Citizendia

The Goths, Gepids, Vandals, and Burgundians were East Germanic groups who appear in Roman records in Late Antiquity. The Goths ( Gothic: Gothic usvg|14px|u]]Gothic asvg|14px|a]]Gothic s The Gepids (Gepidae Gifðas ( Beowulf, Widsith) - possibly from * Gibiðos, "givers" or gepanta, see below were The Burgundians or Burgundes were an East Germanic tribe which may have emigrated from mainland Scandinavia to the island of Bornholm, whose Late Antiquity (c 300-600 is a Periodization used by historians to describe the transitional centuries from Classical Antiquity to the Middle Ages, in At times these groups warred against or allied with the Roman Empire, the Huns, and various Germanic tribes. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial The Huns were an early confederation of Central Asian equestrian nomads or semi-nomads with a Turkic core of aristocracy The Germanic peoples are a historical group of Indo-European -speaking peoples originating in Northern Europe and identified by their use of the Germanic

The size and social composition of their armies remains controversial.

Contents

History

In the 3rd Century, some Germanic people of the Baltic Sea (associated with the Wielbark culture) followed the Vistula, Bug, and Dnestr rivers and settled among the Dacians, Sarmatians, Bastarnae, and other peoples of the Black Sea steppes. Wielbark culture also known as Willenberg culture (Wielbark/Willenberg-Kultur Kultura wielbarska Вельбарська культура ( Vel’bars’ka kul’tura The Dacians ( Lat Daci, Gr Dákai) were a Thracian people the ancient inhabitants of Dacia (located in the area The Sarmatians, Sarmatae or Sauromatae ( Old Iranian Sarumatah 'archer' Σαρμάτες The Bastarnae were an important ancient people of uncertain but probably mixed Germanic-Celtic-Sarmatian ethnic origin who lived between the Danube and the Dnieper (Strabo Geography These Germanic people brought their name and language to the Gothic people who emerged in the 3rd century (associated with the Chernyakhov Culture). The Chernyakhiv culture (also known as Cherniakhov culture or Cherniakhovo culture) ( Second century to Fifth century) was found in Ukraine

At the same time, other Germanic people of the Baltic Sea (associated with the Przeworsk culture) followed other trade routes to the middle-Danubian plains (Vandals) or the Main river (Burgundians). The Przeworsk culture is part of an Iron Age archaeological complex that dates from the 2nd century BC to the 4th century.

Horse nomads with bow-armed cavalry armies, including the Sarmatians (or Iazyges, Roxolanni, Taifali, and Alans) had long ruled the plains north of the Danube and the steppes north of the Black Sea (since about 1200 BCE). The Taifals, Taifali, Taifalae, Tayfals, or Theifali were a Barbarian people settled by the late Roman Empire in Poitou (The Goths and Vandals were mainly farmers with infantry armies). In some areas, the Sarmatians, Taifali, and Alans preserved their dominance until the Huns arrived.

The Gothic people had divided into two or more groups by the end of the 3rd Century. These groups lasted from the late 3rd Century to the late 4th Century. The Thervingi lived between the Danube and the Carpathians west of the Dnestr river; the Greuthungi, and possibly other groups, lived east of the Dnestr river. The Thervingi, Tervingi, or Teruingi (sometimes pluralised "Tervings" or "Thervings" were a Gothic people of the Danubian plains west The Greuthungs, Greuthungi, or Greutungi were a Gothic people of the Black Sea Steppes in the third and fourth centuries

Jordanes, a mid 6th Century historian describes a large Greuthung kingdom in the late 4th century, but Ammianus Marcellinus, a late 4th Century historian, does not record this. Jordanes (also Jordanis or even Iornandes) was a 6th century Roman Bureaucrat, who turned his hand to History later in life Amiricanus Gambilinus (325/330-after 391 was a fourth-century Roman historian. Many modern historians, including Peter Heather and Michael Kulikowski, doubt that it was ever particularly extensive (and suggest one or more smaller kingdoms). Peter Heather is an historian of Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. Michael Kulikowski is an American historian tenured at the University of Tennessee, who is a specialist in the history of the western Mediterranean world of Late Antiquity [1][2]

