, are a Mountain range in western North America. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page Usually black or a blended gray or brown, but full color spectrum represented. This subspecies was reintroduced to Yellowstone National Park and Idaho starting in 1995. The State of Idaho ( is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States of America. Year 1995 ( MCMXCV) was a Common year starting on Sunday. Events of 1995 Hunted legally in Alaska and parts of Canada. Alaska ( Аляска Alyaska) is a state in the United States of America, in the northwest of the North American continent Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page Protected in the contiguous states.
Mexican Wolf	Canis lupus baileyi	Critically endangered	Central Mexico, Western Texas, Southern New Mexico and Arizona
	A smaller subspecies. The Mexican Gray Wolf ( Canis lupus baileyi) is the rarest most genetically distinct Subspecies of the Gray Wolf in North America The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. Texas ( is a state geographically located in the South Central United States and is also known as the Lone Star State. New Mexico ( is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States of America. The State of Arizona ( is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States. Usually tawny brown or rusty in color. Reintroduced to Arizona starting in 1998. The State of Arizona ( is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States. Year 1998 ( MCMXCVIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1998 Gregorian calendar) Current wild population 35–50. Current captive population 300. Protected.
Iranian Wolf	Canis lupus pallipes	Stable	Northern Israel, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iran
	A small subspecies. The Iranian wolf ( Canis lupus pallipes) is a subspecies of Grey Wolf which ranges from Lebanon, Northern Israel, Saudi Arabia For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, KSA ( المملكة العربية السعودية, al-Mamlaka al-ʻArabiyya as-Suʻūdiyya) or Suudi Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. Hunted legally in some places, protected in others.
Tundra Wolf	Canis lupus albus	Stable	Northern Russia, Siberia
	A larger subspecies. See also Gray Wolf The Tundra Wolf ( Canis lupus albus) is a subspecies of Grey Wolf that can be found throughout northern Europe and Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Siberia (Сиби́рь Sibir) is the name given to the vast region constituting almost all of Northern Asia and for the most part currently serving Typically gray, with mixes of black, rust and silver, though full spectrum is represented. Hunted legally.
Vancouver Island Wolf	Canis lupus crassodon	Endangered	Vancouver Island
	Vancouver Island wolves are medium-sized and often gray. The Vancouver Island wolf ( Canis lupus crassodon) is a Subspecies of Grey wolf, Endemic to Vancouver Island, British Columbia Vancouver Island is a large Island in British Columbia, Canada, one of several North American regions named after George Vancouver, the British

Disputed subspecies

Historically, gray wolf classification has been transient in nature. As a result, there still exists some disagreement as to the status of certain possible subspecies. These are listed below.

Subspecies	Classification	Status	Historic Range
Iberian Wolf	Canis lupus signatus	Stable	North Portugal, North-Western Spain
	May also be part of C. l. lupus. The Iberian wolf ( Canis lupus signatus) is a Subspecies of Grey wolf that inhabits the forest and plains of northern Portugal and northwestern Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. The Eurasian Wolf ( Canis lupus lupus) also known as the Common Wolf, European Wolf, Carpathian Wolf, Steppes Wolf, Tibetan Wolf An average-sized subspecies. Distinct for its black markings and rusty red pelage. Conservation dependent.
New Guinea Singing Dog	Canis lupus hallstromi	Vulnerable (pure breed)	New Guinea
	Similar to domestic dog and dingo. The New Guinea Singing Dog ( Canis lupus dingo) known as NGSD, New Guinea Highland Dog, or Singer, is a type of domestic dog New Guinea, located just north of Australia, is the world's second largest island, having become separated from the Australian mainland when the area now known Regarded as a synonym for dingo.
Italian Wolf	Canis lupus italicus	Endangered	Italy, Switzerland, France
	An average-sized subspecies. See also Gray Wolf The Italian Wolf ( Canis lupus italicus) also known as the Apennine Wolf, is a subspecies of the Grey Wolf found Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Full canine color spectrum represented. Occupy comparatively smaller territories. Protected. Synonym of C. l. lupus.
Russian Wolf	Canis lupus communis	Stable	Central Russia
	A very large subspecies. The Russian Wolf ( Canis lupus communis) is a subspecies of Grey Wolf which occurs in north-central Russia. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Hunted legally. Synonym of C. l. lupus.

Extinct subspecies

Subspecies	Classification	Status	Historic Range
Hokkaido Wolf	Canis lupus hattai	Extinct	Japanese island of Hokkaidō
	A smaller subspecies. The Hokkaido Wolf ( also known as the Ezo Wolf, is one of the two extinct subspecies of Canis lupus that have been called the Japanese Wolf. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. WikipediaWikiProject Japanese prefectures for guidelines --> formerly known as Ezo, Yezo, Yeso, or Yesso, is Japan 's Became extinct in 1888 as a result of poisoning campaigns. Year 1888 ( MDCCCLXXXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (click on link for calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a
Honshu Wolf	Canis lupus hodophilax	Extinct	Japanese islands of Honshū, Shikoku, and Kyūshū
	A very small subspecies. The term refers to two Extinct Subspecies of the Gray Wolf. The subspecies that the name 'Japanese Wolf' usually describes is the Honshū Wolf ( which For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. or Honshu is the largest Island of Japan. The nation's main island, it is south of Hokkaidō across the Tsugaru Strait, north of is the smallest (225 km long and between 50 and 150 km wide and least populous (4141955 as of 2005 of the four main islands of Japan, located south of Honshū or Kyushu is the third-largest Island of Japan and most southwesterly of its four main islands. Became extinct in 1905 from a combination of rabies and human eradication efforts. Year 1905 ( MCMV) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting
Newfoundland Wolf	Canis lupus beothucus	Extinct	Newfoundland, Canada
	Became extinct in 1911 from a combination of human eradication efforts and a population decline in major prey species. The Newfoundland wolf ( Canis lupus beothucus) was a sub-species of the Gray wolf, Canis lupus, which existed on the island of Newfoundland off Newfoundland — ˈn(jufənˌlænd (Terre-Neuve Talamh an Éisc — is a large island 15 km off the east coast of Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page Year 1911 ( MCMXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year

Disputed species

Subspecies	Classification	Status	Historic Range
Himalayan Wolf	Canis himalayensis	Critically Endangered	Northern India and Eastern Nepal
	Formerly included in C. The Himalayan Wolf, originally thought to belong to Tibetan wolf ( Canis lupus chanco) which is a subspecies of the Gray wolf, may represent a India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Nepal (नेपाल) is a Landlocked country in South Asia. l. chanco. Smaller than gray wolves.
Indian Wolf	Canis indica	Endangered	Eastern Indian subcontinent
	Formerly thought to be a variety of C. l. pallipes, now known to be unique to India. Recent genetic research suggests that the Indian Wolf, originally considered only as a subpopulation of the Iranian Wolf ( Canis lupus pallipes) may represent This article deals with the geophysical region in Asia For geopolitical treatments see South Asia. The Iranian wolf ( Canis lupus pallipes) is a subspecies of Grey Wolf which ranges from Lebanon, Northern Israel, Saudi Arabia India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Smaller than gray wolves. Typically reddish, tawny, or buff colored.

