A graduate school or ("grad school") is a school that awards advanced degrees, such as doctoral degrees with the general requirement that students must have earned a previous undergraduate (bachelor's) degree. A doctorate is an Academic degree that indicates the highest level of academic achievement In some Educational systems undergraduate education is Post-secondary education up to the level of a Bachelor's degree. A bachelor's degree is usually an Undergraduate Academic degree awarded for a course or major that generally lasts for three four or in some cases and Many universities award graduate degrees; a graduate school is not necessarily a separate institution. A university is an institution of Higher education and Research, which grants Academic degrees in a variety of subjects Original research experience is often a significant component of graduate studies, including the writing and defense of a thesis or dissertation. A dissertation (also called thesis or disquisition) is a document that presents the author's Research and findings and is submitted in support of candidature A dissertation (also called thesis or disquisition) is a document that presents the author's Research and findings and is submitted in support of candidature The term "graduate school" is primarily North American. It also does not usually refer to medical school (students are called "medical students"), and only occasionally refers to law school or business school. Medical education A medical school or faculty of medicine is a Tertiary educational institution—or part of such an institution—that teaches Medicine A law school (also known as a school of law or college of law) is an institution specializing in Legal education. A business school is a university-level institution that confers degrees in Business Administration

Those attending graduate schools are called graduate students, or in British English postgraduate students, or, colloquially, postgrads. British English or UK English ( BrE, BE, en-GB) is the broad term used to distinguish the forms of the English language used in the Degrees awarded by graduate schools include, master's degrees, doctoral degrees, and other postgraduate qualifications such as graduate certificates and professional degrees. A doctorate is an Academic degree that indicates the highest level of academic achievement A first professional degree is a type of Academic degree designed to prepare the holder for a particular profession by emphasizing practical skills over theory and analysis

Although graduate school programs are distinct experiences from undergraduate degree programs, graduate instruction (in Australia, the United States, and other countries) is often offered by some of the same senior academic staff and departments that teach undergraduate courses. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Unlike in undergraduate programs, however, it is rare for graduate students to take coursework outside their specific field of study at graduate/Graduate Entry level. Coursework is carried out by Students at University or middle / High school that contributes towards their overall Grade, but which A graduate entry degree is term used for an Academic degree that requires at minimum a previous bachelors degree for admission At the Ph. D. level, though, it is quite common to take courses from a wider range of study, for which some fixed portion of coursework, sometimes known as a residency, is typically required to be taken from outside the department and college of the degree-seeking candidate, to broaden the research abilities of the student. College ( Latin collegium) is a term most often used today to denote an Educational Institution. Some institutions designate separate graduate versus undergraduate staff and denote other divisions (often called School of X, e. g. , diplomacy)

Contents 1 Australia 1.1 Admission 1.2 Professional programs 1.3 Funding 1.4 Requirements for completion 2 Canada 2.1 Admission 2.2 Funding 2.3 Requirements for completion 3 United Kingdom 3.1 Admission 3.2 Funding 4 United States 4.1 Admission 4.2 Requirements for completion 4.3 Funding 4.4 Graduate employee unions 5 References 6 See also 7 External links

Australia

Admission

Generally, the Australian higher education system follows that of its British counterpart. Programmes are divided into coursework-based and research-based degrees, and entrance is decided by merit (entrance to coursework-based programmes is usually not as strict); most universities usually require a "Credit" average (equivalent to the British B-) as entry to their taught programmes in a field related to their previous undergraduate. On average, however, a strong "Credit" or "Distinction" average is the norm for accepted students.

Ph. D. entrance requirements in the higher ranked schools typically require a student to have a master's degree by research, or a master's with a significant research component. Those who hold a first-class four-year honours degree may be considered, but are usually first admitted as probationary Ph. D. -students during the first year, then transfer to permanent candidacy contingent upon successful progress. The minimum duration of a Ph. D. programme is two years, but completing within this timespan is unusual, with Ph. D. s usually taking an average of three to four years to be completed.