Realms in the Roman Empire

This Gothic society faced internal strife and Hunnish attacks in the late 4th Century. The Huns were an early confederation of Central Asian equestrian nomads or semi-nomads with a Turkic core of aristocracy As a result several groups sought refuge in the Roman Empire; two of the more successful groups, the Visigoths and Ostrogoths, absorbed smaller groups and gained independence within the Roman Empire. The Visigoths (Visigothi, Wisigothi, Vesi, Visi, Wesi, or Wisi were one of two main branches of the Goths, an East The Ostrogoths (Ostrogothi or Austrogothi were a branch of the Goths, an East Germanic tribe that played a major role in the political events of the late Another group, the Crimean Goths survived on the Black Sea. Crimean Goths were those Gothic tribes who remained in the lands around the Black Sea, especially in Crimea. HI The Vandals and Burgundians shared similar histories. The Burgundians or Burgundes were an East Germanic tribe which may have emigrated from mainland Scandinavia to the island of Bornholm, whose

The Visigothic and Burgundian kingdoms in Gaul fell to Clovis' Frankish invasions in the early 6th Century;[3] the Vandal kingdom in north Africa, and the Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy and Illyria fell to Justinian I's Byzantine invasions by the mid 6th Century. Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus ( Greek: Φλάβιος Πέτρος Σαββάτιος Ιουστινιανός; known in English as Justinian I or [4] The Visigothic kingdom in Hispania survived (despite losing most of their old Gallic territory) until the Islamic conquest of Hispania in the early 8th Century.

Gothic society and forces in the 3rd and 4th Centuries

See also: Gothic War (376-382)

The Gothic tribes did not have long-term standing armies but relied on short-term levies and/or volunteers. Most would return to their farms after some time. Most came on foot and fought as infantry, though some brought horses and fought as cavalry. Like their Roman opponents, most soldiers had thrusting spears, throwing spears, and shields; though swords, and bows, were also used. Unlike their Roman opponents, few could afford metal armor. [5][6]