Relation to the dog

Main article: Origin of the domestic dog

Much debate has centered on the relationship between the wolf and the domestic dog, though most authorities see the wolf as the dog's direct ancestor. An ancestor is a Parent or ( recursively) the parent of an ancestor (i Because the canids have evolved recently and different canids interbreed readily, untangling the relationships has been difficult. However, molecular systematics now indicate very strongly that domestic dogs and wolves are closely related, and the domestic dog is now normally classified as a subspecies of the wolf: Canis lupus familiaris. In Zoology, as in other branches of Biology, subspecies is the Taxonomic rank immediately subordinate to a Species. All skeletal dog remains found from the upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods are from relatively small specimens, therfore pointing to either the Arabian or Iranian wolf as the most likely progenitor. ^[57] North American domestic dogs are believed to have originated from Old World wolves. No known dog breed is derived from wolves indigenous to North America. The first people to colonize North America 12,000 to 14,000 years ago brought their dogs with them from Asia, and apparently did not separately domesticate the wolves they found in the New World. ^[58]

Compared to equally sized wolves, dogs tend to have 20% smaller skulls and 10% smaller brains, as well as proportionately smaller teeth than other canid species. ^[13] The premolars and molars of a dog are much more crowded and compacted than those of a wolf. Dog's teeth also have less complex cusp patterns, and their tympanic bulla is much smaller than in wolves. ^[57] Dogs require fewer calories to function than wolves. The dog's diet of human refuse in antiquity made the large brains and jaw muscles needed for hunting unnecessary. It is thought by certain experts that the dog's limp ears are a result of atrophy of the jaw muscles. Atrophy is the partial or complete Wasting away of a part of the Body. ^[13] The paws of a dog are half the size of those of a wolf, and their tails tend to curl upwards, another trait not found in wolves. ^[7] Dogs are not monogamous, and breeding in feral packs is not restricted to a dominant breeding pair. Monogamy is the custom or condition of having only one mate in a Relationship, thus forming a Couple. Male dogs differ from male wolves by the fact that they play no role in raising their puppies, and do not kill the young of other females to increase their own reproductive success. ^[18] Dogs differ also from wolves by the fact that they do not regurgitate food for their young, nor the young of other dogs in the same territory. ^[13]

Interpecific hybridization

Main article: Canid hybrid

Wolves can interbreed with domestic dogs and produce fertile offspring. Canid hybrids are the result of interbreeding between different species of the canine (dog family ( Canidae) The Alaskan Malamute is a large breed of Domestic dog ( Canis lupus familiaris) originally Wolf-dog hybrids are generally said to be naturally healthy animals, and are affected by less inherited diseases than most breeds of dog. Wolfdogs are usually healthier than either parent due to heterosis. Heterosis is a term used in Genetics and Selective breeding. The term heterosis also known as hybrid vigor or outbreeding enhancement, ^[59] According to the National Wolfdog Alliance, 40 U. S. states effectively forbid the ownership, breeding and importation of wolfdogs, while others impose some form of regulation upon ownership. ^[60] Most European nations, as well as many U. S. counties and municipalities, also either outlaw the animal entirely or put restrictions on ownership. ^[61][62]. Although wolves in the wild will usually kill dogs, matings of dogs and wild wolves has been confirmed in some populations through genetic testing. As the survival of most Continental wolf packs is severely threatened, scientists fear that the creation of wolf-dog hybrid populations in the wild is a threat to the continued existence of some isolated wolf populations. In some cases, the presence of dewclaws is considered a useful, but not absolute indicator of dog gene contamination in wild wolves. A dewclaw is a vestigial digit of the Foot of many Mammals Birds and Reptiles (including some extinct orders like certain Dewclaws are the vestigial fifth toes of the hind legs common in domestic dogs but thought absent from pure wolves, which only have four hind toes. ^[11] Observations on wild wolf hybrids in the former Soviet Union indicate that wolf hybrids in a wild state may form larger packs than pure wolves, and have greater endurance when chasing prey. ^[6]

Wolves and coyotes can interbreed and produce fertile offspring, a fact which calls into question their status as two separate species. ^[63] The offspring, known as a coywolf, is generally intermediate in size to both parents, being larger than a pure coyote, but smaller than a pure wolf. The coywolf is a term used to refer to hybrids between a Coyote ( Canis latrans) and the Gray wolf ( Canis lupus) or the Red wolf A study showed that of 100 coyotes collected in Maine, 22 had half or more wolf ancestry, and one was 89 percent wolf. The State of Maine ( is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America, bordering the Atlantic Ocean A theory has been proposed that the large eastern coyotes in Canada are actually hybrids of the smaller western coyotes and wolves that met and mated decades ago as the coyotes moved toward New England from their earlier western ranges. ^[64]

Current status

Europe

Beginning in the 1970s, Italy began favoring the increase in wolf populations. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest A new investigation began in the early 1980s, in which it was estimated that there was a growing population of approximately 220-240 animals. New estimates in the 1990s revealed that the wolf populations had doubled, with some specimens taking residence in the Alps — a region not inhabited by wolves for nearly a century. Current estimates indicate that there are 500-600 Italian wolves living in the wild. Their populations are said to be growing at a rate of 7% annually. ^[65]

Around 35 wolves in 4 packs are now roaming the heaths of the eastern German region of Lusatia, a region along the German-Polish border, and they are now still expanding their range to the west and north. Upper and Lower Lusatia Upper Lusatia ( Oberlausitz or Hornja Łužica) is today part of the German state of Saxony except for a small part east of ^[66] Wolves were first spotted in the area back in 1998, and are thought to have migrated from western Poland. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland ^[67] On December 15, 2007, a male wolf was shot illegally in the district of Lüchow-Dannenberg, Lower Saxony. Lüchow-Dannenberg is a district in Lower Saxony, Germany which is usually referred to as Hannoversches Wendland or Wendland Lower Saxony ( German: Niedersachsen ch is pronounced before an s --> lies in north-western Germany and is second ^[68]

