Citizendia
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This article is about the fruits of the genus Vitis. Vitis is a genus of about 60 species of vining plants in the Flowering plant family Vitaceae. For the European grapevine, see Vitis vinifera. Vitis vinifera ( Common Grape Vine) is a species of Vitis, native to the Mediterranean region, central Europe, and For the computer programming environment, see GRAPE. For the Tokyo University supercomputer see Gravity Pipe. GRAPE, or GRA phics P rogramming E nvironment is
Grapes, red or green
Nutritional value per 100 g (3. 5 oz)
Energy 70 kcal   290 kJ
Carbohydrates     18. Carbohydrates (from ' Hydrates of Carbon ' or saccharides ( Greek σάκχαρον meaning " Sugar " are the most 1 g
- Sugars  15. 48 g
- Dietary fiber  0. Dietary fibers are the indigestible portion of plant foods that move food through the Digestive system, absorbing water and easing Defecation. 9 g  
Fat 0. Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and largely insoluble in water 16 g
Protein 0. Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl 72 g
Thiamin (Vit. B1)  0. For the similarly spelled pyrimidine see Thymine Thiamin or thiamine, also known as Vitamin B1 069 mg   5%
Riboflavin (Vit. B2)  0. Riboflavin ( E101) also known as vitamin B2, is an easily absorbed Micronutrient with a key role in maintaining Health 07 mg   5%
Niacin (Vit. B3)  0. Niacin, also known as vitamin B3, is a water-soluble vitamin which prevents the deficiency disease Pellagra. 188 mg   1%
Pantothenic acid (B5)  0. Pantothenic acid, also called Vitamin B5 (a B vitamin) is a water- Soluble vitamin required to sustain life ( 05 mg  1%
Vitamin B6  0. Vitamin B6 is a water-soluble Vitamin. Pyridoxal phosphate (PLP is the active form and is a cofactor in many reactions of Amino acid metabolism including 086 mg 7%
Folate (Vit. Folic acid (also known as Vitamin M and Folacin) and Folate (the Anionic form are forms of the water-soluble Vitamin B9 B9)  2 μg  1%
Vitamin C  10. Vitamin C or L-ascorbate is an Essential nutrient for a large number of higher primate species a small number of other Mammalian 8 mg 18%
Calcium  10 mg 1%
Iron  0. Calcium (ˈkælsiəm is the Chemical element with the symbol Ca and Atomic number 20 Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 36 mg 3%
Magnesium  7 mg 2% 
Phosphorus  20 mg 3%
Potassium  191 mg   4%
Zinc  0. Magnesium is an essential element in biological systems. Magnesium occurs typically as the Mg2+ ion Phosphorus, (ˈfɒsfərəs is the Chemical element that has the symbol P and Atomic number 15 Potassium (pəˈtæsiəm is a Chemical element. It has the symbol K (kalium from qalīy Atomic number 19 and Atomic mass 39 Zinc (ˈzɪŋk from Zink is a Metallic Chemical element with the symbol Zn and Atomic number 30 07 mg 1%
Manganese 0. Manganese (ˈmæŋgəniːz is a Chemical element, designated by the symbol Mn. 071 mg 3. 5%
Percentages are relative to US
recommendations for adults. Reference Daily Intake (or Recommended Daily Intake ( RDI) is the daily dietary intake level of a nutrient which was considered (at the time they were defined to be sufficient
Source: USDA Nutrient database

A grape is the non-climacteric fruit that grows on the perennial and deciduous woody vines of the genus Vitis. In current practice climacteric is most often a synonym for female Menopause. The term fruit has different meanings dependent on context and the term is not synonymous in Food preparation and Biology. A perennial plant or perennial ( Latin per, "through" annus, "year" is a Plant that lives for more than Botany Autumn leaf color. See --> In Botany and Horticulture, deciduous Plants, including A vine is any plant of Genus Vitis (the Grape plants or by extension any similar climbing or trailing plant A genus (plural genera from Γένος Latin genus "descent family type gender" is a low-level Taxonomic Vitis is a genus of about 60 species of vining plants in the Flowering plant family Vitaceae. Grapes can be eaten raw or used for making jam, juice, jelly, vinegar, wine, grape seed extracts and grape seed oil. Grape juice is a Juice obtained from crushing Grapes The juice is often fermented and made into Wine, Brandy, or Vinegar Vinegar is an acidic liquid processed from the Fermentation of Ethanol in a process that yields its key ingredient Acetic acid (also called ethanoic acid Wine is an Alcoholic beverage made from the fermentation of Grape juice Grape seed extracts are industrial derivatives from whole grape seeds Not to be confused with Rapeseed oil. Grape seed oil (also called grapeseed oil or grape oil) is a Vegetable oil pressed from the seeds