External images
Gothic heavy cavalryman[7]
Major Wars:
  • Gothic raid on Istria (238)[8]
  • Gothic raid on Marcianople (249)[9]
  • Cniva's Gothic raid on Philippopolis (250-251)[10]
  • Seaborne raids on the Balkans (c. Events By Place Roman Empire Carpians invade Moesia; Emperor Maximinus Thrax campaigns against them Marcianopolis, or Marcianople ( Devnya in modern Bulgaria) is a Roman Catholic Titular see in the former Roman province of Lower Events By Place Roman Empire Decius, who was proclaimed Emperor by the army in Moesia, defeats and kills Philip the Arab Cniva ( Kniwa, meaning "knees" perhaps from a childhood nickname (flourished mid- 3rd century CE was the Gothic king who invaded the Roman Events By Place Roman Empire A group of Franks penetrate as far as Tarragona in Spain (approximate date Events By Place Roman Empire July 1 — In the Battle of Abrittus, the Goths defeat the Romans emperors Decius 252)[11]
  • Seaborne raids on Asia Minor (c. 256)[12][13][14]
  • Seaborne raid on the Aegean (c. 268)[15][16]
  • Gothic raids on the Balkans (c. 270)[17]
  • Aurelian's Roman raids north of the Danube (c. Lucius Domitius Aurelianus ( September 9, 214 or 215 &ndashSeptember or October 275 known in English as Aurelian, Roman Emperor (270&ndash275 271)[18]
  • Gothic raids on Asia Minor (c. 275)[19]
  • Gothic (?) raids in the Balkans (c. 330?)[20]
  • Constantine II's Roman invasion north of the Danube (332)[21][22]
  • Julian's Roman invasion of Persia (363) (?)[23]
  • Roman Civil War between Procopius and Valens (365)[24][25][26]
  • Valens' raids on the Thervings (367-369)[27][28]
  • Hunnic raids on the Greuthungs (c. Constantine II may refer to Antipope Constantine II, antipope from 767 &ndash 768 Constantine II (emperor (317 &ndash 340 Roman Events By Place Roman Empire Emperor Constantine I defeats the Visigoths in battle The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Events By Place Roman Empire March 5 — Emperor Julian moves from Antioch with an army of 90000 against the This article is about the Roman Emperor For other people called Valens see Valens Flavius Julius Valens ( Latin: DOMINVS Events By place Roman Empire July 21 — An earthquake and Tsunami devastates Crete, Alexandria This article is about the Roman Emperor For other people called Valens see Valens Flavius Julius Valens ( Latin: DOMINVS The Thervingi, Tervingi, or Teruingi (sometimes pluralised "Tervings" or "Thervings" were a Gothic people of the Danubian plains west Events By Place Roman Empire Great Conspiracy: A general assault of Saxons, Irish, and Attacotti, combined Events By Place Roman Empire Athanaric, a Visigoth ruler fights against Valens at Isaccea. The Greuthungs, Greuthungi, or Greutungi were a Gothic people of the Black Sea Steppes in the third and fourth centuries 370)[29][30][31][32][33][34]
  • Hunnic raids on the Thervings (c. The Thervingi, Tervingi, or Teruingi (sometimes pluralised "Tervings" or "Thervings" were a Gothic people of the Danubian plains west 376)[35][36][37][38][39][40]
  • Gothic revolt in the Balkans (c. 376-382)[41][42][43][44][45][46][47]
  • Gothic Civil War between Fritigern & Athanaric (?)[48][49][50]
  • Odotheus' crossing of the Danube (?)[51][52][53]
Notable Battles:

A difference of scale

The 3rd and 4th-Century Gothic tribes could not match the population or extent of the Roman Empire. Fritigern, or Fritigernus (died ca 380 was a Gothic war-leader whose military victories in the Gothic War (376-382 extracted favourable terms for the Athanaricus (died 381 was king of several branches of the Thervings for at least two decades in the fourth century. Odotheus (?–387 was an Greuthung chieftain and general Odotheus invaded Roman territory in the Balkans in 387 but was killed in battle against Promotus. The Battle of Abritus (modern Razgrad, Bulgaria) also known as the Battle of Forum Terebronii, occurred in the Roman province of Moesia Inferior The Battle of Naissus (268 or 269 AD was the defeat of a Gothic coalition by the Roman Empire under Emperor Gallienus (or Claudius II) The Battle of the Willows ( 377) took place at a place called ad Salices ("town by the willows" or according The second Battle of Adrianople ( August 9 378) sometimes known as the Battle of Hadrianopolis, was fought between a Roman army led by the The 4th-Century Thervingi settled over about 100,000 km² between the Carpathian mountains, Olt river, Danube river, and Pruth river. The Thervingi, Tervingi, or Teruingi (sometimes pluralised "Tervings" or "Thervings" were a Gothic people of the Danubian plains west (The East Roman Empire held about 1,500,000 km² in round numbers). The destruction of one Gothic army would leave its tribe vulnerable to Roman attacks; the destruction of one Roman army could be countered by other Roman armies moving into the war zone (as happened after Adrianople). Therefore 3rd and 4th-Century Gothic armies could not take as many risks as Roman armies could.