Wolves migrated from Italy to France as recently as 1992. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Year 1992 ( MCMXCII) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1992 Gregorian calendar) The French wolf population is still no more than 40-50 strong, but the animals have been blamed for the deaths of nearly 2,200 sheep in 2003, up from fewer than 200 in 1994. Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. Year 1994 ( MCMXCIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1994 Gregorian calendar) Controversy also arose when, in 2001, a shepherd living on the edge of the Mercantour National Park survived a mauling by three wolves. Year 2001 ( MMI) was a Common year starting on Monday according to the Gregorian calendar. Mercantour National Park (Parc national du Mercantour is one of the seven national parks of France. ^[69] Under the Berne Convention, wolves are listed as an endangered species and killing them is illegal. The Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats 1979 also known as the Bern Convention (or Berne Convention) came Official culls are permitted to protect farm animals so long as there is no threat to the species. ^[70]

In 2001, the Norwegian Government authorized a controversial wolf cull on the grounds that the animals were overpopulated and were responsible for the killing of more than 600 sheep in 2000. Year 2001 ( MMI) was a Common year starting on Monday according to the Gregorian calendar. 2000 ( MM) was a Leap year that started on Saturday of the Common Era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. The Norwegian authorities scaled back their original plan to kill 20 wolves amid public outcry. ^[71] In 2005, the Norwegian government and its Minister of the Environment, Knut Arild Hareide, proposed another cull calling for the extermination of 25 percent of Norway's wolf population. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Knut Arild Hareide (born November 23 1972 in Rubbestadneset) is a Norwegian businessperson and politician for the Christian Democratic Party. A recent study of the wider Scandinavian wolf population concluded there were 120 individuals at the most, causing great concern regarding the genetic diversity of the isolated population. Genetic diversity is a level of Biodiversity that refers to the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a species ^[72]

In Russia, government-backed wolf extermination programs have been largely discontinued since the fall of the Soviet Union. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 As a result, their numbers have stabilized somewhat, though they are still hunted legally. It is estimated that nearly 15,000 of Russia's wolves are killed annually for the fur trade and because of human conflict and persecution. Due to the new capitalist government's focus on economy and other issues plaguing the former communist nation, the study of wolves has been all but abandoned due to lack of funding. Capitalism is the Economic system in which the Means of production are owned by private Persons and operated for Profit and where Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based ^[73] Wolves cross over the border from Russia into Finland on a regular basis. Finland, officially the Republic of Finland ( is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of northern Europe. Although they're protected under EU law, Finland has issued hunting permits on a preventative basis in the past, which resulted in the European Commission taking legal action in 2005. The European Commission (formally the Commission of the European Communities) is the executive branch of the European Union. In June 2007, the European Court of Justice ruled that Finland had breached the Habitats Directive but that both sides had failed in at least one of their claims. This article refers to the European Union court not the European Court of Human Rights of the Council of Europe The Court of Justice The Habitats Directive (more formally known as Council Directive 92/43/EEC on the Conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora) is a European Union directive ^[74] Finland's wolf population is estimated at around 250. ^[74]

The northern and central regions of Belarus are home to perhaps 1,500 to 1,800 wolves. Belarus ( Belarusian Беларусь / Biełaruś is a Landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered by Russia to the north and east With the exception of specimens in nature reserves, wolves in Belarus are largely unprotected. They are designated a game species, and bounties ranging between €60 and €70 are paid to hunters for each wolf killed. This is a considerable sum in a country where the average monthly wage is €230. ^[75]

Though wolf populations have increased in Ukraine, wolves remain unprotected there and can be hunted year-round by permit-holders. Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. ^[76]

Bulgaria considers the wolf a nuisance and, like Belarus, has an active wolf bounty. The state of Bulgaria (България transliterated bg-Latn ''Balgaria'' The country preserves the traditions (in ethnic name language and alphabet of the First Bulgarian ^[77] A project run by the Balkani Wildlife Centre aims to reduce conflict between farmers and wolves by supplying livestock guarding dogs and educating the locals about large carnivores and their role in nature. A livestock guardian dog ( LGD) is a domesticated canine used to defend Livestock against Predators LGDs are also commonly referred to as

According to estimates of experts from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Zagreb, there are 130 to 170 wolves in Croatia and their population is presently stable. Zagreb (ˈzɑːgrɛb is the Capital and the largest city of Croatia. Croatia (Hrvatska ˈxȓvatska officially the Republic of Croatia ( Republika Hrvatska) is a southern Central European country at the crossroads between ^[78] Attitudes are changing in favor of wolves and the animals are now protected under Croatian law ^[79]

Romania has no direct livestock depredation control. Romania ( dated: Rumania, Roumania However, if complaints about losses get too high, the holder of the hunting rights for the area might apply to kill a higher number of wolves during the winter hunting season. Poaching of carnivores occurs to some degree by means of traps, snares, or poison. The CLCP (Carpathian Large Carnivore Project) has initiated the use of electric fences as an additional tool for overnight livestock protection. The first tests have been very encouraging, with no losses of livestock at all. ^[80]

In Slovakia, the 1994 Law on Protection of Nature and Landscape gave wolves full protection, though there is an annual two-month open season between November 1st and January 15th. Slovakia (long form Slovak Republic; Slovak:, long form, is a Landlocked country in Central Europe with a population of over five million ^[76]

It is thought that there are around 500 to 600 wolves in Poland, mainly in the east.

The current size of the Lithuanian wolf population is said to be composed of 400-500 individuals. Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the ^[81]

Asia

There are several hundred wolves in Israel, mostly on the Golan Heights, the Galilee, and the Negev. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. Borders of Israel The Golan Heights ( الجولان al-Jawlān, הגולן ha-Golan) is a strategic Plateau and mountainous "Galil" redirects here For the weapon see IMI Galil. Galilee (הגליל ha-Galil, lit the province, The Negev (נֶגֶב Tiberian vocalization: Néḡeḇ) is the Desert region of southern Israel. During the Passover holidays in 2008 a girl was attacked and lightly injured in a campsite in the south. Passover ( Hebrew, Yiddish: פֶּסַח Pesach, Tiberian: pɛsaħ Israeli: Pesah, Pesakh, Yiddish The wolf was kept for a few days to check if he had rabies and then released with a radiotag in Nahal Tze'elim (source: Israel Radio). Nahal Tze'elim (נחל צאלים is a Canyon situated in the Judean Desert, Israel, near Masada, descending to the Dead Sea. Israel Broadcasting Authority (often referred to as the IBA; רָשׁוּת השׁידוּר Rashùt Ha-Shidúr) is Israel 's state broadcasting

China considers wolves a "catastrophe" and claims that they live in only twenty percent of their former habitat in the northern regions of the country. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National ^[82] In 2006, the Chinese government began plans to auction licenses to foreigners to hunt wild animals, including endangered species such as wolves. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ^[83]