Most of the confusion with Australian postgraduate programmes occurs with the research-based programmes. Research degrees generally require candidates to have a minimum of a second-class four-year honours undergraduate degree to be considered for admission. There has been some debate over the acceptance of a three-year honours degree (as in the case of graduates from British universities) as equivalent entry requirement to graduate research programmes (M. Phil. , Ph. D. ) in Australian universities, even though British graduates hold equivalent honours classification (upper-second and above).

Professional programs

There are many professional programs such as medical and dental school require a previous bachelors for admission and are considered graduate or Graduate Entry programs even though they culminate in a bachelors degree. A graduate entry degree is term used for an Academic degree that requires at minimum a previous bachelors degree for admission Example, the Bachelor of Medicine (MBBS) or Bachelor of Dentistry (BDent). Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery, or in Latin Medicinae Baccalaureus et Baccalaureus Chirurgiae (abbreviated MB BChir, BM BCh, Dentistry' is the "evaluation diagnosis prevention and/or treatment (nonsurgical surgical or related procedures of diseases disorders and/or conditions of the oral cavity

There has also been some confusion over the conversion of the different marking schemes between British, U. S. , and Australian systems for the purpose of assessment for entry to graduate programmes. The Australian grades are divided into four categories: High Distinction, Distinction, Credit, and Pass (though many institutions have idiosyncratic grading systems). Assessment and evaluation based on the Australian system is not equivalent to British or U. S. schemes because of the "low-marking" scheme used by Australian universities. For example, a British student who achieves 70+ will receive an A grade, whereas an Australian student with 70+ will receive a Distinction which is not the highest grade in the marking scheme. Hence, there have been many instances where Australian university admission officers have incorrectly assessed foreign grade marks as equivalent to their own.

Funding

The Australian government usually offer full funding (fees and a monthly stipend) to its citizens and permanent residents who are pursuing research-based higher degrees. There are also highly competitive scholarships for international candidates who intend to pursue research-based programmes. Taught-degree scholarships (certain masters' degrees, Grad. Dip. , Grad. Cert. , D. Eng. , D. B. A. ) are almost non-existent for international students, so they are usually required to be self-funded.

Requirements for completion

Requirements for the successful completion of a taught master's programme are that the student pass all the required modules. Some universities require eight taught modules for a one-year programme, twelve modules for a one-and-a-half-year programme, and twelve taught modules plus a thesis or dissertation for a two-year programme. The academic year for an Australian postgraduate programme is typically two semesters (eight months of study).

Requirements for research-based programmes vary among universities. Generally, however, a student is not required to take taught modules as part of their candidacy. It is now common that first-year Ph. D. candidates are not regarded as permanent Ph. D. students for fear that they may not be sufficiently prepared to undertake independent research. In such cases, an alternative degree will be awarded for their previous work, usually an M. Phil. or M. Sc. by research.

Canada

Admission

Admission to a master's program generally requires a bachelor's degree in a related field, with sufficiently high grades usually ranging from B+ and higher (note that different schools have different letter grade conventions, and this requirement may be significantly higher in some faculties), and recommendations from professors. The following is a summary of the academic grading systems in North America. In Education, a grade (or mark is a teacher's standardized Evaluation of a Student 's work Some schools require samples of the student's writing as well as a research proposal. At English-speaking universities, applicants from countries where English is not the primary language are required to submit scores from the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL). The Test of English as a Foreign Language (or TOEFLs, pronounced "toe-full" or sometimes "toy-ful" evaluates the potential success of an individual to use

Admission to a doctoral program typically requires a master's degree in a related field, sufficiently high grades, recommendations, samples of writing, a research proposal, and typically an interview with a prospective supervisor. Requirements are often set higher than those for a master's program. In exceptional cases, a student holding an honours BA with sufficiently high grades and proven writing and research abilities may be admitted directly to a Ph. D. program without the requirement to first complete a master's. Many Canadian graduate programs allow students who start in a master's to "reclassify" into a Ph. D. program after satisfactory performance in the first year, bypassing the master's degree.