Contents

Description

Red Wine grapes
Red Wine grapes

Grapes grow in clusters of 6 to 300, and can be crimson, black, dark blue, yellow, green and pink. Wine is an Alcoholic beverage made from the fermentation of Grape juice However, "white" grapes are actually green in color, and are evolutionarily derived from the red grape. Mutations in two regulatory genes of white grapes turn off production of anthocyanins which are responsible for the color of red grapes. Not to be confused with Anthocyanidin, their sugar free counterparts [1] Anthocyanins and other pigment chemicals of the larger family of polyphenols in red grapes are responsible for the varying shades of purple in red wines. For the drug referred to as "pigment" see Black tar heroin. Polyphenols are a group of chemical substances found in plants characterized by the presence of more than one Phenol unit or building block per molecule [2][3]

Grapevines

Main article: Vitis
Palatina, a Hungarian grape
Palatina, a Hungarian grape[4]

Most grapes come from cultivars of Vitis vinifera, the European grapevine native to the Mediterranean and Central Asia. Vitis is a genus of about 60 species of vining plants in the Flowering plant family Vitaceae. This is a list of varieties of cultivated Grapes whether used for Wine, or eating as a Table grape, fresh or dried ( Raisin, currant, sultana Vitis vinifera ( Common Grape Vine) is a species of Vitis, native to the Mediterranean region, central Europe, and Minor amounts of fruit and wine come from American and Asian species such as:

The sea grape Coccoloba uvifera is actually a member of the Buckwheat family Polygonaceae and is native to the islands of the Caribbean Sea. This article is about Coccoloba uvifera commonly called the sea grape Polygonaceae is a family of flowering plants also known as the "knotweed family" or "smartweed family" For the region see Caribbean. The Caribbean Sea (kəˈrɪbiən or /ˌkærɨˈbiːən/ is a tropical Sea in the Western Hemisphere

Distribution and production

Grapevines
Grapevines
Grape production in 2005
Grape production in 2005

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 75,866 square kilometres of the world are dedicated to grapes. Approximately 71% of world grape production is used for wine, 27% as fresh fruit, and 2% as dried fruit. Dried fruit is fruit that has been dried, either naturally or through use of a machine such as a Food dehydrator. A portion of grape production goes to producing grape juice to be reconstituted for fruits canned "with no added sugar" and "100% natural". The area dedicated to vineyards is increasing by about 2% per year.

The following table of top wine-producers shows the corresponding areas dedicated to grapes for wine making:

Country Area Dedicated
Spain 11,750 km²
France 8,640 km²
Italy 8,270 km²
Turkey 8,120 km²
United States 4,150 km²
Iran 2,860 km²
Romania 2,480 km²
Portugal 2,160 km²
Argentina 2,080 km²
Australia 1,642 km²

Seedless grapes

Seedlessness is a highly desirable subjective quality in table grape selection, and seedless cultivars now make up the overwhelming majority of table grape plantings. Because grapevines are vegetatively propagated by cuttings, the lack of seeds does not present a problem for reproduction. Vegetative reproduction is a type of Asexual reproduction found in plants and is also called vegetative propagation or vegetative multiplication. It is, however, an issue for breeders, who must either use a seeded variety as the female parent or rescue embryos early in development using tissue culture techniques. Plant Tissue Culture is a practice used to propagate Plants under sterile conditions often to produce clones of a plant

There are several sources of the seedlessness trait, and essentially all commercial cultivators get it from one of three sources: Thompson Seedless, Russian Seedless, and Black Monukka, all being cultivars of Vitis vinifera. Vitis vinifera ( Common Grape Vine) is a species of Vitis, native to the Mediterranean region, central Europe, and Numerous seedless cultivars, such as Einset Seedless, Reliance and Venus, have been specifically cultivated for hardiness and quality in the relatively cold climates of north-eastern United States and southern Ontario. Ontario (ɒnˈtɛrioʊ is a province located in the central part of Canada, the largest by population and second largest after Quebec [5]