Defending Gothic settlements (on the Steppe)

The Gothic People generally settled in unwalled farming settlements along the main rivers. The Goths ( Gothic: Gothic usvg|14px|u]]Gothic asvg|14px|a]]Gothic s These settlements were vulnerable to Roman, Hunnish, or other attacks, even by small raiding parties. [54]

Valens and the Roman army invaded Therving lands in 367 and 369. This article is about the Roman Emperor For other people called Valens see Valens Flavius Julius Valens ( Latin: DOMINVS The Roman army was a set of military forces employed by the Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and later Roman Empire as part of the Roman military Events By Place Roman Empire Great Conspiracy: A general assault of Saxons, Irish, and Attacotti, combined Events By Place Roman Empire Athanaric, a Visigoth ruler fights against Valens at Isaccea. Athanaric and his supporters avoided battle; his army abandoned the Danubian plains and retreated into the Carpathian mountains. Athanaricus (died 381 was king of several branches of the Thervings for at least two decades in the fourth century. The Goths could not defeat the Romans in battle and defend their homes. [55][56]

Alan and Hunnic raiders attacked various Gothic lands in the 370s; they attacked Therving lands c. The Alans or Alani (occasionally but more rarely termed Alauni or Halani) were an Iranian nomadic group among the Sarmatian people The Huns were an early confederation of Central Asian equestrian nomads or semi-nomads with a Turkic core of aristocracy 375. Events By Place Roman Empire Valentinian I leaves Trier to repress the rebellious Quadi in Slovakia. Athanaric and his supporters sought battle; the main Gothic army assembled on the Dnestr river, with forward units scouted 30 km ahead. Athanaricus (died 381 was king of several branches of the Thervings for at least two decades in the fourth century. The Dniester (Дністер translit Dnister; Nistru is a river in Eastern Europe. The Hunnic raiders avoided the scouts and attacked the main army at night. [57]

Attacking Roman territory (by land)

The Roman Empire fortified most of its cities and frontier garrisons in the 3rd & 4th Centuries. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Fortified settlements were relatively safe from Gothic attacks. [58]

Gothic attackers could choose unfortified targets; these included many cities in the 3rd Century, but were generally restricted to smaller towns and villae by the 4th Century, as more cities were fortified. A villa was originally an Upper-class Country house, though since its origins in Roman times the idea and function of a villa has evolved considerably Alternatively, they could attack fortified targets, relying on surprise, on treachery, or on siege warfare.

Attacking Roman territory (by sea)

In the 3rd Century, several Gothic campaigns went by sea. In the 4th Century, few, if any, Gothic campaigns went by sea.

Revolts

As soon as large Gothic groups settled on Roman territory, they faced military conflicts with the Roman government (as in the Gothic War (376-382)).

Gothic and Vandal forces in the Late Roman army

See also: Foederatii

The Late Roman army (or Byzantine army for the east) often recruited non-Roman soldiers into regular military units, as well as separate allied contingents (of laeti and foederatii). Foederatus (pl foederati) is a Latin term whose definition and usage drifted in the time between the early Roman Republic and the The Roman army was a set of military forces employed by the Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and later Roman Empire as part of the Roman military The Byzantine army was the primary military body of the Byzantine armed forces serving alongside the Byzantine navy. Most soldiers were probably Romans, many were probably non-Roman. [59]

Notable Battles:

Gothic and Vandal forces in the Hunnic army

By the early 5th Century, Hunnic elites established their hegemony in Eastern and Central Europe by subduing or dislodging the local elites. The Battle of the Frigidus, also called the Battle of the Frigid River, was fought between September 5&ndash6 394 between the army of the Eastern Emperor The Huns were an early confederation of Central Asian equestrian nomads or semi-nomads with a Turkic core of aristocracy The Hunnic rulers had thus an empire at their disposal with the resources of subject people who were required to supply additional forces for their ongoing raids and conquests. The most memorable of their rulers became Attila, who eventually challenged the Roman Empire for supremacy.

After the death of Attila, one of his subject rulers, Ardaric waged a successful civil war against the heirs of Attila, helping several tribes to break apart and regain their independence. Ardaric (died around 460 was the most renowned king of the Gepids.