Graduate students must usually declare their research goal or submit a research proposal upon entering grad school; in the case of master's degrees, there will be some flexibility (that is, one is not held to one's research proposal, although major changes, for example from premodern to modern history, are discouraged). In the case of Ph. D. s, the research direction is usually known as it will typically follow the direction of the master's research.

Master's degrees can typically be completed in one year but normally take at least two; they typically may not exceed five years. Doctoral degrees require a minimum of two years but frequently take much longer, not usually exceeding six years.

Funding

Graduate students may take out student loans, but instead they often work as teaching or research assistants. While included in the term " Financial aid " higher education loans differ from Scholarships and grants in that they must be paid back A teaching assistant (TA is a junior Scholar employed on a temporary contract by a College or University in teaching-related responsibilities A Research Assistant is a junior graduate Scholar, employed on a temporary contract by a College or University for the purpose of academic Students often agree, as a condition of acceptance to a programme, not to devote more than twelve hours per week to work or outside interests.

Funding is available to first-year masters students whose transcripts reflect exceptionally high grades; this funding is normally given in the second year.

Funding for Ph. D. students comes from a variety of sources, and many universities waive tuition fees for doctoral candidates.

Funding is available in the form of scholarships, bursaries and other awards, both private and public. A scholarship is an award of access to an institution or a financial aid award for an individual student scholar for the purpose of furthering their Education A bursary is strictly an office for a Bursar and his or her staff in a school or college

Requirements for completion

Both master's and doctoral programs may be done by coursework or research or a combination of the two, depending on the subject and faculty. Coursework is carried out by Students at University or middle / High school that contributes towards their overall Grade, but which Research is defined as Human activity based on Intellectual application in the investigation of Matter. A faculty is a division within a University. The concept of a university with different faculties for different subjects dates back to Al-Azhar University, which had Most faculties require both, with the emphasis on research, and with coursework being directly related to the field of research.

Master's candidates undertaking research are typically required to complete a thesis comprising some original research and ranging from seventy to two-hundred pages. A dissertation (also called thesis or disquisition) is a document that presents the author's Research and findings and is submitted in support of candidature Some fields may require candidates to study at least one foreign language if they have not already earned sufficient foreign-language credits. Some faculties require candidates to defend their thesis, but many do not. A dissertation (also called thesis or disquisition) is a document that presents the author's Research and findings and is submitted in support of candidature Those that do not often have a requirement of taking two additional courses, minimum, in lieu of preparing a thesis.

Ph. D. candidates undertaking research must typically complete a thesis, or dissertation, consisting of original research representing a significant contribution to their field, and ranging from two-hundred to five-hundred pages. A dissertation (also called thesis or disquisition) is a document that presents the author's Research and findings and is submitted in support of candidature Most Ph. D. candidates will be required to sit comprehensive examinations—examinations testing general knowledge in their field of specialization—in their second or third year as a prerequisite to continuing their studies, and must defend their thesis as a final requirement. A comprehensive examination (or comprehensive exam or exams often abbreviated as "comps" is a specific type of Examination that must be completed by Graduate Some faculties require candidates to earn sufficient credits in a third or fourth foreign language; for example, most candidates in modern Japanese topics must demonstrate ability in English, Japanese, and Mandarin, while candidates in pre-modern Japanese topics must demonstrate ability in English, Japanese, Classical Chinese, and Classical Japanese. is a language spoken by over 130 million people in Japan and in Japanese emigrant communities Standard Mandarin, also known as Standard Spoken Chinese, is the official modern Chinese spoken language used in mainland China and Taiwan Classical Chinese or Literary Chinese is a traditional style of Written Chinese based on the Grammar and Vocabulary of ancient Chinese The Classical Japanese language (文語 bungo) is the literary form of the Japanese language that was the standard until the early Shōwa period.

At English-speaking Canadian universities, both master's and Ph. D. theses may be presented in English or in the language of the subject (German for German literature, for example), but if this is the case an extensive abstract must be also presented in English. The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. German literature comprises those literary texts written in the German language. In exceptional circumstances, a thesis may be presented in French.