Contrary to the improved eating quality of seedlessness is the loss of potential health benefits provided by the enriched phytochemical content of grape seeds (see Health claims). Phytochemicals are plant-derived chemical compounds under scientific research for their potential health-promoting properties but with unproved benefits [6][7]

Raisins, currants, and sultanas

See also: Dried vine fruit
Raisins
Raisins

In most of Europe, dried grapes are universally referred to as 'raisins' or the local equivalent. Dried vine fruit is a term given to all the varieties of dried Grape produced In the UK, three different varieties are recognised, forcing the EU to use the term "Dried vine fruit" in official documents. Dried vine fruit is a term given to all the varieties of dried Grape produced

A raisin is any dried grape. Raisins are dried Grapes They are produced in many regions of the world such as the United States, Australia, Chile, While raisin is a French loanword, the word in French refers to the fresh fruit; grappe (whence the English grape is derived) refers to the bunch (as in une grappe de raisins). A loanword (or loan word) is a word directly taken into one Language from another with little or no translation

A currant is a dried Zante grape, the name being a corruption of the French raisin de Corinthe (Corinth grape). The Zante currant ( Vitis vinifera) or currant is a variety of Small, Sweet, seedless Grape named after Corinth (currant and French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people Corinth, or Korinth ( Greek Κόρινθος ( is a city in Greece. Note also that currant has come to refer also to the blackcurrant and redcurrant, two berries completely unrelated to grapes. The Blackcurrant ( Ribes nigrum) is a species of Ribes Berry native to central and northern Europe and northern Asia. The Red currant ( Ribes rubrum) is a member of the genus Ribes in the Gooseberry family Grossulariaceae, native to parts of western

A sultana was originally a raisin made from a specific type of grape of Turkish origin, but the word is now applied to raisins made from common grapes and chemically treated to resemble the traditional sultana. The sultana (also called the sultanina or sultani) is a type of White, Seedless Grape of Turkish or Iranian origin

Health claims

Ripe table grapes ready to be eaten
Ripe table grapes ready to be eaten
Main articles: French Paradox and Resveratrol

French Paradox

Comparing diets among western countries, researchers have discovered that although the French tend to eat higher levels of animal fat, surprisingly the incidence of heart disease remains low in France, a phenomenon named the French Paradox thought to occur from protective benefits of regularly consuming red wine. The French paradox refers to the observation that the French suffer a relatively low incidence of Coronary heart disease, despite having a diet relatively rich in Resveratrol is a Phytoalexin produced naturally by several Plants when under attack by Pathogens such as Bacteria or Fungi Heart disease is an Umbrella term for a variety for different diseases affecting the Heart. The French paradox refers to the observation that the French suffer a relatively low incidence of Coronary heart disease, despite having a diet relatively rich in Apart from potential benefits of alcohol itself, including reduced platelet aggregation and vasodilation[8], polyphenols (e. Platelets, or Thrombocytes, are small cytoplasmic bodies derived from cells They circulate in the Blood of Mammals and are involved Polyphenols are a group of chemical substances found in plants characterized by the presence of more than one Phenol unit or building block per molecule g. , resveratrol) mainly in the grape skin provide other suspected health benefits, such as:[9]

Although adoption of wine consumption is not recommended by some health authorities,[10] a significant volume of research indicates moderate consumption, such as one glass of red wine a day for women and two for men, may confer health benefits. Resveratrol is a Phytoalexin produced naturally by several Plants when under attack by Pathogens such as Bacteria or Fungi Angiotensin causes blood vessels to constrict and drives blood pressure up Nitric oxide or nitrogen monoxide is a Chemical compound with Chemical formula N[[Oxygen O]] This article is about the biological functions of Nitric oxide. [11][12][13] Emerging evidence is that wine polyphenols like resveratrol[14] provide physiological benefit whereas alcohol itself may have protective effects on the cardiovascular system. Polyphenols are a group of chemical substances found in plants characterized by the presence of more than one Phenol unit or building block per molecule Resveratrol is a Phytoalexin produced naturally by several Plants when under attack by Pathogens such as Bacteria or Fungi [15][16]