Notable Battles:

Visigothic armies (396-507)

During the Gothic revolt of 376, a mixed Gothic group settled in Moesia. The Battle of Nedao named after the Nedava, a tributary of the Sava, was a Battle fought in Pannonia in 454. Moesia (Μοισία Moisía; Мизия Miziya; Moesia Мезија Mezija) was an ancient region and Roman province situated in the By the 390s Alaric had become the client king of the Visigoths under the Roman empire. Alaric I ( Alareiks in the original Gothic; Alarik or Alarich in modern Germanic languages Alaricus in Latin and Alarico The Visigoths (Visigothi, Wisigothi, Vesi, Visi, Wesi, or Wisi were one of two main branches of the Goths, an East The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial

Between 395 and 418, Alaric, Athawulf, and their immediate successors fought several campaigns, seeking offices for themselves and support for their followers. Events By Place Roman Empire After the death of emperor Theodosius I, the Empire is re-divided into an eastern and a western half Events By place Roman Empire Foundation of the Visigothic Kingdom, Roman Emperor Honorius rewarded his They transferred their base of operations from the eastern Balkans (395) to the western Balkans (397), Italy (408), and Aquitaine (c. 415).

These successive movements may have divided the army from much of its population base.

Notable Battles:

Visigothic armies (507-711)

Notable Battles:

Vandal Armies (406-534)

Notable Battles:

Ostrogothic armies (489-553)

Ostrogothic armies may have had the same organizational structure (with separate field armies and frontier armies) as contemporary Byzantine armies. The Battle of Pollentia was fought on 6 April 402 ( Easter) between the Romans and the Visigoths. The Battle of Verona was fought in June of 403 by Alaric 's Visigoths and a Roman force led by Stilicho. The Battle of Narbonne was fought in 436 between the Roman Empire and the Visigoths. The Battle of Vouillé or Campus Vogladensis was fought in the northern Marches of Visigothic territory at a small place near Poitiers ( Gaul The Battle of Guadalete was fought in 711 or 712 at an unidentified location between the Christian Visigoths of Hispania under their king Roderic The second of three Barbarian sacks of Rome, the sack of 455 was at the hands of the Vandals, then at war with the usurping Western Roman The Battle of Ad Decimum took place on September 13, 533 between the armies of the Vandals, commanded by King Gelimer, and the Eastern The Battle of Tricamarum took place on December 15, 533 between the armies of the Vandals, commanded by King Gelimer, and his brother

Ostrogothic Italy, like the Late Roman Empire, fortified its cities and military bases. [60]

The Italian-Ostrogothic army, like the Late Roman and Byzantine army, could transport food and other military supplies from secure areas to war zones. This allowed the Ostrogothic army to assemble more troops in one place (than early Gothic armies) without consuming as much of the local food supply. [61]

Notable Battles:

Weapons & armor

There is little direct evidence for Gothic military equipment. The Battle of Isonzo is the name given to the battle fought on the August 28 on the banks of the Isontius River not far away from Aquileia. At the Battle of Taginae (also known as the Battle of Busta Gallorum) in June/July 552, the forces of the Byzantine Empire under Narses broke The Battle of Mons Lactarius (also known as Battle of the Vesuvius) took place in 553 during the Gothic War waged on behalf of Justinian I against There is more evidence for Vandal, Roman, and West Germanic military equipment, which provides the base for inferences about Gothic military equipment.

Germanic and Roman weapons and armor

Generally speaking there was little difference between well-armed Germanic and Roman soldiers, furthermore many Germanic soldiers served in the Roman forces. The Roman army was better able to equip its soldiers than the Germanic armies.