French-speaking universities have varying sets of rules; some will accept students with little knowledge of French if they can communicate with their supervisors (usually in English).

United Kingdom

Admission

Admission to undertake a research degree in the UK typically requires a good bachelor's degree (at least lower second, but usually an upper second or first class). The British undergraduate degree classification system is a grading scheme for Undergraduate degrees ( Bachelor's degrees and some Master's degrees The British undergraduate degree classification system is a grading scheme for Undergraduate degrees ( Bachelor's degrees and some Master's degrees Students may or may not already have a Master's degree. Doctoral candidates are initially admitted to a Masters in Research Philosophy (M.Phil. or MRes), then later accede to a Ph. A doctorate is an Academic degree that indicates the highest level of academic achievement In the usage of India, United Kingdom, United States, Australia, New Zealand, Hong Kong and some other countries the Master In the UK and Ireland, the Master of Research degree is a postgraduate degree available in a range of academic disciplines D. if they progress well.

Funding

Funding for postgraduate study in the UK is awarded competitively, and usually is disseminated by institution (in the form of a certain allocation of studentships for a given year) rather than directly to individuals. There are a number of scholarships for Master's courses, but these are relatively rare and dependent on the course and class of undergraduate degree obtained (usually requiring at least a lower second). Most Master's students are self-funded.

Funding is available for some Ph. D. courses. As at the Master's level, there is more funding available to those in the sciences than in other disciplines. Such funding generally comes from Research Councils such as the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC), Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC), Medical Research Council (MRC) and others. The UK Research Councils are government agencies responsible for co-ordinating and funding particular areas of research including the arts humanties all areas of science and The Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council ( EPSRC) is a British The Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC is a British Research Council and Non-Departmental Public Body that provides government funding The Medical Research Council (MRC is a UK organisation dedicated to "promot the balanced development of medical and related biological research

For overseas students, most major funding applications are due as early as twelve months or more before the intended graduate course will begin. This funding is also often highly competitive. The most widely available, and thus important, award for overseas students is the Overseas Research Student Award, which pays the difference in university fees between an overseas student and a British or EU resident. However, a student can only apply for the ORS for one university, often before he or she knows whether they have been accepted.

Students studying part-time for a Master's degree can apply for income-based Jobseeker's Allowance provided their timetabled hours are less than 16 hours per week. In the United Kingdom Jobseeker's Allowance ( JSA) colloquially known as The Dole, is a form of Unemployment benefit that is paid by the This also entitles the student to housing benefit provided by their local council. Housing Benefit is a Means tested Social security benefit in the UK that is intended to help people with low incomes and low savings pay for rented Local governments are administrative offices that are smaller than a State. Full-time students (of any type) are not normally eligible for state benefits, including during vacation time. ^[1]

United States

Admission

Admission to graduate school usually requires a bachelor's degree. High grades in one's field of study are important — grades outside the field less so. Standardized test (e. A standardized test is a test administered and scored in a consistent manner g. , Graduate Record Examination (GRE), Graduate Management Admission Test (GMAT), Medical College Admission Test (MCAT), Graduate Record Examination (GRE) Subject Test, Law School Admission Test (LSAT)) scores may be required by some institutions ^[2][3] and, especially, good letters of recommendation from undergraduate instructors are often essential. Graduate Record Examination or GRE is a commercially-run Standardized test that is an admissions requirement for many Graduate schools principally in the GMAT redirects here for other uses see GMAT (disambiguation. The Graduate Management Admission Test (GMAT pronounced G-mat is The Medical College Admission Test, commonly known as the MCAT, is a computer-based Standardized examination for prospective Medical students Graduate Record Examination or GRE is a commercially-run Standardized test that is an admissions requirement for many Graduate schools principally in the The Law School Admission Test ( LSAT) is an examination administered by the Law School Admission Council (LSAC that attempts to measure logical and verbal reasoning ^[4] Strong recommendation letters from mentors or supervisors of undergraduate research experience provide evidence that the applicant can perform research.