Resveratrol

Grape phytochemicals such as resveratrol, a polyphenol antioxidant, have been positively linked to inhibiting cancer, heart disease, degenerative nerve disease, viral infections and mechanisms of Alzheimer's disease. Phytochemicals are plant-derived chemical compounds under scientific research for their potential health-promoting properties but with unproved benefits Resveratrol is a Phytoalexin produced naturally by several Plants when under attack by Pathogens such as Bacteria or Fungi A polyphenol antioxidant is a type of Antioxidant containing a Polyphenolic substructure Cancer (medical term Malignant Neoplasm) is a class of Diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled Heart disease is an Umbrella term for a variety for different diseases affecting the Heart. A nerve is an enclosed cable-like bundle of peripheral Axons (the long slender projections of Neurons. Alzheimer's disease ( AD) also called Alzheimer disease or simply Alzheimer's, is the most common form of Dementia. [17][18]

Protection of the genome through antioxidant actions may be a general function of resveratrol. An antioxidant is a Molecule capable of slowing or preventing the oxidation of other molecules [19] In laboratory studies, resveratrol bears a significant transcriptional overlap with the beneficial effects of calorie restriction in heart, skeletal muscle and brain. Transcription is the synthesis of RNA under the direction of DNA Calorie restriction, or caloric restriction (CR aims to improve health and slow the aging process by limiting dietary energy intake The heart is a muscular organ in all Vertebrates responsible for pumping Blood through the Blood vessels by repeated rhythmic Skeletal muscle is a type of Striated muscle, which usually attaches to tendons The brain is the center of the Nervous system in animals All Vertebrates and the majority of Invertebrates have a brain Both dietary interventions inhibit gene expression associated with heart and skeletal muscle aging, and prevent age-related heart failure. Gene expression is the process by which inheritable information from a Gene, such as the DNA sequence, is made into a functional Gene product, such Ageing or aging (American English is the accumulation of changes in an organism [20]

Resveratrol is the subject of several human clinical trials,[21] among which the most advanced is a one year dietary regimen in a Phase III study of elderly patients with Alzheimer's disease. In health care clinical trials are conducted to allow safety and Efficacy data to be collected for new drugs or devices Alzheimer's disease ( AD) also called Alzheimer disease or simply Alzheimer's, is the most common form of Dementia. [22]

Synthesized by many plants, resveratrol apparently serves antifungal and other defensive properties. An antifungal drug is Medication used to treat fungal Infections such as Athlete's foot, Ringworm, Candidiasis (thrush Dietary resveratrol has been shown to modulate the metabolism of lipids and to inhibit oxidation of low-density lipoproteins and aggregation of platelets. Lipids are broadly defined as any fat- Soluble ( lipophilic) naturally-occurring Molecule, such as fats oils waxes cholesterol sterols fat-soluble Platelets, or Thrombocytes, are small cytoplasmic bodies derived from cells They circulate in the Blood of Mammals and are involved [23]

Resveratrol is found in wide amounts among grape varieties, primarily in their skins and seeds which, in muscadine grapes, have about one hundred times higher concentration than pulp. Muscadines ( Vitis rotundifolia) are a grapevine species native to the present-day southeastern United States that has been extensively cultivated since [24] Fresh grape skin contains about 50 to 100 micrograms of resveratrol per gram. [25]

Anthocyanins and other phenolics

Anthocyanins tend to be the main polyphenolics in red grapes whereas flavan-3-ols (e. Polyphenols are a group of chemical substances found in plants characterized by the presence of more than one Phenol unit or building block per molecule Catechins are polyphenolic Antioxidant Plant Metabolites. They belong to the family of Flavonoids and to be more specific flavan-3-ols g. , catechins) are the more abundant phenolic in white varieties. Catechins are polyphenolic Antioxidant Plant Metabolites. They belong to the family of Flavonoids and to be more specific flavan-3-ols [26] Total phenolic content, an index of dietary antioxidant strength, is higher in red varieties due almost entirely to anthocyanin density in red grape skin compared to absence of anthocyanins in white grape skin. [26] It is these anthocyanins that are attracting the efforts of scientists to define their properties for human health. [27] Phenolic content of grape skin varies with cultivar, soil composition, climate, geographic origin, and cultivation practices or exposure to diseases, such as fungal infections. A cultivar is a cultivated Plant that has been selected and given a unique name because of its decorative or useful characteristics it is usually distinct from similar