Late Roman representational evidence, including propaganda monuments, gravestones, tombs, and the Exodus fresco, often shows Late Roman soldiers with one or two spears; one tombstone shows a soldier with five shorter javelins. [62][63] Archaeological evidence, from Roman burials and Scandinavian bog-deposits, shows similar spearheads, though the shafts are rarely preserved. [64][65]

Late Roman representational evidence sometimes still shows Roman swords. [66][67] Archaeological evidence shows that the gladius has disappeared; various short semispathae supplement the older pugiones[68][69] while medium-long spathae replace the medium-short gladii. [70][71] These have the same straight double-edged blades as older Roman swords. [72][73]

Representational evidence and recovered laths, as well as arrowheads and bracers, show Roman use of composite bows. [74][75]

Representational evidence, recovered bosses, and some complete shields from Dara, show that most Roman infantry and some Roman cavalry carried shields. [76][77]

Although the representational evidence, including gravestones and tombs, usually shows soldiers without armor, the archaeological evidence includes remains of scale armor, mail armor, and helmets. [78][79]

Experimental evidence

Modern blacksmiths, reenactors, and experimental archaeologists can duplicate Roman Age weapons and armor with Roman Age technology.

Basic spearheads (including javelinheads) take about 3 hours of forging time, while swords can take about 37 hours without pattern welding, or about 110 hours with pattern welding (divided over several days or weeks of labor). [80]

Mail armor takes well over 600 hours of forging time. [81]

Military Terminology

Via Wulfila's bible translation we do know 4th Century Gothic military terms he used to describe the 1st Century Roman army. Wulfila is also a spider genus ( Anyphaenidae) Wulfila (meaning "little wolf" (ca Etymology According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bible is from Latin biblia, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin As a means of recording the passage of Time, the 4th century (per the Julian calendar and Anno Domini / Common era) was that Century The 1st century was the Century that lasted from 1 to 100 according the Julian calendar. The Roman army was a set of military forces employed by the Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and later Roman Empire as part of the Roman military These terms reflect the Gothic military organization that grew from its Germanic roots under Roman and Central Asian (Hunnic) influence.

Individuals

Units (by size)