Kazakhstan is currently thought to have the largest wolf population of any nation in the world, with as many as 90,000, versus some 60,000 for Canada, which is three and a half times larger. Kazakhstan, also Kazakstan ( Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, qɑzɑqˈstɑn Казахстан, Kazakhstán,) officially the Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page Since the fall of the Soviet Union, wolf hunting has decreased in profit. About 2,000 are killed yearly for a $40 bounty, and the animal’s numbers have risen sharply. At the same time, poachers have reduced the Kazakhstani wolf’s main prey species, the saiga antelope, from 1. 5 million to perhaps 150,000, selling horns to the Chinese, who use it in traditional medicine. The great number of saiga accounted for the large number of wolves in Kazakhstan. Now, after the antelope’s decline wolves encroach upon human habitations in the Winter periods and attack livestock. In the spring, they go back to the remote, lightly wooded Amangeldy Hills to reproduce and feed on small mammals. ^[84]

North America

In the northern Rocky Mountains, the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service reintroduced gray wolves into Yellowstone National Park and U. S. Forest Service lands in central Idaho in 1995 and 1996. The reintroduction was successful, and the recovery goals for this population have been exceeded. By December 2006 there were about 1,100 wolves in the Yellowstone area and Idaho; in total, at least 1,240 live in the northern Rocky Mountains of Montana, Idaho, and Wyoming. Wolf recovery has been so successful that the United States Fish & Wildlife Service removed the western gray wolf from the federal endangered species list on March 28, 2008. ^[85] However, at least 10 wolves were immediately shot and killed in Wyoming during the first week after the de-listing. One of the first wolves killed was a male wolf known as 253M, a member of Yellowstone's Druid Peak wolf pack who had been quite popular with the public. Due to the controversy about the wolf shootings, a coalition of environmental groups is planning to sue the federal government to put the gray wolf back on the Endangered Species list. ^[86]

There are approximately 3,500 wolves in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan's upper peninsula. ^[87] Minnesota has been granted control over its wolf population, and its wolf management plan establishes a minimum population of 1600 wolves. ^[88] Alaska is the U. S. state with the greatest gray wolf population, maintaining an estimated 6,000 wolves, all of which are controlled by the state and most of which are afforded no protection. They are considered a big game animal throughout most of the state, and wolf season lasts from August until April. ^[89] Aerial hunting of wolves and other predators is used as a method to boost moose populations for hunters in Alaska^[90]. This practice is controversial. Biologists have cited possibly flawed scientific logic in opposing aerial hunting, but the citizens of Alaska have twice voted against serial hunting^[90]. The Mexican Wolf (C. l. baileyi), a critically endangered subspecies, was introduced into the Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest in Arizona in 1998 as part of a captive breeding program. ^[89] There are now at least 59 wild Mexican wolves in the American southwest. ^[89][91]

There are over 52,000 wolves in Canada. This population is not protected and hunting seasons and bagging limits vary by province. About 15,000 wolves roam Canada's northern territories, and the provinces of Quebec, British Columbia, and Ontario each have approximately 8,000 individuals. Saskatchewan and Alberta also maintain healthy wolf populations, possessing about 4,000 animals each. ^[89]

Mexico has been wolf-free since the 1970s when the U. S. and Mexican governments cooperated to capture all remaining wild Mexican wolves and initiate a captive-breeding program in an attempt to save the subspecies. ^[91]

Relationships with humans

Humans historically have had a complex relationship with wolves. In many parts of the world, wolves were respected and revered, while in others they were feared and held in distaste. The latter viewpoint was notably accentuated in European folklore beginning in the Christian era, though wolves did feature as heraldic animals on the Arms and crests of numerous noble families. History The concept of folklore developed as part of the 19th century ideology of Romantic nationalism, leading to the reshaping of oral traditions to serve modern ideological A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth Heraldry in its most general sense encompasses all matters relating to the duties and responsibilities of officers of arms. A coat of arms or armorial bearings (often just arms for short in European tradition is a design belonging to a particular person (or group of people The word crest is often mistakenly applied to a Coat of arms. Many languages have names meaning "wolf", examples including: Scandinavian Ulf, Albanian "Ujk", Hebrew Ze'ev, Hungarian Farkas, Serbian Vuk, Ukrainian Vovk, Romanian Lupescu/Lupulescu and Bulgarian Vǎlko. The North Germanic languages or Scandinavian languages make up one of the three branches of the Germanic languages, a sub-family of the Indo-European languages Albanian (sq ''Gjuha shqipe'' ˈɟuha ˈʃcipɛ is an Indo-European language spoken by nearly 6 million peoplewhile others claim that it derives from Daco - Hungarian ( magyar nyelv) is a Uralic language (more specifically a Ugric language) unrelated to most other languages in Europe. Serbian (sr-Cyrl српски језик sr-Latn ''srpski jezik'' is a South Slavic language, Ukrainian (in Ukrainian украї́нська мо́ва ukrayins'ka mova,) is a language of the East Slavic subgroup of the Slavic languages. Romanian or Daco-Romanian ( dated: Rumanian or Roumanian; self designation limba română, ˈlimba roˈmɨnə is a Romance Bulgarian (български език IPA: ɛzˈik is an Indo-European language, a member of the Slavic linguistic group Wolves also figure prominently in proverbs. A proverb (from the Latin proverbium) also called a byword or nayword, is a simple and concrete Saying popularly known and repeated Many Chinese proverbs use wolves as a description towards any ill-willed person with a hidden agenda like Wolf hearted (狼子野心) which could also connote to the impossibility of taming bad people, while Wolf heart; dog lungs (狼心狗肺) refers to an ungrateful person who later betrays someone who previously helped them. SpecialShortpages.-- The Kazakh language has up to 20 proverbs referring to wolves, while the Russian language has 253. Kazakh (also Qazaq and variants natively kk Qazaq tili, kk Қазақ тілі; pronounced tˈlə is a Turkic language closely related to Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages ^[6]

In folklore and mythology

Main article: Wolves in folklore, religion and mythology

For more details on this topic, see Werewolf. See also Lycanthropy (disambiguation Werewolves, also known as lycanthropes, are mythological or folkloric humans with the ability to

For more details on this topic, see Wolves in heraldry.