Within the sciences and some social sciences, previous research experience may be important; ^[2][5] within most humanities disciplines, an example of academic writing normally suffices. Many universities require a personal statement (sometimes called Statement of Purpose or Letter of Intent), which may include indications of the intended area(s) of research; ^[3] how detailed this statement is or whether it is possible to change one's focus of research depends strongly on the discipline and department to which the student is applying.

In some disciplines or universities, graduate applicants may find it best to have at least one recommendation from research work outside of the college where they earned their Bachelor's degree; however, as with previous research experience, this may not be very important in most humanities disciplines.

Some schools set minimum GPAs and test scores below which they will not accept any applicants; ^[6] this reduces the time spent reviewing applications. In Education, a grade (or mark is a teacher's standardized Evaluation of a Student 's work On the other hand, many other institutions often explicitly state that they do not use any sort of cut-offs in terms of GPA or the GRE scores. Instead, they claim to consider many factors, including past research achievements, the compatibility between the applicant's research interest and that of the faculty, the statement of purpose and the letters of reference, as stated above. Some programs also require professors to act as sponsors. Finally, applicants from non-English speaking countries must take the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL). The Test of English as a Foreign Language (or TOEFLs, pronounced "toe-full" or sometimes "toy-ful" evaluates the potential success of an individual to use ^[7]

At most institutions, decisions regarding admission are not made by the institution itself but the department to which the student is applying. Some departments may require interviews before making the decision to accept an applicant. ^[3]

Requirements for completion

Graduate students often declare their intended degree (master's or doctorate) in their applications. In some cases, master's programs allow successful students to continue toward the doctorate degree. Additionally, doctoral students who have advanced to candidacy but not filed a dissertation ("ABD," for "all but dissertation") often receive master's degrees and an additional master's called a Master of Philosophy, or MPhil, or C.Phil. "Candidate in Philosophy" degree. The term all but dissertation (ABD is an unofficial term identifying a stage in the process of obtaining a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph Candidate of Philosophy is any of the following academic degrees a Bachelor's level Master's level higher than Master's level or Doctorate level degree depending on the country The master's component of a doctorate program often requires one or two years, and some students, because doctoral programs are better-funded, apply for doctoral programs while only intending to attain a master's degree. This is generally not accepted and, if a student's advisor learns of the student's plans, can result in early termination.

Many graduate programs require students to pass one or several examinations in order to demonstrate their competence as scholars. ^[2] In some departments, a comprehensive examination is often required in the first year of doctoral study, and is designed to test a student's background undergraduate-level knowledge. Examinations of this type are more common in the sciences and some social sciences, and relatively unknown in most humanities disciplines.

Most graduate students perform teaching duties, often serving as graders and tutors. In some departments, they can be promoted to Lecturer status, a position that comes with more responsibility. Lecturer is a term of Academic rank. In the United Kingdom lecturer is the name given to University Teachers in their first permanent

Doctoral students generally spend roughly their first two to three years taking coursework, and begin research by their second year if not before. Many master's and all specialist students will perform research culminating in a paper, presentation, and defense of their research. This is called the master's thesis (or, for Educational Specialist students, the specialist paper). However, many US master's degree programs do not require a master's thesis, focusing instead primarily on course work or on "practicals" or "workshops". Such "real-world" experience may typically require a candidate work on a project alone or in a team as a consultant, or consultants, for an outside entity approved or selected by the academic institution, and under faculty supervision.