Weapons

Notes

  1. ^ Heather, Peter, 1998, The Goths, Blackwell, Malden, pp. The institution known as leiðangr ( Old Norse) leidang ( Norwegian) leding, ( Danish) ledung The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. Dutch ( is a West Germanic language spoken by around 24 million people 22 million of which are from the Netherlands, Belgium and Suriname Estonian (; ˈeːsti ˈkeːl is the official language of Estonia, spoken by about 1 Polish ( język polski, polszczyzna) is the Official language of Poland. Swedish ( is a North Germanic language spoken by more than nine million people predominantly in Sweden and parts of Finland, especially along the The Hanseatic League (also known as the Hansa) was an alliance of trading cities and their Guilds that established and maintained trade 53-55.
  2. ^ Kulikowski, Michael, 2007, Rome's Gothic Wars, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, pp. 54-56, 111-112.
  3. ^ Heather, Peter, 1998, The Goths, pp. 210-215 & 262.
  4. ^ Heather, Peter, 1998, The Goths, pp. 259-276.
  5. ^ Elton, Hugh, Warfare in Roman Europe, AD 350-425, pp. 57-59.
  6. ^ Todd, Malcolm, The Early Germans, pp. 36-37.
  7. ^ http://www.le.ac.uk/ar/stj/ Retrieved 8 February 2008
  8. ^ Kulikowski, Michael, 2007, Rome's Gothic Wars, p. 18.
  9. ^ Kulikowski, Michael, 2007, Rome's Gothic Wars, p. 18.
  10. ^ Kulikowski, Michael, 2007, Rome's Gothic Wars, p. 18.
  11. ^ Zosimus, Historia Nova, book 1.
  12. ^ Zosimus, Historia Nova, book 1.
  13. ^ Philostorgius, Church History, book 2, chapter 5.
  14. ^ Kulikowski, Michael, 2007, Rome's Gothic Wars, pp. 18-19.
  15. ^ Zosimus, Historia Nova, book 1.
  16. ^ Kulikowski, Michael, 2007, Rome's Gothic Wars, pp. 19-20.
  17. ^ Kulikowski, Michael, 2007, Rome's Gothic Wars, p. 20.
  18. ^ Kulikowski, Michael, 2007, Rome's Gothic Wars, pp. 20-21.
  19. ^ Zosimus, Historia Nova, book 1.
  20. ^ Socrates Scholasticus, Church History, book 1, chapter 18.
  21. ^ Sozomen, Church History, book 1, chapter 8 & book 2, chapter 34.
  22. ^ Kulikowski, Michael, 2007, Rome's Gothic Wars, pp. 83-84.
  23. ^ Zosimus, Historia Nova, book 3.
  24. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Historiae, book 26, chapters 6-10.
  25. ^ Zosimus, Historia Nova, book 4.
  26. ^ Kulikowski, Michael, 2007, Rome's Gothic Wars, pp. 114-115.
  27. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Historiae, book 27, chapter 5.
  28. ^ Kulikowski, Michael, 2007, Rome's Gothic Wars, pp. 115-116.
  29. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Historiae, book 31, chapter 3.
  30. ^ Philostorgius, Church History, book 9, chapter 17.
  31. ^ Sozomen, Church History, book 6, chapter 37.
  32. ^ Zosimus, Historia Nova, book 4.
  33. ^ Heather, Peter, 1998, Goths, pp. 98-104.
  34. ^ Kulikowski, Michael, 2007, Rome's Gothic Wars, pp. 124-128.
  35. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Historiae, book 31, chapter 3.
  36. ^ Philostorgius, Church History, book 9, chapter 17.
  37. ^ Sozomen, Church History, book 6, chapter 37.
  38. ^ Zosimus, Historia Nova, book 4.
  39. ^ Heather, Peter, 1998, Goths, pp. 98-104.
  40. ^ Kulikowski, Michael, 2007, Rome's Gothic Wars, pp. 124-128.
  41. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Historiae, book 31, chapters 5-16.
  42. ^ Philostorgius, Church History, book 9, chapter 17.
  43. ^ Socrates Scholasticus, Church History, book 4, chapters 34-38 & book 5, chapter 1.
  44. ^ Sozomen, Church History, book 6, chapters 37 & 40.
  45. ^ Zosimus, Historia Nova, book 4.
  46. ^ Heather, Peter, 1998, Goths, pp. 130-138.
  47. ^ Kulikowski, Michael, 2007, Rome's Gothic Wars, pp. 130-153.
  48. ^ Socrates Scholasticus, Church History, book 4, chapter 33. (Socrates puts this before 376).
  49. ^ Sozomen, Church History, book 6, chapter 37.
  50. ^ Zosimus, Historia Nova, book 4. (Zosimus puts this after 376).
  51. ^ Zosimus, Historia Nova, book 4. (Zosimus puts this before 383)
  52. ^ Philostorgius, Church History, book 10, chapter 6.
  53. ^ Heather, Peter, 1998, Goths, pp. 103, 128 & 167
  54. ^ Heather, Peter & Matthews, John, The Goths in the Fourth Century, pp. 56-59.
  55. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Historiae, book 27, chapter 5.