In Altaic mythology of the Turkic and Mongolian peoples, the wolf is a revered animal. Romulus (c 771 BC– c 717 BC and Remus (c 771 BC–c 753 BC are the traditional founders of Rome, appearing in Roman mythology The Bronze Capitoline Wolf in the Museo Nuovo in the Palazzo dei Conservatori on the Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 The Capitoline Museums ( Italian Musei Capitolini) are a group of art and archeological Museums in Piazza del Campidoglio The mythologies and religions of the Turco-Mongol peoples ( Turkic and Mongolian peoples both groups speakers of Altaic languages) are related and have The Turkic peoples are Eurasian peoples residing in northern central and western Eurasia who speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family The shamanic Turkic peoples even believed they were descendants of wolves in Turkic legends. The legend of Asena is an old Turkic myth that tells of how the Turkic people were created. Asena is the name of a female wolf in Turkic mythology. It is associated with a Göktürk ethnogenic myth "full of shamanic symbolism" In Northern China a small Turkic village was raided by Chinese soldiers, but one small baby was left behind. An old she-wolf with a sky-blue mane named Asena found the baby and nursed him, then the she-wolf gave birth to half wolf, half human cubs therefore the Turkic people were born. Also in Turkic mythology it is believed that a gray wolf showed the Turks the way out of their legendary homeland Ergenekon, which allowed them to spread and conquer their neighbours. ^[92][93] In modern Turkey this myth inspired extrme-right nationalist groups known as "Grey Wolves". Grey Wolves (Bozkurtlar or Idealist Youth (Ülkücü Gençlik is the youth organization of the Turkish Nationalist Movement Party (Milliyetçi Hareket

The genesis story of the Turks and Mongols is paralleled in the Roman myth of Romulus and Remus, the traditional founders of Rome. Romulus (c 771 BC– c 717 BC and Remus (c 771 BC–c 753 BC are the traditional founders of Rome, appearing in Roman mythology Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 The twin babies were ordered to be killed by their great uncle Amulius. In Roman mythology, Amulius was the brother of Numitor and son of Procas. The servant ordered to kill them, however, relented and placed the two on the banks of the Tiber river. The Tiber ( Latin Tiberis, Italian Tevere) is the third-longest River in Italy, rising in the Apennine mountains The river, which was in flood, rose and gently carried the cradle and the twins downstream, where under the protection of the river deity Tiberinus, they would be adopted by a she-wolf known as Lupa in Latin, an animal sacred to Mars. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Mars was the Roman Warrior god, the son of Juno and Jupiter, husband of Bellona, and the lover of Venus.

In Norse mythology, Fenrir or Fenrisulfr is a gigantic wolf, the son of Loki and the giantess Angrboða. Norse mythology comprises the indigenous pre-Christian religion, beliefs and Legends of the Scandinavian peoples including those who settled on Iceland Fenris redirects here See Fenrir (disambiguation for other uses In Cryptography, LOKI89 and LOKI91 are Block ciphers designed as possible replacements for the Data Encryption Standard (DES Angrboda ( Old Norse Angrboða 'Harm-foreboding' appears in Norse mythology as a giantess Fenrir is bound by the gods, but is ultimately destined to grow too large for his bonds and devour Odin during the course of Ragnarök. Odin (ˈoʊdɪn from Old Norse Óðinn) is considered the chief god in Norse paganism. In Norse mythology, Ragnarök (rɑgnɑrɔk Old Norse "Final destiny of the gods" refers to a series of major events including a great battle foretold At that time he will have grown so large that his upper jaw touches the sky while his lower touches the earth when he gapes. He will be slain by Odin's son, Viðarr, who will either stab him in the heart or rip his jaws asunder according to different accounts. In Norse mythology, Víðarr ( Old Norse, possibly "wide ruler" is a god among the Æsir associated with vengeance

Stories of werewolves can be found in some European countries; these date back from Ancient Greek legend of Lycaon, who in one story was transformed into a wolf as a result of eating human flesh, and the writings of the Roman scholar, Pliny the Elder. See also Lycanthropy (disambiguation Werewolves, also known as lycanthropes, are mythological or folkloric humans with the ability to Greek mythology is the body of stories belonging to the ancient Greeks concerning their gods and Heroes the nature of the world and the origins and significance Gaius or Caius Plinius Secundus, ( AD 23 – August 25, AD 79 better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient Author ^[94]

In Japan, grain farmers once worshiped wolves at shrines and left food offerings near their dens, beseeching them to protect their crops from wild boars and deer. Talismans and charms adorned with images of wolves protected against fire, disease, and other calamities and brought fertility to agrarian communities and to couples hoping to have children. The Ainu people believed that they were born from the union of a wolflike creature and a goddess. ʔáinu (also called Ezo in historical texts are an ethnic group indigenous to Hokkaidō, the Kuril Islands, and much of Sakhalin. ^[39]

Wolves also figure prominently in the folklore and mythology of some Native American tribes. For indigenous peoples in the United States other than Hawaii and Alaska see also Native Americans in the United States. In the Cardinal directions of the Plains Indians, the wolf represented the west, while for the Pawnee, it represented the southeast. The Plains Indians are the Indigenous peoples who live on the plains and rolling hills of the Great Plains of North America. This article refers to the cardinal direction for other uses see West (disambiguation. The Pawnee (also Paneassa, Pari, Pariki) are a Native American tribe that historically lived along the Platte, Loup and According to the Pawnee creation myth, the wolf was the first creature to experience death. Death is the termination of the biological functions that define living Organisms It refers both to a specific The Wolf Star (Sirius), enraged at not having been invited to attend a council on how the Earth should be made, sent a wolf to steal the whirlwind bag of The Storm that Comes out of the West, which contained the first humans. Sirius is the brightest star in the night sky with a visual Apparent magnitude of &minus1 Upon being freed from the bag, the humans killed the wolf, thus bringing death into the world. The Pawnee, being both an agricultural and hunting people, associated the wolf with both corn and the bison; the "birth" and "death" of the Wolf Star was to them a reflection of the wolf's coming and going down the path of the Milky Way known as Wolf Road. The Milky Way (a translation of the Latin Via Lactea, in turn derived from the Greek Γαλαξίας (Galaxias sometimes referred to simply Wolves however were not always portrayed positively in Native American cultures. The Netsilik Inuit and Takanaluk-arnaluk believed that the sea-woman Nuliayuk's home was guarded by wolves. The Netsilik Inuit (Netsilingmiut live predominately in the communities of Kugaaruk and Gjoa Haven of the Kitikmeot Region, Nunavut and to a The Naskapi's believed that the caribou afterlife is guarded by giant wolves which kill careless hunters venturing too near. The Navajo people feared witches in wolf's clothing called "Mai-cob". The Navajo or Diné people (also spelled Navaho) of the Southwestern United States ^[7]