Red wine offers health benefits more so than white because many beneficial compounds are present in grape skin, and only red wine is fermented with skins. Wine is an Alcoholic beverage made from the fermentation of Grape juice The amount of fermentation time a wine spends in contact with grape skins is an important determinant of its resveratrol content. [20] Ordinary non-muscadine red wine contains between 0. Muscadines ( Vitis rotundifolia) are a grapevine species native to the present-day southeastern United States that has been extensively cultivated since Wine is an Alcoholic beverage made from the fermentation of Grape juice 2 and 5. 8 mg/L [28], depending on the grape variety, because it is fermented with the skins, allowing the wine to absorb the resveratrol. Fermentation in Food processing typically refers to the conversion of Sugar to Alcohol using Yeast under Anaerobic conditions By contrast, a white wine contains lower phenolic contents because it is fermented after removal of skins. Wine is an Alcoholic beverage made from the fermentation of Grape juice

Wines produced from muscadine grapes may contain more than 40 mg/L, an exceptional phenolic content. Muscadines ( Vitis rotundifolia) are a grapevine species native to the present-day southeastern United States that has been extensively cultivated since [29][24] In muscadine skins, ellagic acid, myricetin, quercetin, kaempferol, and trans-resveratrol are major phenolics. Ellagic acid is a Polyphenol antioxidant found in numerous Fruits and Vegetables including raspberries, strawberries, cranberries Myricetin is a naturally occurring Flavonol, a Flavonoid found in many grapes berries fruits vegetables herbs as well as other plants Quercetin is a Flavonoid and to be more specific a flavonol. It is the Aglycone form of a number of other flavonoid Glycosides, such as Kaempferol is a natural Flavonoid that has been isolated from Tea, Broccoli, Delphinium, Witch-hazel, Grapefruit [30] Contrary to previous results, ellagic acid and not resveratrol is the major phenolic in muscadine grapes.

Seed constituents

Since the 1980s, biochemical and medical studies have demonstrated significant antioxidant properties of grape seed oligomeric proanthocyanidins[31]. An antioxidant is a Molecule capable of slowing or preventing the oxidation of other molecules Proanthocyanidin (also known as procyanidin oligomeric proanthocyanidin ( OPC) pycnogenol, leukocyanidin and leucoanthocyanin Together with tannins, polyphenols and polyunsaturated fatty acids, these seed constituents display inhibitory activities against several experimental disease models, including cancer, heart failure and other disorders of oxidative stress. Tannins are Astringent, bitter plant Polyphenols that either bind and Precipitate or shrink Proteins The astringency from the tannins is what Polyphenols are a group of chemical substances found in plants characterized by the presence of more than one Phenol unit or building block per molecule In nutrition polyunsaturated fat is an abbreviation of polyunsaturated Fatty acid. In Chemistry, especially Biochemistry, a fatty acid is a Carboxylic acid often with a long unbranched Aliphatic tail ( chain) which Cancer (medical term Malignant Neoplasm) is a class of Diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled Heart failure is a Cardiac condition that occurs when a problem with the structure or function of the Heart impairs its ability to supply Oxidative stress is caused by an imbalance between the production of reactive oxygen and a biological system's ability to readily detoxify the reactive intermediates or easily [32][33]

Grape seed oil from crushed seeds is used in cosmeceuticals and skincare products for many perceived health benefits. Not to be confused with Rapeseed oil. Grape seed oil (also called grapeseed oil or grape oil) is a Vegetable oil pressed from the seeds Cosmeceuticals are cosmetic products that are claimed primarily by those within the cosmetic industry to have drug-like benefits Grape seed oil is notable for its high contents of tocopherols (vitamin E), phytosterols, and polyunsaturated fatty acids such as linoleic acid, oleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid. Tocopherol, a class of chemical compounds of which many have Vitamin E activity describes a series of Organic compounds consisting of various methylated phenols See also Tocopherol, Tocotrienol Vitamin E is the collective name for a set of 8 related Tocopherols and Tocotrienols which are fat-soluble Phytosterols (also called plant sterols) are a group of steroid alcohols, Phytochemicals naturally occurring in Plants. In Chemistry, especially Biochemistry, a fatty acid is a Carboxylic acid often with a long unbranched Aliphatic tail ( chain) which Linoleic acid (LA is an unsaturated Omega-6 fatty acid. It is a colorless liquid Oleic acid is a Monounsaturated omega-9 Fatty acid found in various animal and vegetable sources α -Linolenic acid ( ALA) is an organic compound found in many common vegetable oils. [34][35][36]