In the second and third years of study, doctoral programs often require students to pass more examinations. ^[2] Programs often require a Qualifying Examination ("Quals"), a PhD Candidacy Examination ("Candidacy"), or a General Examination ("Generals"), designed to students' grasp of a broad sample of their discipline, and/or one or several Special Field Examinations ("Specials"), which test students in their narrower selected areas of specialty within the discipline. If these examinations are held orally, they may be known colloquially as "orals". For some social science and many humanities disciplines, where graduate students may or may not have studied the discipline at the undergraduate level, these exams will be the first set, and be based either on graduate coursework or specific preparatory reading (sometimes up to a year's work in reading). In all cases, comprehensive exams are normally both stressful and time consuming, and must be passed to be allowed to proceed on to the thesis. Passing such examinations allows the student to stay, begin doctoral research, and rise to the status of a doctoral candidate, while failing usually results in the student leaving the program or re-taking the test after some time has passed (usually a semester or a year). Some schools have an intermediate category, passing at the master's level, which allows the student to leave with a master's without having completed a master's thesis.

For the next several years the doctoral candidate primarily performs his or her research. Usually this lasts three to eight years, though a few finish more quickly and some take substantially longer. In total, the typical doctoral degree takes between 4 and 8 years from entering the program to completion, though this time varies depending upon the department, thesis topic, and many other factors.

For example, astronomy degrees take five to six years on average, but observational astronomy degrees take six to seven due to limiting factors of weather, while theoretical astronomy degrees take five. Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study Observational astronomy is a division of the astronomical Science that is concerned with getting data in contrast with Theoretical astrophysics which is Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study Though there is substantial variation among universities, departments, and individuals, humanities and social science doctorates on average take somewhat longer to complete than natural science doctorates. The humanities are academic disciplines which study the Human condition, using methods that are primarily Analytic, Critical, or Speculative The social sciences comprise academic disciplines concerned with the study of the social life of human groups and individuals including Anthropology, Communication studies In Science, the term natural science refers to a naturalistic approach to the study of the Universe, which is understood as obeying rules or law of These differences are due to the differing nature of research between the humanities and some social sciences and the natural sciences, and to the differing expectations of the discipline in coursework, languages and length of thesis. However, time required to complete a doctorate also varies according to the candidate's abilities and choice of research. A doctorate is an Academic degree that indicates the highest level of academic achievement Some students may also choose to remain in a program if they fail to win an academic position, particularly in disciplines with a tight job market; by remaining a student, they can retain access to libraries and university facilities, while also retaining an academic affiliation, which can be essential for conferences and job-searches.

Traditionally, doctoral programs were only intended to last three to four years and, in some disciplines (primarily the natural sciences), with a helpful advisor, and a light teaching load, it is possible for the degree to be completed in that amount of time. However, increasingly many disciplines, including most humanities, set their requirements for coursework, languages and the expected extent of thesis research by the assumption that students will take five years minimum or six to seven years on average; competition for jobs within these fields also raises expectations on the length and quality of theses considerably.

In some disciplines, doctoral programs can average seven to ten years. Archaeology, which requires long periods of research, tends towards the longer end of this spectrum. Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from Greek grc ἀρχαιολογία archaiologia – grc ἀρχαῖος archaīos The increase in length of degree is a matter of great concern for both students and universities, though there is much disagreement on potential solutions to this problem.

Foreign graduate students outnumber US-born students in some departments, primarily in the natural sciences, and engineering.

Funding

Many departments, especially those in which students have research or teaching responsibilities, offer tuition-forgiveness and a stipend that pays for most expenses. At some elite universities, there may be a minimum stipend established for all Ph. D. students, as well as a tuition waiver. The terms of these stipends vary greatly, and may consist of a scholarship or fellowship, followed by teaching responsibilities. At many elite universities, these stipends have been increasing, in response both to student pressure and especially to competition among the elite universities for graduate students.

In some fields, research positions are more coveted than teaching positions because student researchers are typically paid to work on the dissertation they are required to complete anyway, while teaching is generally considered a distraction from one's work. Research positions are more typical of science disciplines; they are relatively uncommon in humanities disciplines, and where they exist, rarely allow the student to work on their own research.

Departments often have funds for limited discretionary funding to supplement minor expenses such as research trips and travel to conferences.