Attacks on humans

Main article: Wolf attacks on humans

Wolves very rarely attack humans in industrialised societies, though some wolves do choose to attack, with varying causes being suggested. Johann Geiler von Kaisersberg ( Schaffhausen, March 16, 1445 &ndash Strasburg March 10, 1510) was a Swiss-born Habitat loss for example can cause the wolf's natural prey to diminish and therefore cause wolves to turn to attacking livestock or even humans. Close proximity to humans may also cause habituation. See also Habit (psychology In Psychology, habituation is the psychological process in humans and animals in which there is a decrease in behavioral In this case, wolves lose their fear of humans and consequently approach too closely, and may become violent as the encrouchment upon their territory grows. Habituation usually happens when people encourage wolves to come up to them, usually by offering them food, or when people do not sufficiently intimidate wolves. ^[95] This is corollated by accounts demonstrating that wolves in protected areas are more likely to show no fear toward humans than ones in areas where they are actively hunted. ^[8] However, wild wolves are often timid around humans, and usually try to avoid contact with them, to the point of even abandoning their kills when an approaching human is detected. ^[95] Rabies can account for attacks made by lone wolves, though it is unlikely if the perpetrators function as a pack, seeing as rabid wolves are loners. Rabies (from rabies “madness rage fury” Also known as “ hydrophobia ” is a viral Zoonotic neuroinvasive disease that ^[96] Old or crippled wolves unable to tackle their normal prey have also been recorded to attack humans. ^[6]

A recent Fennoscandian study on historical wolf attacks occurring in the 18th–19th centuries indicated that victims were almost entirely children under the age of 12, with 85% of the attacks occurring when an adult was not present. Fennoscandia and Fenno-Scandinavia are geographic and geological terms used to describe the Scandinavian Peninsula, the Kola Peninsula, Karelia In the few cases in which an adult was killed, it was almost always a woman. In nearly all cases, only a single victim was injured in each attack, although the victim was with 2–3 other people in a few cases. This contrasts dramatically with the pattern seen in attacks by rabid wolves, where up to 40 people can be bitten in the same attack. Some recorded attacks occurred over a period of months or even years, making the likelihood of rabies infected perpetrators unlikely, considering that death usually occurs within 2–10 days after the initial symptoms. The attacks tended to be clustered in space and time, indicating that human-killing was not a normal behavior for the average wolf, but was rather a specialized behavior that single wolves or packs developed and maintained until they were killed. ^[97] Records from the former Soviet Union indicate that the largest number of attacks on children occurred in summer during July and August, the period when female wolves begin feeding their cubs solid food. Sharp falls in the frequency of attacks were noted in the Autumn months of September and October, coinciding with drops in temperature which caused most children to remain indoors for longer periods. ^[6]

When attacking humans, wolves rarely attack face to face. They typically try to knock victims down and carry them off without initially killing them. They will typically attack the neck and facial regions when attempting to kill directly,^[6] with some specialised man-eaters having been recorded to kill children by crushing their skulls. A man-eater is a colloquial term for an animal that adds Humans to its diet ^[98]

Livestock and pet predation

Wolves usually attack livestock when they are pastourising, though it is not uncommon for some wolves to break into fenced enclosures. When stalking grazing animals, wolves will usually wait until their prey start chewing, in order to better approach the animal undetected. ^[6] Sheep are the most frequently recorded victims in Europe, in India it is goats, while North American records show wolves having a greater tendency to attack cattle and turkeys. The domestic goat ( Capra aegagrus hircus) is a subspecies of goat Domesticated from the Wild goat of Southwest Asia and Eastern Europe Cattle, colloquially referred to as cows, are domesticated Ungulates a member of the Subfamily Bovinae of the family A turkey is either of two extant Species of large Birds in the Genus Meleagris native to North America. ^[8] Large domestic animals such as cattle or horses are killed by biting at the shoulders and flanks. A trail of blood and patches of hair are often evident. Individual wolves and small packs sometimes concentrate on the flank and hind legs. The prey is often left to weaken, being fed upon once it falls. Wolf bites usually causes damage deep in the underlying tissues. Cattle severely injured by wolves often appear dazed and are reluctant to move due to the deep pain. Wolves usually feed on cattle at the kill site, with parts sometimes being carried off. Wolves prefer to feed on the viscera and hind legs of domestic prey, though bones are often chewed and broken. ^[99] Wolves usually disregard size or age on medium sized prey such as sheep and goats. Injuries may include a crushed skull, severed spine, disembowelment and massive tissue damage. Wolves will also kill sheep by attacking the throat, similar to the manner in which coyotes kill sheep. Wolf kills can be distinguished from coyote kills by the far greater damage the underlying tissue. Surplus killing often occurs when within the confines of human made livestock shelters. ^[99] In some areas, dogs are a major food source for wolves. The dog ( Canis lupus familiaris) is a domesticated Subspecies of the gray wolf, a Mammal of the Canidae family of the order Reports from Croatia indicate that dogs are killed more frequently than sheep. Croatia (Hrvatska ˈxȓvatska officially the Republic of Croatia ( Republika Hrvatska) is a southern Central European country at the crossroads between Wolves in Russia apparently limit feral dog populations. In Wisconsin, more compensation has been paid for dog losses than livestock. Wisconsin ( or wɪˈskɑnsɨn (French Ouisconsin) is one of the fifty United States of America, located in the north central part of the United States ^[8] Some wolf pairs have been reported to predate on dogs by having one wolf lure the dog out into heavy brush where the second animal waits in ambush. ^[6] In some instances, wolves have displayed an uncharacteristic fearlessness of humans and buildings when attacking dogs, to an extent where they have to be beaten off or killed. ^[100] Specially bred Livestock guardian dogs have been used to repell wolves from pastures, though their primary function has more to do with intimidating the wolves rather than fighting them. ^[101] Occasional incidents of surplus killing by wolves in Minnesota are reported to leave up to 35 sheep killed and injured in flocks and losses of 50 to 200 birds in turkey flocks. Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches ^[42] Livestock with prior experience of a wolf attack may develop behavioural problems, with some animals having been reported to run through barbed wire fences upon hearing wolves, or refusing to go out into pastures, causing severe weight loss. Barbed wire, also known as barb wire (and frequently in dialect form spelled bob or bobbed) is a type of fencing Wire constructed Wolf depredations increase in September and October when females teach their cubs how to hunt. ^[6]

Some non- or less-lethal methods of protecting livestock from wolves have been under development for the past decade. Such methods include rubber ammunition and use of guard animals. Rubber bullets are Rubber or rubber-coated Projectiles fired from Firearms They are usually non-lethal, unless fired at short range but ^[102]

The extent of livestock losses to wolves vary regionally; from being statistically insignificant, to having critical effects on local economies. In North America, loss of livestock by wolves makes up only a small percentage of total losses. In the United States, wolf predation is low compared to other human or animal sources of livestock loss. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the ^[103] Since the state of Montana began recording livestock losses due to wolves back in 1987, only 1,200 sheep and cattle have been killed. 1,200 killings in twenty years is not very significant when in the greater Yellowstone region 8,300 cattle and 13,000 sheep die from natural causes. According to the International Wolf Center, a Minnesota-based organization:

To put depredation in perspective, in 1986 the wolf population was at about 1,300–1,400, there were an estimated 232,000 cattle and 16,000 sheep in Minnesota's wolf range. During that year 26 cattle, about 0. 01% of the cattle available, and 13 sheep, around 0. 08% of the sheep available, were verified as being killed by wolves. Similarly, in 1996 an estimated 68,000 households owned dogs in wolf range and only 10, approximately 0. 00015% of the households, experienced wolf depredation.