Concord grape juice

Commercial juice products from Concord grapes have been applied in medical research studies, showing potential benefits against the onset stage of cancer[37], platelet aggregation and other risk factors of atherosclerosis[38], loss of physical performance and mental acuity during aging[39] and hypertension in humans[40]. Concord grapes are a Cultivar derived from the Grape species Vitis labrusca (a Cancer (medical term Malignant Neoplasm) is a class of Diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled Platelets, or Thrombocytes, are small cytoplasmic bodies derived from cells They circulate in the Blood of Mammals and are involved Atherosclerosis is a Disease affecting arterial Blood vessels It is a chronic inflammatory response in the walls of arteries in large part due to the accumulation Hypertension, also referred to as high blood pressure, HTN or HPN, is a medical condition in which the Blood pressure is chronically elevated Interpretation of these results has implicated the exceptional content of Concord grape anthocyanins -- as many as 31 different pigment chemicals in this one species[41] -- for contributing to these and other potential benefits of having Concord grape products in the diet[42]. Not to be confused with Anthocyanidin, their sugar free counterparts

See also

Sources

Footnotes
  1. ^ Walker AR, Lee E, Bogs J, McDavid DA, Thomas MR, Robinson SP (2007). "White grapes arose through the mutation of two similar and adjacent regulatory genes". Plant J 49 (5): 772–85. doi:10.1111/j.1365-313X.2006.02997.x. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 17316172.  
  2. ^ Waterhouse AL. Wine phenolics. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2002 May;957:21-36. [1]
  3. ^ Brouillard R, Chassaing S, Fougerousse A. Why are grape/fresh wine anthocyanins so simple and why is it that red wine color lasts so long? Phytochemistry. 2003 Dec;64(7):1179-86. [2]
  4. ^ Pernesz, G. . New Resistant Table Grape Cultivars Bred in Hungary. International Society for Horticultural Science.  
  5. ^ Reisch BI, Peterson DV, Martens M-H. Table Grape Varieties for Cool Climates, Information Bulletin 234, Cornell University, New York State Agricultural Experiment Station[3]
  6. ^ Shi J, Yu J, Pohorly JE, Kakuda Y. (2003 Winter). "Polyphenolics in grape seeds-biochemistry and functionality.". . J Med Food. 2003 Winter;6(4):291-9. Retrieved on 2007-08-16. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1384 - The Hongwu Emperor of Ming China, Emperor Dong hears a case of a couple who tore paper money bills while fighting
  7. ^ Parry J, Su L, Moore J, Cheng Z, Luther M, Rao JN, Wang JY, Yu LL. (2006-05-31). Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1279 BC - Rameses II (The Great (19th dynasty becomes pharaoh of Ancient Egypt. "Chemical compositions, antioxidant capacities, and antiproliferative activities of selected fruit seed flours.". . J Agric Food Chem. 2006 May 31;54(11):3773-8. Retrieved on 2007-08-16. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1384 - The Hongwu Emperor of Ming China, Emperor Dong hears a case of a couple who tore paper money bills while fighting
  8. ^ Providência R. (2006). Cardiovascular protection from alcoholic drinks: scientific basis of the French Paradox. Rev Port Cardiol. 2006 Nov;25(11):1043-58. Abstract.
  9. ^ Opie LH, Lecour S. (2007). The red wine hypothesis: from concepts to protective signalling molecules. Eur Heart J. 2007 Jul;28(14):1683-93. Abstract.
  10. ^ American Heart Association, Alcohol, wine and cardiovascular disease. [4]
  11. ^ Alcohol. Harvard School of Public Health
  12. ^ Mukamal KJ, Kennedy M, Cushman M, Kuller LH, Newman AB, Polak J, Criqui MH, Siscovick DS. Alcohol consumption and lower extremity arterial disease among older adults: the cardiovascular health study. Am J Epidemiol. 2008 Jan 1;167(1):34-41. Abstract