A few students can attain outside fellowships such as the National Science Foundation (NSF) and National Physical Science Consortium (NPSC). A scholarship is an award of access to an institution or a financial aid award for an individual student scholar for the purpose of furthering their Education The National Science Foundation (NSF is a United States Government agency that supports fundamental Research and Education in all the non-medical The sciences are funded well enough that most students can attain either outside or institutional funding, but in the humanities, not all do. Some humanities students borrow money during their coursework, then take full-time jobs while completing their dissertations. Funding differs greatly by departments and universities; some universities give five years of full funding to all Ph. D. students, though often with a teaching requirement attached; other universities do not. However, because of the teaching requirements, which can be in the research years of the Ph. D. , even the most funded of universities often do not have funding for humanities or social science students who need to do research elsewhere, whether in the United States or overseas.

Foreign students are typically funded the same way as domestic (US) students, although Federally-subsidized student and parent loans and work-study assistance are generally limited to U. S. citizens and nationals, permanent residents, and approved refugees^[8]. Moreover, some funding sources (such as many NSF fellowships) may only be awarded to domestic students. International students often have worse financial difficulties than domestic students. Reasons include high costs to visit their families back home, support of a family not allowed to work due to immigration laws, tuition that is steep by world standards, and large fees: visa fees by U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, surveillance fees (such as Student and Exchange Visitor Information Systems, or SEVIS[1]) by the United States Congress and the United States Department of Homeland Security. Immigration refers to the movement of people among countries While the movement of people has existed throughout human history at various levels modern immigration implies long-term A visa (short for the Latin carta visa, lit "a document that has been seen" is a document issued by a Country giving an individual United States Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS is a bureau in the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS Surveillance is the monitoring of Behavior. Systems surveillance is the process of monitoring the behavior of people objects or processes within systems for conformity The United States Congress is the bicameral Legislature of the federal government of the United States of America, consisting of two houses

Graduate employee unions

At many universities, graduate students are employed by their university to teach classes or do research. While all graduate employees are graduate students, many graduate students are not employees. MBA students, for example, usually pay tuition and do not have paid teaching or research positions. In many countries graduate employees have collectively organized labor unions in order to bargain a contract with their university. A trade union or labour union is an organization of workers who have banded together to achieve common goals in key areas such as wages hours and working conditions forming In Canada, for example, almost all graduate employees are members of a CUPE local. The Canadian Union of Public Employees ( CUPE, French: Syndicat Canadien de la fonction publique) is a Canadian Trade union serving

In the United States there are many graduate employee unions at public universities, the Coalition of Graduate Employee Unions lists 25 recognized unions at public universities on its website. The Coalition of Graduate Employee Unions consists of unions representing graduate Employees (also known as academic student employees or ASEs at Private universities, however, are covered under the National Labor Relations Act rather than state labor laws and until 2001 there were no recognized unions at private universities. The National Labor Relations Act (or Wagner Act) is a 1935 United States federal law that protects the rights of most workers in the Private sector

Many graduate students see themselves as akin to junior faculty, but with significantly lower pay. Many graduate students feel that teaching takes time that would better be spent on research, and many point out that there is a vicious circle in the academic labor economy. Institutions that rely on cheap graduate student labor have no need to create expensive professorships, so graduate students who have taught extensively in graduate school can find it immensely difficult to get a teaching job when they have obtained their degree. Many institutions depend heavily on graduate student teaching: a 2003 report by agitators for a graduate student union at Yale, for instance, claims that "70% of undergraduate teaching contact hours at Yale are performed by transient teachers: graduate teachers, adjunct instructors, and other teachers not on the tenure track. " Additionally, graduate employees are currently organizing to have a greater voice in CMU graduate school decision making. Michigan leads in terms of progressive policy regarding graduate student unions, and four graduate schools in Michigan currently recognize graduate employee unions: the University of Michigan, Michigan State University, Wayne State University, and Western Michigan University.