– Wolf Depredation, International Wolf Center, Teaching the World about Wolves^[104]

Furthermore, Jim Dutcher, a film maker who raised a captive wolf pack observed that wolves are very reluctant to try meat that they have not eaten or seen another wolf eat before possibly explaining why livestock depredation is unlikely except in cases of desperation. Livestock is the term used to refer (singularly or plurally to a Domesticated Animal intentionally reared in an agricultural setting to produce such as Food ^[105]

The results however differ in Eurasia. Greece for example reports that between April 1989 and June 1991, 21000 sheep and goats plus 2729 cattle were killed. Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία In 1998 it was 5894 sheep and goats, 880 cattle and very few horses. ^[44] A study on livestock predation taken in Tibet showed that the wolf was the most prominent predator, accounting for 60% of the total livestock losses, followed by the snow leopard (38%) and lynx (2%). Definitions of Tibet See also Definitions of Tibet Name In English The English word Tibet, like the word for Tibet in most European The snow leopard ( Uncia uncia) sometimes known as the ounce, is a large cat native to the mountain ranges of Central Asia from Afghanistan Northern Goats were the most frequent victims (32%), followed by sheep (30%), yak (15%), and horses (13%). Wolves killed horses significantly more and goats less than would be expected from their relative abundance. ^[106] In 1987, Kazakhstan reported over 150,000 domestic livestock losses to wolves, with 200,000 being reported a year later. Year 1987 ( MCMLXXXVII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link displays 1987 Gregorian calendar) Kazakhstan, also Kazakstan ( Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, qɑzɑqˈstɑn Казахстан, Kazakhstán,) officially the ^[6]

Wolf hunting

Main article: Wolf hunting

Wolves are usually hunted for sport, for their skins, to protect livestock, and in some extremely rare cases to protect humans. Livestock is the term used to refer (singularly or plurally to a Domesticated Animal intentionally reared in an agricultural setting to produce such as Food Wolves are usually hunted in heavy brush and are considered especially challenging to hunt, due to their elusive nature and sharp senses. ^[107] Wolves are notoriously shy and difficult to kill, having been stated to be almost as hard to still hunt as cougars, and being far more problematic to dispatch with poison, traps or hounds. The cougar ( Puma concolor) also puma, mountain lion, or panther, depending on region is a Mammal of the Felidae family Wolves though generally do not defend themselves as effectively as cougars or bears. ^[108] In Sport hunting, wolves are usually taken in late Autumn and early Winter, when their pelts are of the highest quality and because the heavy snow makes it easier for the wolves to be tracked. Autumn (also known as fall in North American English) is one of the four Temperate Seasons Autumn marks the transition from Summer Winter is one of the four Seasons of Temperate zones Calculated astronomically, it begins on the Solstice and ends on the Equinox ^[107] The hunting of grey wolves, while originally actively endorsed in many countries, has become a controversial issue in some nations. Opponents see it as cruel, unnecessary and based on misconceptions, while proponents argue that it is vital for the conservation of game herds and as pest control. Cruelty to animals refers to the infliction of unnecessary Suffering or Harm to animals The conservation movement also known as nature conservation is a political social and to some extent scientific movement that seeks to protect natural resources including Pest control refers to the regulation or management of a Species defined as a pest, usually because it is perceived to be detrimental to a person's Health ^[109]

Reintroduction

Main article: Wolf reintroduction

North America

In North America, debate about wolf reintroduction is ongoing and often heated, both where reintroduction is being considered and where it has already occurred. Reintroduction is the deliberate release of species into the wild from captivity or relocated from other areas where the species survives Where wolves have been successfully reintroduced, as in the greater Yellowstone area and Idaho, reintroduction opponents continue to cite livestock predation, surplus killing, and economic hardships caused by wolves. The State of Idaho ( is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States of America. Livestock is the term used to refer (singularly or plurally to a Domesticated Animal intentionally reared in an agricultural setting to produce such as Food Surplus killing is the behavior Predators exhibit when they kill more prey than they can immediately use Economics is the social science that studies the production distribution, and consumption of goods and services. ^[110] Opponents in prospective areas echo these same concerns. However, the Yellowstone and Idaho reintroductions demonstrate how compromise can be used to satisfy relevant interests. These reintroductions were the culmination of over two decades of research and debate. Debate ( American English) or debating ( British English) is a formal method of interactive and position representational Argument. Ultimately, the economic concerns of the local ranching industry were dealt with when Defenders of Wildlife decided to establish a fund that would compensate ranchers for livestock lost to wolves, shifting the economic burden from industry to the wolf proponents themselves. A ranch is an area of landscape including various structures given primarily to the practice of ranching the practice of raising grazing livestock such as Cattle Defenders of Wildlife is a United States non-profit 501(c(3 organization founded in 1947 out of concern for perceived cruelties of the use of steel-jawed leghold ^[111] As of 2005, there are over 450 Mackenzie Valley wolves in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem and over 1,000 in Idaho. The Mackenzie Valley Wolf ( Canis lupus occidentalis) also known as the Rocky Mountain Wolf, Alaskan Timber Wolf or Canadian Timber Wolf is perhaps Both populations have long since met their recovery goals and the reintroduction experiment has been a resounding success. Lessons learned from this ordeal may yet prove useful where wolf reintroduction continues to create a sharp divide between industry and environmental interests, as it has in Arizona (where the Mexican Wolf was released beginning in 1998). The State of Arizona ( is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States. The Mexican Gray Wolf ( Canis lupus baileyi) is the rarest most genetically distinct Subspecies of the Gray Wolf in North America