  13. ^ de Lange DW, van de Wiel A. Drink to prevent: review on the cardioprotective mechanisms of alcohol and red wine polyphenols. Semin Vasc Med. 2004 May;4(2):173-86. Abstract
  14. ^ Das S, Das DK. Resveratrol: a therapeutic promise for cardiovascular diseases. Recent Patents Cardiovasc Drug Discov. 2007 Jun;2(2):133-8. Abstract
  15. ^ Sato M, Maulik N, Das DK. Cardioprotection with alcohol: role of both alcohol and polyphenolic antioxidants. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2002 May;957:122-35. Abstract
  16. ^ Wollin SD, Jones PJ. Alcohol, red wine and cardiovascular disease. J Nutr. 2001 May;131(5):1401-4. Abstract
  17. ^ Shankar S, Singh G, Srivastava RK. Chemoprevention by resveratrol: molecular mechanisms and therapeutic potential. Front Biosci. 2007 Sep 1;12:4839-54. Abstract
  18. ^ Mancuso C, Bates TE, Butterfield DA, Calafato S, Cornelius C, De Lorenzo A, Dinkova Kostova AT, Calabrese V. Natural antioxidants in Alzheimer's disease. Expert Opin Investig Drugs. 2007 Dec;16(12):1921-31. Abstract
  19. ^ Gatz SA, Wiesmüller L. Take a break--resveratrol in action on DNA. Carcinogenesis. 2008 Feb;29(2):321-32. Abstract
  20. ^ Barger JL, Kayo T, Vann JM, Arias EB, Wang J, et al. (2008) A Low Dose of Dietary Resveratrol Partially Mimics Caloric Restriction and Retards Aging Parameters in Mice. PLoS ONE 3(6): e2264. doi:10. 1371/journal. pone. 0002264[5]
  21. ^ Listing of resveratrol clinical trials, ClinicalTrials. gov, a service of the US National Institutes of Health[6]
  22. ^ Randomized Trial of a Nutritional Supplement in Alzheimer's Disease, US Department of Veterans Affairs, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, May 2008 [7]
  23. ^ Chan, W. K. , & Delucchi, A. B. (2000). Resveratrol, a red wine constituent, is a mechanism-based inactivator of cytochrome P450 3A4. Life Sci 67 (25): 3103-3112. Abstract.
  24. ^ a b LeBlanc, MR (2005). Cultivar, Juice Extraction, Ultra Violet Irradiation and Storage Influence the Stilbene Content of Muscadine Grapes (Vitis Rotundifolia Michx. ). PhD Dissertation, Louisiana State University[8]
  25. ^ Li X, Wu B, Wang L, Li S. (2006). Extractable amounts of trans-resveratrol in seed and berry skin in Vitis evaluated at the germplasm level. J Agric Food Chem. 2006 Nov 15;54(23):8804-11. Abstract.
  26. ^ a b Cantos E, Espín JC, Tomás-Barberán FA. (2002). Varietal differences among the polyphenol profiles of seven table grape cultivars studied by LC-DAD-MS-MS. J Agric Food Chem. 2002 Sep 25;50(20):5691-6. Abstract.
  27. ^ Gross PM (2007). Scientists zero in on health benefits of berry pigments. Natural Products Information Center 2007 Jul 9. [9]
  28. ^ Gu X, Creasy L, Kester A, et al. , Capillary electrophoretic determination of resveratrol in wines. J Agric Food Chem 47:3323-3277, 1999
  29. ^ Ector BJ, Magee JB, Hegwood CP, Coign MJ. Resveratrol Concentration in Muscadine Berries, Juice, Pomace, Purees, Seeds, and Wines. [10]
  30. ^ Pastrana-Bonilla E, Akoh CC, Sellappan S, Krewer G. (2003). Phenolic content and antioxidant capacity of muscadine grapes. J Agric Food Chem. 2003 Aug 27;51(18):5497-503 Abstract.
  31. ^ Bagchi D, Bagchi M, Stohs SJ, Das DK, Ray SD, Kuszynski CA, Joshi SS, Pruess HG. (2000-08-07). 2000 ( MM) was a Leap year that started on Saturday of the Common Era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. Events 322 BC - Battle of Crannon between Athens and Macedon following the death of Alexander the Great. "Free radicals and grape seed proanthocyanidin extract: importance in human health and disease prevention.". . Toxicology. 2000 Aug 7;148(2-3):187-97. Retrieved on 2007-08-16. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1384 - The Hongwu Emperor of Ming China, Emperor Dong hears a case of a couple who tore paper money bills while fighting