  56. ^ Elton, Hugh, Warfare in Roman Europe, AD 350-425, p 221-227
  57. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Historiae, book 31, chapter 3.
  58. ^ Elton, Hugh, Warfare in Roman Europe, AD 350-425, pp. 155-174.
  59. ^ Elton, Hugh, 1996, Warfare in Roman Europe, pp. 145-152. [Elton argues from the proportion of Roman names to non-Roman names from 350 to 476]
  60. ^ Cassiodorus, Variae, book 1, number 17 & book 3, number 44.
  61. ^ Cassiodorus, Variae, book 3, number 41.
  62. ^ Stephenson, I. P. , 2001, Roman Infantry Equipment, pp. 54-58.
  63. ^ Bishop, M. C. & Coulston, J. C. N. , 2006, Roman Military Equipment: From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome, pp. 151-152, 175 & 200-202.
  64. ^ Stephenson, I. P. , 2001, Roman Infantry Equipment, pp. 52-60.
  65. ^ Bishop, M. C. & Coulston, J. C. N. , 2006, Roman Military Equipment: From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome, pp. 151 & 200-202.
  66. ^ Stephenson, I. P. , 2001, Roman Infantry Equipment, pp. 61-63.
  67. ^ Bishop, M. C. & Coulston, J. C. N. , 2006, Roman Military Equipment: From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome, pp. 154-163 & 202-205.
  68. ^ Stephenson, I. P. , 2001, Roman Infantry Equipment, pp. 76-80.
  69. ^ Bishop, M. C. & Coulston, J. C. N. , 2006, Roman Military Equipment: From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome, pp. 154, 164 & 202.
  70. ^ Stephenson, I. P. , 2001, Roman Infantry Equipment, pp. 61-63.
  71. ^ Bishop, M. C. & Coulston, J. C. N. , 2006, Roman Military Equipment: From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome, pp. 154-157 & 202-205.
  72. ^ Stephenson, I. P. , 2001, Roman Infantry Equipment, pp. 61-80.
  73. ^ Bishop, M. C. & Coulston, J. C. N. , 2006, Roman Military Equipment: From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome, pp. 154-164 & 202-205.
  74. ^ Stephenson, I. P. , 2001, Roman Infantry Equipment, pp. 81-88.
  75. ^ Bishop, M. C. & Coulston, J. C. N. , 2006, Roman Military Equipment: From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome, pp. 164-168 & 205-206.
  76. ^ Stephenson, I. P. , 2001, Roman Infantry Equipment, pp. 15-24.
  77. ^ Bishop, M. C. & Coulston, J. C. N. , 2006, Roman Military Equipment: From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome, pp. 179-182 & 216-218.
  78. ^ Stephenson, I. P. , 2001, Roman Infantry Equipment, pp. 25-51.
  79. ^ Bishop, M. C. & Coulston, J. C. N. , 2006, Roman Military Equipment: From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome, pp. 170-178 & 208-216.
  80. ^ Sim, David & Ridge, Isabel, 2002, Iron for the Eagles: the Iron Industry of Roman Britain, pp. 90-93.
  81. ^ Sim, David & Ridge, Isabel, 2002, Iron for the Eagles: the Iron Industry of Roman Britain, pp. 98-103; the authors specify 300 hours to stamp ½ of the links and more time to draw and rivet the other ½ of the links.
  82. ^ Wright, Joseph, A Primer of the Gothic Language, with Grammar, Notes, and Glossary, p. 217.
  83. ^ Wright, Joseph, A Primer of the Gothic Language, with Grammar, Notes, and Glossary, p. 220.
  84. ^ Bennett, William, An Introduction to the Gothic Language, p. 149.
  85. ^ Wright, Joseph, A Primer of the Gothic Language, with Grammar, Notes, and Glossary, p. 224.
  86. ^ Bennett, William, An Introduction to the Gothic Language, p. 155.
  87. ^ Wright, Joseph, A Primer of the Gothic Language, with Grammar, Notes, and Glossary, p. 223.
  88. ^ a b Bennett, William, An Introduction to the Gothic Language, p. 154.
  89. ^ Wright, Joseph, 1892, A Primer of the Gothic Language, with Grammar, Notes, and Glossary. Oxford: Clarendon Press, p. 223.

Bibliography

See also

William John Bennett (born July 3, 1943) is an American Neoconservative Pundit, Politician, and Political The institution known as leiðangr ( Old Norse) leidang ( Norwegian) leding, ( Danish) ledung The Spear together with the sword, the Longsax and the Shield was the main equipment of the Germanic warriors during the Swords of the Migration Period show a transition from the various ancient Germanic sword types (similar to Hallstatt swords The period of Anglo-Saxon warfare spans the 5th Century CE to the 11th in England.
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