The United Auto Workers (under the slogan "Uniting Academic Workers") and the American Federation of Teachers are two international unions that represent graduate employees. Template talkInfobox Union for usage -->The United Automobile Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America International Template talkInfobox Union for usage -->The American Federation of Teachers or AFT is an American labor union Private universities' administrations often oppose their graduate students when they try to form unions, arguing that students should be exempt from labor laws intended for "employees". In some cases unionization movements have met with enough student opposition to fail. At the schools where graduate employees are unionized, which positions are unionized vary. Sometimes only one set of employees will unionize (e. g. teaching assistants, residential directors); at other times, most or all will. Typically, fellowship recipients, usually not employed by their university, do not participate.

When negotiations fail, graduate employee unions sometimes go on strike. Strike action, often simply called a strike, is a work stoppage caused by the mass refusal by Employees to perform work. While graduate student unions can use the same types of strikes that other unions do, they have also made use of teach-ins, work-ins, marches, rallies, and grade strikes. In a grade strike, graduate students refuse to grade exams and papers and, if the strike lasts until the end of the academic term, also refuse to turn in final grades. Another form of job action is known as "work-to-rule", in which graduate student instructors work exactly as many hours as they are paid for and no more.

References

• William G. Bowen & Neil L. Rudenstine, In Pursuit of the PhD (Princeton UP, 1992; ISBN 0-691-04294-2). A comprehensive report on graduate education in the US from the 1960s to the 1990s, based on surveys of tens of thousands of graduate students.

See also

• Graduate Entry
• Academic degree
• Postgraduate education
• Professional bodies
• Professional degree
• Professional qualification
• Comprehensive examination
• EURODOC (European Council of Doctoral Candidates and junior researchers)
• Piled Higher and Deeper (widely read graduate school oriented comic strip)
• Thesis
• List of postgraduate-only institutions
• List of fields of doctoral studies

External links

• Growth of the PhD - Discusses innovations in doctoral training. A graduate entry degree is term used for an Academic degree that requires at minimum a previous bachelors degree for admission A degree is any of a wide range of status levels conferred by institutions of Higher education, such as universities, normally as the result of successfully completing See also Postgraduate Training in Education Postgraduate education (synonymous in North America with graduate education, and sometimes described A professional body or professional organization also known as a professional association or professional society is an organization usually Non-profit, that exists A first professional degree is a type of Academic degree designed to prepare the holder for a particular profession by emphasizing practical skills over theory and analysis Overview Certifications are earned from a Professional society and in general must be renewed periodically or may be valid for a specific period of time (e A comprehensive examination (or comprehensive exam or exams often abbreviated as "comps" is a specific type of Examination that must be completed by Graduate History In 2001 several members of national organisations for young researchers met at a conference in Uppsala organized by Sweden in the course of the Piled Higher and Deeper (also known as PhD Comics) is a newspaper and web comic strip written and drawn by Jorge Cham that follows the lives A dissertation (also called thesis or disquisition) is a document that presents the author's Research and findings and is submitted in support of candidature The follow is a list of brick and mortar institutions that primarily offer postgraduate degrees with distinction in research publication and research This is a list of the fields of doctoral studies, as used by the National Opinion Research Center (NORC at the University of Chicago in the United States
• How I Got Into the Stanford Psychology Ph.D. Program - One student's experiences when applying to graduate programs in psychology. Includes helpful explanations and tips for all stages of the application process.
• Guide to applying to PhD - Covers selecting the right program, taking tests, recommendations, and statement of purpose from a professor who has been on the admissions committee for CMU, MIT, Berkeley.
• Free Advice On Applying To Graduate School (PDF) - Written by a professor of psychology at Portland State University. Portland State University (PSU is a public state Urban university located in downtown Portland Oregon, United States.
• Guide to More Effective Applications - A concise list of suggestions for how to make an effective application to a first academic job. Aimed primarily at applicants to undergraduate institutions, but some good advice across the board.
• AAMC Curriculum Directory - Decription of medical education programs at 125 U. S. and 16 Canadian graduate schools.
• Glossary of Master's Degree Programs - Hundreds of unbiased articles offering an overview of various master's degree programs. Includes information on commonly required coursework, as well as occupational outlooks.

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