Though many hunters, prior to and even after reintroduction, claimed that wolves would wipe out entire populations of elk, deer and other ungulates, the food chain within the Yellowstone ecosystem has been re-ordered to deliver a banquet that favors a more varied array of species. The elk, or wapiti ( Cervus canadensis) is one of the largest Species of Deer in the world and one of the largest Mammals in A deer is a Ruminant Mammal belonging to the family Cervidae. Ungulates (meaning roughly "being Hoofed quot or "hoofed animal" are several groups of Mammals most of which use the tips of their toes usually Prior to wolf reintroduction, high numbers of elk were linked to declines in aspen and willow communities, which negatively affected beaver and moose. Pre-wolf coyote numbers were much larger, affecting small rodent populations, foxes, and the production of pronghorn antelope. Scavengers had slimmer pickings. Today, with wolves taking elk, reducing their numbers, and leaving more carcasses on the landscape, grizzlies and wolverines have easier access to more meat, meaning a better chance for larger litters of cubs and pups. Coyote numbers have been significantly reduced, meaning more mice and pocket gophers for foxes and avian predators like hawks and eagles. ^[112] Reports have been published placing the value of revenue from wolf-watching as upward of $25 million. The United States dollar ( sign: $; code: USD) is the unit of Currency of the United States; it has also been

Native American attitudes toward wolf reintroductions varied. Although the Nez Perce welcomed the reintroduction of wolves in Idaho, the Apaches of the southwestern US and Kalispells of Washington opposed any reintroduction, as wolves held little spiritual significance in their cultures. The Nez Perce (ˌnɛzˈpɝs are a Tribe of Native Americans who live in the Pacific Northwest region ( Columbia River Plateau) of the United Kalispell is a city in and the County seat of Flathead County, Montana, United States. ^[8]

United Kingdom

The British Government signed conventions in the 1980s and 1990s agreeing to consider reintroducing wolves and to promote public awareness about them. Being party to European conventions, the British government is obliged to study the desirability of reintroducing extinct species and to consider reintroducing wolves. Although there are indications that wolves are recolonizing areas in Western Europe, they are unable to return to their former ranges in Britain without active human assistance. The Scottish Highlands are one of the few large areas in western Europe with a relatively small human population, thus ensuring that wolves would suffer little disturbance from human activity. The Scottish Highlands ( Scottish Gaelic: A' Ghàidhealtachd, Scots: Hielans) include the rugged and Mountainous One popular argument in favour of the reintroduction is that the Highlands' red deer populations have overgrown. The Red Deer ( Cervus elaphus) is one of the largest Deer species A reintroduction of wolves would aid in keeping their numbers down, thus allowing native flora some respite. Other arguments include the generation of income and local employment in the Highlands through wolf-related ecotourism. This could replace the declining and uneconomical Highland sheep industry. ^[113]

Wolves as pets

Many countries, states and local regions have specific regulations governing the acquisition and management of wolves. In Britain, the keeping of wolves is strictly controlled and a licence is needed to own one. ^[114] In the United States, the keeping of pure wolves is prohibited by the U. S Endangered Species Act of 1973. Despite this, there are an estimated 100,000 wolves illegally kept in captivity in the United States, with some surveys concluding that the number could be as high as 2 million. ^[8]

Captive wolf pups are usually taken from their mother at two weeks of age. Pups will typically develop behavioural problems if raised without another member of their own kind. Due to their wild nature, wolf cubs require more socialisation than dog puppies. Socialising cubs solely with humans runs the risk of the cubs devoting their attention to people rather than their own kind. As adults, wolves have been shown, most of the time, to be largely untrainable and unpredictable, and will sometimes display aggressive behaviour toward small animals and children. ^[114] Captive wolves are generally shy and avoid eye contact with humans other than their owner, as well as not listening to any commands made by any other humans. Eye contact is an event in which two people look at each other's Eyes at the same time They usually vacate rooms or hide when a new person enters the establishment. ^[115] Ordinary pet food is inadequate, seeing as an adult wolf needs 1-2. 5 kg (2-5 lbs) of quality meat daily along with bones, skin and fur to meet its nutritional requirements. ^[114] Due to the fact that wolf milk contains more arginine than can be found in puppy milk substitutes, an arginine supplement is needed when feeding pups below the weaning age. Failure to do so can result in the pups developing cataracts. A cataract is a clouding that develops in the crystalline lens of the Eye or in its envelope varying in degree from slight to complete opacity ^[8] The exercise needs of a wolf exceed the average dog's demand. Because of this, captive wolves typically do not cope well in urban areas. Due to their talent at observational learning, adult captive wolves need constant reminding that they are not the leader of their owner/caretaker, which makes raising wolves difficult for people who raise their pets in an even, rather than subordinate, environment. Observational learning (also known as vicarious learning or social learning or modeling or monkey see monkey do) is learning that occurs as According to the American Zoological Association, the minimum housing recommended for a large canid is an enclosure of 4m x 4m (12 x 12 ft), increased by 50% for each additional canid. To prevent the wolf jumping over the enclosure, fences are specified to be necessarily at least 2m (6 ft) high and needing an overhang at the top. An inside skirt buried below ground is also required to prevent tunnelling. Some pet wolves are euthanised or might be released into the wild where they are likely to starve or be killed by resident wolf packs in regions where they are still present. Euthanasia (literally "good death" in Ancient Greek) refers to the practice of ending a life in a painless manner ^[114] Abandoned or escaped captive wolves can be more destructive and pose a greater danger to humans and livestock than wild wolves, seeing as their habituation to humans causes them to lose their natural shyness. ^[6]

Captive wolves have also been shown to be unsuitable for working as dogs do. German wolf biologist Erik Zimen once attempted to form a dog sled team composed entirely of pure wolves. The German people (Deutsche are an Ethnic group, in the sense of sharing a common German culture, descent and speaking the German language as A dog sled is a Sled pulled by one or more Sled dogs used to travel over Ice and through Snow. The attempt proved to be a complete failure, as the wolves were far more prone to fighting than sled dogs and ignored most commands. Sled dogs, known also as sleightman dogs sledge dogs or sleddogs are types of Dogs that are used to pull a wheel-less vehicle ^[13]

Media

See also

• Wolves in fiction
• International Wolf Center
• Wild Canid Survival and Research Center
• UK Wolf Conservation Trust
• L. David Mech

Man-eating wolves

• Wolf of Soissons
• Wolf of Sarlat
• Wolves of Paris
• Wolves of Périgord
• Wolf of Ansbach
• Wolves of Hazaribagh

Other extant and extinct canid species also known as wolves:

• Falkland Island Wolf
• Maned Wolf

Dog breeds with recent wolf ancestry:

• Czechoslovakian Wolfdog
• Saarlooswolfhond

Notes and references

External links

• High-Resolution Images of the Canis Lupus Brain
• Return of gray wolf to Yellowstone park

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