  32. ^ Agarwal C, Singh RP, Agarwal R. (2002-11-23). See also 2002 (disambiguation Year 2002 ( MMII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 800 - Charlemagne arrives at Rome to investigate the alleged crimes of "Grape seed extract induces apoptotic death of human prostate carcinoma DU145 cells via caspases activation accompanied by dissipation of mitochondrial membrane potential and cytochrome c release.". . Carcinogenesis. 2002 Nov;23(11):1869-76. Retrieved on 2007-08-16. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1384 - The Hongwu Emperor of Ming China, Emperor Dong hears a case of a couple who tore paper money bills while fighting
  33. ^ Bagchi D, Sen CK, Ray SD, Das DK, Bagchi M, Preuss HG, Vinson JA. (2003-02-01). Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1327 - Teenaged Edward III is crowned King of England, but the country is ruled by his mother Queen "Molecular mechanisms of cardioprotection by a novel grape seed proanthocyanidin extract.". . Mutat Res. 2003 Feb-Mar;523-524:87-97. Retrieved on 2007-08-16. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1384 - The Hongwu Emperor of Ming China, Emperor Dong hears a case of a couple who tore paper money bills while fighting
  34. ^ Beveridge TH, Girard B, Kopp T, Drover JC. Yield and composition of grape seed oils extracted by supercritical carbon dioxide and petroleum ether: varietal effects. J Agric Food Chem. 2005 Mar 9;53(5):1799-804. [11]
  35. ^ Crews C, Hough P, Godward J, Brereton P, Lees M, Guiet S, Winkelmann W. Quantitation of the main constituents of some authentic grape-seed oils of different origin. J Agric Food Chem. 2006 Aug 23;54(17):6261-5. [12]
  36. ^ Tangolar SG, Ozoğul Y, Tangolar S, Torun A. Evaluation of fatty acid profiles and mineral content of grape seed oil of some grape genotypes. Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2007 Sep 19;:1-8 [13]
  37. ^ Jung KJ, Wallig MA, Singletary KW. Purple grape juice inhibits 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA)-induced rat mammary tumorigenesis and in vivo DMBA-DNA adduct formation. Cancer Lett. 2006 Feb 28;233(2):279-88. [14]
  38. ^ Shanmuganayagam D, Warner TF, Krueger CG, Reed JD, Folts JD. Concord grape juice attenuates platelet aggregation, serum cholesterol and development of atheroma in hypercholesterolemic rabbits. Atherosclerosis. 2007 Jan;190(1):135-42. [15]
  39. ^ Shukitt-Hale B, Carey A, Simon L, Mark DA, Joseph JA. Effects of Concord grape juice on cognitive and motor deficits in aging. Nutrition. 2006 Mar;22(3):295-302. [16]
  40. ^ Park YK, Kim JS, Kang MH. Concord grape juice supplementation reduces blood pressure in Korean hypertensive men: double-blind, placebo controlled intervention trial. Biofactors. 2004;22(1-4):145-7. [17]
  41. ^ Wu X, Prior RL. Systematic identification and characterization of anthocyanins by HPLC-ESI-MS/MS in common foods in the United States: fruits and berries. J Agric Food Chem. 2005 Apr 6;53(7):2589-99. [18]
  42. ^ The Berry Doctor. Berry king. The Berry Doctor's Journal, February 26, 2008 [19]

External links

Dictionary

grape

-noun

  1. (countable) A small, round, smooth-skinned edible fruit, usually purple, red, or green, that grows in bunches on certain vines.
  2. (countable) A woody vine that bears clusters of grapes; a grapevine.
  3. (countable, uncountable) A dark purplish red colour, the colour of many grapes.
  4. (uncountable) grapeshot.

-adjective

  1. Containing grapes or having a grape flavor.
  2. Of a dark purplish red colour.
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